Mrz was sent to Azerbaijan as the nom-inal head of a campaign to defeat local opposition incited by Ja{far-Qul Khn Dunbul (d. 1814). The actual military command had been assigned to Sulaymn Khn Qjr (d. 18056), while {Abbs Mrz himself was placed under the tute-lage of Mrz Buzurg. This first mission, at the age of ten, was a symbolic statement of authority in the absence of the ruler who, on this occasion, bestowed on him the title of Nyib al-Salana (vice-regent). This title did not yet imply nomination as crown prince, contrary to the later state-ments of official Qjr historiography. The position of {Abbs Mrz remained contested by his brothers, especially the older Muammad {Al Mrz (d. 1821).

Only six years later, in 1805, with the outbreak of the first Russo-Persian war, {Abbs Mrz was officially appointed gov-ernor of Azerbaijan and took up regular residence in Tabriz and Khy. On his own initiative, he was also assigned the overall leadership in this war, which resisted the Russians annexation of Georgia (1801) and their ensuing expansion into areas in the Caucasus hitherto under Persian suzerainty. Following the disastrous defeat

{Abbs Mrz

Nyib al-Salana {Abbs Mrz (120349/17891833) was the fourth son of Fat-{Al Shh Qjr (r. 17971834). He was heir apparent (val {ahd) to the Qjr throne of Iran and, as governor of Azerbaijan, played a leading role in the two Russo-Persian wars in the Caucasus (180413 and 18268). With his ministers Mrz {s Buzurg (d. 1822) and Mrz Ab l-Qsim Qxim Maqm (d. 1835), he is credited with making the first efforts at reform and modernisation in Iran. He was born in Nav (in Mzandarn) on 4 Dh l-ijja 1203/26 August 1789 and died in Mashhad on 10 Jumada II 1249/25 October 1833.

{Abbs Mrzs mother was siya Khnum (d. 18145), daughter of Fat-{Al Khn Daval. {Abbs Mrz was thus the first of Fat-{Al Shhs sons to have Qjr descent on both sides, thus linking two competing clansthe Quvnl and the Davalof the Qjr tribe. Anec-dotal tradition has it that he grew up as the favourite of his grandfather q Muammad Shh (d. 1797), who envis-aged him as future ruler. In 1799 {Abbs

A

2 Fabbqs m{rzq

of his troops at Alndz in 1812, {Abbs Mrz was obliged to negotiate the treaty of Gulistn in 1813, by which Iran was compelled to relinquish large territories, including Darband, Baku, and Shrvn.

{Abbs Mrz has often been labeled a great and enlightened reformer. His prin-cipal reforms were of a military character and focused on establishing a new army, the nim-i jadd (lit., the new system). This included Western-style infantry training and the establishment of a more effective artillery, along with new forms of recruit-ment and pay. In Tabriz, a foundry, a gunpowder factory, and an arsenal were built and equipped. The first military instructors included Russian deserters and mercenaries, followed in 18079 by a French mission under General Charles Mathieu Gardanne (d. 1818) and then by British officers, in both official and private capacities. {Abbs Mrzs efforts were a first step towards the establishment in 1852 of the Dr al-Funn polytechnic school. A first group of five students was sent to England in 1815, among them Mrz li Shrz, who returned in 1819 to Tabriz and was instrumental in intro-ducing typeset printing to Iran. (In 1817, {Abbs Mrz himself had bought a print-ing house in Tabriz and all its equipment from an agent of Mrz Buzurg.) Further innovations in medicine and the reorgani-sation of the judiciary are attributed to {Abbs Mrz as well, but their range and his personal involvement in them are dif-ficult to ascertain.

From 1812 to 1826 {Abbs Mrz served as a skilful diplomat, who was increasingly in charge of Irans still rudimentary foreign policy. He became the principal contact for most foreign envoys and ambassa-dors, who usually had to pass through Azerbaijan on their way to Tehran, and

he negotiated successfully between Brit-ish and Russian interests. From 1821 to 1823, {Abbs Mrz and his brother Muammad {Al Mrz were engaged in military confrontations with the Ottoman Empire. Without a clear victory on either side, border disputes were settled prelimi-narily by the Treaty of Erzurum, signed in July 1823.

The second Russo-Persian war (18268) had multiple origins: Russian aggression coincided with jihadist calls by {ulam led by Sayyid Muammad Ifahn (d. 1826), while {Abbs Mrz and other Qjr nobles had political interests of their own in resuming hostilities. The second war ended abruptly with the occupation of Tabriz by General Ivan Fdorovich Paskevich (d. 1856), who was able to dic-tate the conditions for peace. The treaty of Turkmanchy (signed in February 1828) imposed huge indemnities on Iran and confirmed the loss of all its territories north of the Aras River, which became the new border with Russia. The succes-sion to the Qjr throne was finally set-tled in chapter seven of this treaty, which asserted {Abbs Mrzs position as crown prince.

