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Here are some key documents from the archive to get you started:

1. What the Growth of a Space Tourism Industry Could Contribute to Employment,Economic Growth, Environmental Protection, Education, Culture and World Peace

2. Space Tourism Market Demand and the Transportation Infrastructure3.

General Public Space Travel and Tourism4. Artificial Gravity and the Architecture of Orbital Habitats

5. Prospects of Space Tourism

More Documents

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WHAT'S NEW9 December 2010

Updated "What the Growth of a Space Tourism Industry Could Contribute toEmployment, Economic Growth, Environmental Protection, Education, Culture and

World Peace " to the 2009 revision.7 December 2008
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ld_contribute_to_employment_economic_growth_environmental_protection_education_culture_and_world_peace.shtmlhttp://www.spacefuture.com/archive/what_the_growth_of_a_space_tourism_industry_could_contribute_to_employment_economic_growth_environmental_protection_education_culture_and_world_peace.shtmlhttp://www.spacefuture.com/whatsnew.shtmlhttp://www.spacefuture.com/cgi/search.cgihttp://www.spacefuture.com/about.shtmlhttp://www.spacefuture.com/cgi/idb.cgi?db=linkshttp://www.spacefuture.com/lists/sf-discuss/index.shtmlhttp://www.spacefuture.com/lists/sf-announce/index.shtmlhttp://www.spacefuture.com/lists/lists.shtmlhttp://www.spacefuture.com/cgi/glossary.cgi?gl=termhttp://www.spacefuture.com/cgi/glossary.cgi?gl=whohttp://www.spacefuture.com/cgi/glossary.cgi?gl=doc;key=Indexhttp://www.spacefuture.com/cgi/glossary.cgi?gl=doc;key=Lib;tm=libshorthttp://www.spacefuture.com/cgi/glossary.cgi?gl=dochttp://www.spacefuture.com/cgi/glossary.cgihttp://www.spacefuture.com/journal/journal.cgihttp://www.spacefuture.com/power/power.shtmlhttp://www.spacefuture.com/habitat/habitat.shtmlhttp://www.spacefuture.com/vehicles/vehicles.shtmlhttp://www.spacefuture.com/tourism/tourism.shtmlhttp://www.spacefuture.com/topics.shtmlhttp://www.spacefuture.com/directory.shtmlhttp://www.spacefuture.com/whatsnew.shtmlhttp://www.spacefuture.com/http://www.spacefuture.com/cgi/glossary.cgi?gl=doc;key=Indexhttp://www.spacefuture.com/archive/prospects_of_space_tourism.shtmlhttp://www.spacefuture.com/archive/artificial_gravity_and_the_architecture_of_orbital_habitats.shtmlhttp://www.spacefuture.com/archive/general_public_space_travel_and_tourism.shtmlhttp://www.spacefuture.com/archive/space_tourism_market_demand_and_the_transportation_infrastructure.shtmlhttp://www.spacefuture.com/archive/what_the_growth_of_a_space_tourism_industry_could_contribute_to_employment_economic_growth_environmental_protection_education_culture_and_world_peace.shtmlhttp://www.spacefuture.com/archive/what_the_growth_of_a_space_tourism_industry_could_contribute_to_employment_economic_growth_environmental_protection_education_culture_and_world_peace.shtml


3/21

"What the Growth of a Space Tourism Industry Could Contribute to Employment,

Economic Growth, Environmental Protection, Education, Culture and World Peace" is now the top entry on Space Future'sKey Documentslist.

30 November 2008

AddedLynx to theVehicle Designspage.29 October 2008

Added "Early Commercial Demonstration of Space Solar Power Using Ultra-

Lightweight Arrays " to the archive.20 September 2008

Added "Evaluation and Comparison of Space Solar Power Concepts " to thearchive.