{Abbs Mrz did not have a particu-lar interest in the patronage of arts and architecture. In Tabriz he erected a mod-est new residence with administrative functions (dvnkhna), built new water-supply tunnels (qants), and gardens, and there is proof, in his testament and surviving sale contracts, of his systematic acquisition of real estate. Only a small mosque in Tabriz, known as the Masjid-i Shhzda (mosque of the prince), was begun on his initiative before 1826. The mosque in the citadel of Erivan (Yerevan) traditionally attributed to him and called the Masjid-i {Abbs Mrz, of which no

Fabbqs m{rzq 3

trace remains, was probably erected by usayn Khn Sardr Qjr (d. 182930). More prominent are fortifications built by {Abbs Mrz, according to plans provided by members of the Gardanne mission in Ardabl, Khy, and Tabriz, as well as the fortress of {Abbsbd, near Nakhjavn.

In the years before his death, {Abbs Mrz was charged with several missions to quell rebellions and other unrest that resulted from the lost war and the per-ceived weakness of the central government. During this time he continued nominally in charge of Azerbaijan, delegating actual tasks to his son Farhd Mrz (d. 1888). In 1830 {Abbs Mrz re-established order in Yazd and Kirmn. During his first short campaign in Khursn, in the winter of 18312, he relied on negotia-tions. He resumed his efforts in the spring and summer of 1832, with military oper-ations directed against Ri Qul Khn, of Qchn, and Muammad Khn, of Turbat-i aydariyya. He succeeded in establishing Qjr rule firmly over most of Khursn, but the ultimate aim of regaining Herat was thwarted by his early death, en route to his third campaign in Khursn. European travellers and observers early on commented on {Abbs Mrzs weak health and his chronic and recurrent illnesses. He was under constant treatment by both Western and Persian physicians, among the former Dr John Cormick (d. 1833). He was buried in the shrine of Imm Ri, in Mashhad.

At the time of his death {Abbs Mrz had forty-eight surviving childrentwenty-two daughters and twenty-six sonsmany of whom held important offices and/or became famous writers. Among his sons, in addition to Farhd Mrz, were Shh Muammad Mrz (r. 183448)by his first wife Jahn Khnum bt. Mrz

Muammad Khn DavalBahrm Mrz (d. 1882), Jahngr Mrz (d. 18523), and Bahman Mrz (d. 18834). Many of {Abbs Mrzs official decrees and let-ters have survived; the seal he used car-ried the inscription, Durr-i dary-yi khusrav {Abbs sana-yi 1214 (The pearl in the majestic ocean, {Abbs, the year 1214).

{Abbs Mrz remains difficult to under-stand as a person, whom his European and Persian contemporaries depicted as the archetype of the young and valiant noble hero. The historiography on the period has tended to turn these positive assessments into a myth and to construct {Abbs Mrz as a positive counter-image to the otherwise spoiled, corrupt, and ignorant nobility. Thus he is often men-tioned alongside another highly ideal-ized figure in the history of modern Iran, Muammad Taq Khn Amr Kabr (d. 1852), one of the most capable and innovative figures of the whole Qjr period, who served as prime minister under Nir al-Dn Shh (r. 184896).

Bibliography

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Royal Highness Abbas Mirza, Prince Royal of Persia, JRAS (1834), 1:3225; Amad Mrz {Aud al-Dawla, Taxrkh-i {Aud, ed. {Abd al-usayn Navx, Tehran 1977, 19972; {Abd al-Razzq Beg Dunbul, Maxthir-i sulniyya. Trkh-i jangh-yi avval-i rn va Rs, ed. Ghulmusayn Zargar-nizhd, Tehran 1383sh/2004; {Abd al-Razzq Beg Dunbul, Maxthir-i sulniyya (az ry-i nuskha-yi mzih-i Birtniy), ed. Frz Manr, Tehran 1383sh/ 2004, trans. Harford Jones Brydges, The dynasty of the Kajars, London 1833; Adrien Dupr, Voyage en Perse, fait dans les annes 1807, 1808 et 1809, en traversant la Natolie et la Mso-potamie, 2 vols., Paris 1819; Ri Farsat, Farmnh va raqamh-yi dawra-yi Qjr ( jild-i avval: 121164q). q Muammad Khn, Fat {Al Shh, Muammad Shh, Shhzdagn-i