More Subscribe

SFJTOP STORIES

SRI holds Inaugural Conference Zubrin's Proposal to Fund "Pathway to the Stars" Space-based Solar Power by 2016? Chasing the New Space Dream We're Still Saying 'Let's Go' Celebrate Yuri's Night with Us Go to Space Without Leaving the Ground Keralan Business to Send Kids to Space What Is (And Isn't) Happening with Space Junk

Orbital Sciences Announces Prometheus

More ArticlesH Wichman, December 1995, "Designing User-Friendly Civilian Spacecraft", Proceedings of the

6th International Space Conference of Pacific Basin Societies (ISCOPS ), 6-8 December

1995, AAS Vol. 91 Paper No. AAS 95-604.Also downloadable fromhttp://www.spacefuture.com/archive/designing user friendly civilianspacecraft.shtml

References and Referring Papers Printable Version

Bibliographic IndexProceedings of the 6th

International Space

Conference of Pacific Basin

Societies ( ISCOPS ), 6-8

Designing User-Friendly Civilian Spacecraft
http://www.spacefuture.com/archive/what_the_growth_of_a_space_tourism_industry_could_contribute_to_employment_economic_growth_environmental_protection_education_culture_and_world_peace.shtmlhttp://www.spacefuture.com/archive/what_the_growth_of_a_space_tourism_industry_could_contribute_to_employment_economic_growth_environmental_protection_education_culture_and_world_peace.shtmlhttp://www.spacefuture.com/archive/what_the_growth_of_a_space_tourism_industry_could_contribute_to_employment_economic_growth_environmental_protection_education_culture_and_world_peace.shtmlhttp://www.spacefuture.com/http://www.spacefuture.com/http://www.spacefuture.com/http://www.xcor.com/vehicles/lynx/http://www.xcor.com/vehicles/lynx/http://www.xcor.com/vehicles/lynx/http://www.spacefuture.com/vehicles/designs.shtml#LYNXhttp://www.spacefuture.com/vehicles/designs.shtml#LYNXhttp://www.spacefuture.com/vehicles/designs.shtml#LYNXhttp://www.spacefuture.com/archive/early_commercial_demonstration_of_space_solar_power_using_ultra_lightweight_arrays.shtmlhttp://www.spacefuture.com/archive/early_commercial_demonstration_of_space_solar_power_using_ultra_lightweight_arrays.shtmlhttp://www.spacefuture.com/archive/early_commercial_demonstration_of_space_solar_power_using_ultra_lightweight_arrays.shtmlhttp://www.spacefuture.com/cgi/glossary.cgi?gl=doc;term=Early%20Commercial%20Demonstration%20of%20Space%20Solar%20Power%20Using%20Ultra%2DLightweight%20Arrayshttp://www.spacefuture.com/archive/evaluation_and_comparison_of_space_solar_power_concepts.shtmlhttp://www.spacefuture.com/archive/evaluation_and_comparison_of_space_solar_power_concepts.shtmlhttp://www.spacefuture.com/archive/evaluation_and_comparison_of_space_solar_power_concepts.shtmlhttp://www.spacefuture.com/whatsnew.shtmlhttp://www.spacefuture.com/journal/journal.cgi?art=2011.06.26.space_renaissance_initiative_conferencehttp://www.spacefuture.com/journal/journal.cgi?art=2011.06.26.space_renaissance_initiative_conferencehttp://www.spacefuture.com/journal/journal.cgi?art=2011.05.29.zubrins_proposal_to_fundhttp://www.spacefuture.com/journal/journal.cgi?art=2011.05.29.zubrins_proposal_to_fundhttp://www.spacefuture.com/journal/journal.cgi?art=2011.05.22.solaren_plans_SSP_by_2016http://www.spacefuture.com/journal/journal.cgi?art=2011.05.22.solaren_plans_SSP_by_2016http://www.spacefuture.com/journal/journal.cgi?art=2011.05.04.chasing_the_new_space_dreamhttp://www.spacefuture.com/journal/journal.cgi?art=2011.05.04.chasing_the_new_space_dreamhttp://www.spacefuture.com/journal/journal.cgi?art=2011.04.11.still_saying_lets_gohttp://www.spacefuture.com/journal/journal.cgi?art=2011.04.11.still_saying_lets_gohttp://www.spacefuture.com/journal/journal.cgi?art=2011.04.06.yuris_night_2011http://www.spacefuture.com/journal/journal.cgi?art=2011.04.06.yuris_night_2011http://www.spacefuture.com/journal/journal.cgi?art=2011.03.15.go_to_space_without_leavinghttp://www.spacefuture.com/journal/journal.cgi?art=2011.03.15.go_to_space_without_leavinghttp://www.spacefuture.com/journal/journal.cgi?art=2011.03.08.space_camp_trains_for_spacehttp://www.spacefuture.com/journal/journal.cgi?art=2011.03.08.space_camp_trains_for_spacehttp://www.spacefuture.com/journal/journal.cgi?art=2011.02.15.happening_with_space_junkhttp://www.spacefuture.com/journal/journal.cgi?art=2011.02.15.happening_with_space_junkhttp://www.spacefuture.com/journal/journal.cgi?art=2011.02.08.orbital_sciences_unveils_prometheushttp://www.spacefuture.com/journal/journal.cgi?art=2011.02.08.orbital_sciences_unveils_prometheushttp://www.spacefuture.com/journal/journal.cgi?t=allhttp://www.spacefuture.com/cgi/glossary.cgi?gl=who&term=ISCOPShttp://www.spacefuture.com/cgi/glossary.cgi?gl=doc&term=AAShttp://www.spacefuture.com/cgi/glossary.cgi?gl=doc&term=AAShttp://www.spacefuture.com/archive/designing_user_friendly_civilian_spacecraft.shtmlhttp://www.spacefuture.com/archive/designing_user_friendly_civilian_spacecraft.shtmlhttp://www.spacefuture.com/archive/designing_user_friendly_civilian_spacecraft.shtmlhttp://www.spacefuture.com/archive/designing_user_friendly_civilian_spacecraft.shtmlhttp://www.spacefuture.com/cgi/glossary.cgi?gl=doc&url=/archive/designing_user_friendly_civilian_spacecraft.shtmlhttp://www.spacefuture.com/pr/archive/designing_user_friendly_civilian_spacecraft.shtmlhttp://www.spacefuture.com/cgi/glossary.cgi?gl=dochttp://www.spacefuture.com/cgi/glossary.cgi?gl=dochttp://www.spacefuture.com/cgi/glossary.cgi?gl=who&term=ISCOPShttp://www.spacefuture.com/cgi/glossary.cgi?gl=doc&term=Designing%20User%2DFriendly%20Civilian%20Spacecrafthttp://www.spacefuture.com/cgi/glossary.cgi?gl=doc&term=Designing%20User%2DFriendly%20Civilian%20Spacecrafthttp://www.spacefuture.com/cgi/glossary.cgi?gl=who&term=ISCOPShttp://www.spacefuture.com/cgi/glossary.cgi?gl=dochttp://www.spacefuture.com/pr/archive/designing_user_friendly_civilian_spacecraft.shtmlhttp://www.spacefuture.com/cgi/glossary.cgi?gl=doc&url=/archive/designing_user_friendly_civilian_spacecraft.shtmlhttp://www.spacefuture.com/archive/designing_user_friendly_civilian_spacecraft.shtmlhttp://www.spacefuture.com/archive/designing_user_friendly_civilian_spacecraft.shtmlhttp://www.spacefuture.com/cgi/glossary.cgi?gl=doc&term=AAShttp://www.spacefuture.com/cgi/glossary.cgi?gl=doc&term=AAShttp://www.spacefuture.com/cgi/glossary.cgi?gl=who&term=ISCOPShttp://www.spacefuture.com/journal/journal.cgi?t=allhttp://www.spacefuture.com/journal/journal.cgi?art=2011.02.08.orbital_sciences_unveils_prometheushttp://www.spacefuture.com/journal/journal.cgi?art=2011.02.15.happening_with_space_junkhttp://www.spacefuture.com/journal/journal.cgi?art=2011.03.08.space_camp_trains_for_spacehttp://www.spacefuture.com/journal/journal.cgi?art=2011.03.15.go_to_space_without_leavinghttp://www.spacefuture.com/journal/journal.cgi?art=2011.04.06.yuris_night_2011http://www.spacefuture.com/journal/journal.cgi?art=2011.04.11.still_saying_lets_gohttp://www.spacefuture.com/journal/journal.cgi?art=2011.05.04.chasing_the_new_space_dreamhttp://www.spacefuture.com/journal/journal.cgi?art=2011.05.22.solaren_plans_SSP_by_2016http://www.spacefuture.com/journal/journal.cgi?art=2011.05.29.zubrins_proposal_to_fundhttp://www.spacefuture.com/journal/journal.cgi?art=2011.06.26.space_renaissance_initiative_conferencehttp://www.spacefuture.com/whatsnew.shtmlhttp://www.spacefuture.com/whatsnew.shtmlhttp://www.spacefuture.com/archive/evaluation_and_comparison_of_space_solar_power_concepts.shtmlhttp://www.spacefuture.com/archive/evaluation_and_comparison_of_space_solar_power_concepts.shtmlhttp://www.spacefuture.com/cgi/glossary.cgi?gl=doc;term=Early%20Commercial%20Demonstration%20of%20Space%20Solar%20Power%20Using%20Ultra%2DLightweight%20Arrayshttp://www.spacefuture.com/archive/early_commercial_demonstration_of_space_solar_power_using_ultra_lightweight_arrays.shtmlhttp://www.spacefuture.com/archive/early_commercial_demonstration_of_space_solar_power_using_ultra_lightweight_arrays.shtmlhttp://www.spacefuture.com/vehicles/designs.shtml#LYNXhttp://www.xcor.com/vehicles/lynx/http://www.xcor.com/vehicles/lynx/http://www.spacefuture.com/http://www.spacefuture.com/cgi/glossary.cgi?gl=doc;term=What%20the%20Growth%20of%20a%20Space%20Tourism%20Industry%20Could%20Contribute%20to%20Employment%2C%20Economic%20Growth%2C%20Environmental%20Protection%2C%20Education%2C%20Culture%20and%20World%20Peacehttp://www.spacefuture.com/archive/what_the_growth_of_a_space_tourism_industry_could_contribute_to_employment_economic_growth_environmental_protection_education_culture_and_world_peace.shtmlhttp://www.spacefuture.com/archive/what_the_growth_of_a_space_tourism_industry_could_contribute_to_employment_economic_growth_environmental_protection_education_culture_and_world_peace.shtml