4 Fabbqsid art and architecture

mu{ir, Tehran 1372sh/1993; Friederika von Freygang, Lettres sur le Caucase et la Gorgie suivies dune relation dun voyage en Perse en 1812, Hamburg 1816; asan usayn Fasx, Frsnma-yi Nir, ed. Manr Rastigr Fasx, 2 vols., Tehran 1367sh/1988, trans. Heribert Busse, History of Persia under Qajar rule, New York 1972; Alfred de Gardanne, Mission du gnral Gardanne en Perse sous le premier empire, Paris 1865; Ri Qul Khn Hidyat, Trkh-i rawat al-af-yi nir, 10 vols., Tehran 1339sh/1960; Pierre-Amde Jaubert, Voyage en Armnie et en Perse fait dans les annes 1805 et 1806, 2 vols., Paris 1821; Jahngr Mrz, Taxrkh-i Naw. Shmil-i avdith-i dawra-yi Qjriyya az sl-i 1240 t 1267 qamar, ed. {Abbs Iqbl, Tehran 1327sh/1948; Harford Jones Brydges, An account of the transactions of His Majestys mis-sion to the court of Persia, in the years 180711, 2 vols., London 1834; John Macdonald Kinneir, A geographical memoir of the Persian Empire, London 1813; Moritz von Kotzebue, Narrative of a journey into Persia, London 1819; Ab l-Qsim Lchn, Avlt va dastkhah-yi {Abbs Mrz Qjr Nxib al-Salana, Tehran 1326sh/1947; James J. Morier, A journey through Persia, Armenia, and Asia Minor, to Con-stantinople in the years 1808 and 1809, Phila-delphia 1816; Muammad Taq Nr, Ashraf al-tavrkh. Vaqyi{ marb bih dawra-yi ukmat-i Muammad Val Mrz dar Khursn, salh-yi 12181231, vol. 1, ed. Ssan Al, Tehran 1386sh/2008; Homa Pakdaman and Wil-liam Royce, {Abbs Mrzs will, Iranian Stu-dies 6/2 (1973), 136151; Falallh Khvar Shrz, Taxrkh-i Dh l-Qarnayn, ed. Nir Afshr-far, 2 vols., Tehran 1380sh/2001; Muammad Taq Sipihr Lisn al-Mulk, Nsikh al-tavrkh, ed. Jamshd Kiyn-far, 3 vols., Tehran 1377sh/1998; Joseph M. Tan-coigne, Lettres sur la Perse et la Turquie dAsie, 2 vols., Paris 1819.

StudiesIradj Amini, Napoleon and Persia. Franco-Persian

relations under the First Empire, Richmond, Surrey 1999; Muriel Atkin, Russia and Iran, 17801828, Minneapolis 1980; Mahd Bmdd, Shar-i l-i rijl-i rn dar qarn-i 12 va 13 hijr (Tehran 134753/196674), 2:21522; Stephanie Cronin, Building a new army. Military reform in Qajar Iran, in Roxane Farmanfarmaian (ed.), War and peace in Qajar Persia (London 2008), 4787;

Hormoz Ebrahimnejad, Pouvoir et succession en Iran. Les premiers Qjr, 17261834, Paris 1999; Kamran Ekbal, Der Briefwechsel Abbas Mirzas mit dem britischen Gesandten MacDonald Kinneir im Zeichen des zweiten russischpersischen Krieges (18251828), Berlin 1977; Sho-hei Komaki, Khorasan in the early 19th century, The Journal of Sophia Asian Studies 13 (1995), 79108; Nir Najm, rn dar miyn-i fn, y Shar-i zindagn-yi {Abbs Mrz Nyib al-Salana va jangh-yi rn va Rs, Tehran 1363sh/1984; Emineh Pakra-van, Abbas Mirza. Un prince rformateur, 2 vols., Tehran 195860; Markus Ritter, Moscheen und Madrasabauten in Iran, 17851848. Archi-tektur zwischen Rckgriff und Neuerung, Leiden 2006; Christoph Werner, An Iranian town in transition. A social and economic history of the elites of Tabriz, 17471848, Wiesbaden 2000.

Christoph Werner

{Abbsid art and architecture

{Abbsid art and architecture was the visual culture of the {Abbsid caliph-ate at its height (132320/750932). The architecture was mainly a Mesopotamian tradition of unfired and fired brick but also included other techniques and styles in Iran, Central Asia, and the Mediter-ranean. Nevertheless, the building types developed from the requirements of an Islamic society originating in the Arabian Peninsula. Decoration began to include styles from outside the Middle East, nota-bly Central Asia, while ceramics and other minor arts responded to the growing mar-itime trade with the Far East.

1. Architecture In the architecture of the two centuries

after the revolution of 132/750, the period of the peak of the {Abbsid caliphate, there were two traditions: the dominant tradi-tion was the eastern, which arose in the former territories of the Ssnian Empire,

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