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December 1995, AAS Vol.

91 Paper No. AAS 95-604Director of the Aerospace

Psychology Laboratory. Dr.

Wichman is Professor ofPsychology at Claremont

McKenna College, 850Coiumbia Avenue, Claremont,

California 91711-6420.

Harvey A Wichman

This paper addresses some of the human factors considerationsinvolved in the design of two passenger compartments for the

McDonnel DouglasDelta Clipper reusable rocket. Onepassenger compartment was designed for four-day orbital

flights and one for suborbital flights of less than an hourduration. After the vehicle is described, civilian passengerissues specific to both orbital and suborbital rocket flights areaddressed. Social, environmental and ergonomic differencesbetween long-duration airliner flight and orbital rocket flightare characterized and solutions are suggested for a number ofthe problems that are specific to space tourism. This workclarifies the need for engineers and psychologists to worktogether as integrated elements of design teams in order todevelop effective environments for civilian space travel.INTRODUCTION

For the past two and one-half years my laboratory has beeninvolved with the design of spacecraft for civilian travel.

McDonnell Douglas Aerospace has proposed a newsingle-stage-to-orbit rocket which they have called theDelta

Clipper (NASA 's new designation forDelta Clipper

class spacecraft is the X-33 ) which could carrycivilian passengers. Figure 1 is an artist's rendering of what a

Delta Clipper might eventually look like in preparation forflight.

Figure 1 Artist's rendering of theDelta Clipper
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The idea is to develop a rocket that is essentially as reusable asa modern commercial airliner. Such rockets are often referredto as RLVs -- reusable launch vehicles. McDonnel DouglasAerospace has already developed, and flown several times, the

prototype of a reusable single-stage-to-orbit rocket. The

suborbital prototype rocket is called theDC-X , forDelta

Clipper Experimental.

Figure 2 TheDC-X at its Rollout Ceremony

The primary motive for this new rocket program is to reduce

the cost of putting things into orbit around the earth. Right nowit costs about $20,000 per kilogram to put something in spaceor about $1,682,000 for a 185 pound man with no luggage. Themarkets for surveillance satellites such as weather and mappingsatellites, navigation satellites such as the Global PositioningSatellite (GPS) system that is coming on line in aviation andwill soon be widely available for automobiles, and world widecellular telephone and data communications that are still in theplanning stages are driving this new interest in low cost accessto space. But space tourism will not be far behind. If we cangeneralize from experiences in the early days of aviation, as

soon as reasonably reliable transportation is available for a costsimilar to current round-the-world steamship cruises, there willbe a steady stream of customers that will grow exponentially asthe cost keeps coming down.

Teams from my lab studied the requirements for civilian spaceflight and designed two passenger cabins for theDelta Clipper

. The first cabin was designed for a four-day trip in lowearth orbit (1). The second passenger cabin was designed forthe same rocket but this time the rocket and its passenger cabin

were to be used for suborbital flights (2). That is, instead ofgoing up some 200 miles and orbiting, the same vehicle mightonly go up 53 miles, then turn horizontally and accelerate to13,500 mph for five minutes and then begin a descent to land.A flight from Los Angeles to Tokyo would take about 40minutes and one to Paris would take about 38 minutes. Figure 3depicts the orientation of a passenger seat during aDelta
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Clipper flight.

Figure 3 Orientation of Cylindrical Module and Seats in the

Delta Clipper on the Ground and in Flight

The passengers in a space terminal enter and are seated in a selfcontained cylindrical passenger module that is loaded aboardthe rocket only minutes before takeoff (3). The passengermodule size we had to work with was a cylinder 15 feet indiameter and 30 feet long -- about like the interior of a smallairliner. A transporter carries the module from the terminal tothe vertically standing rocket which will be almost ready fordeparture. The passenger module is lifted up to near the middle

of the rocket and endwise it is inserted horizontally through theopen cargo bay doors. Final utilities connections are made andthe doors closed. The passengers sit upright facing one of thewalls in terraced rows as in a theater. The rocket will take offvertically and the passengers must be on their backs for this soas not to be seriously stressed by the 3-g acceleration forces.About one minute prior to takeoff the whole cabin cylinder willrotate 90 degrees so that all passengers are on their backs intheir special chairs (see Figure 3). The rocket will take off andeither go to space or to its suborbital cruising altitude where itwill pitch over to a horizontal position and the passengers will

be oriented in an upright position relative to the horizon -- justas in an airplane. When the vehicle begins its descent it glidesin a slightly nose-up attitude (11 degrees above the horizon)which will feel very normal to the passengers -- g loads ondescent are small, not over 1.5-g. A twelve hundred mile-longsteep glide path will bring the vehicle to its landing site. Thereit will pitch up with its nose pointing vertically, come to a stopand hover on the thrust of its restarted engines. Landing legswill be lowered and the vehicle will back down and land theway the moon landers did in the Apollo program. When thenose of the vehicle is pointed skyward the passengers will once

again be on their backs for the landing. After landing, thecylinder will rotate 90 degrees, returning the passengers to anupright position in which they will await the transporter thatwill take them in their module to the terminal (4).

ASTRONAUTS VS CIVILIAN SPACEFARERS
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NASA has accumulated extensive knowledge abouthuman spaceflight and makes it readily available to the

community that has paid for it. ButNASA has had to faceso many unknowns of a mechanical or physical nature that

whenever possibleNASA has dealt with human problemsby selecting only the hardiest people as astronauts and thentraining them for as long as it took to be able to do what wasneeded. For instance, they test astronaut candidates forclaustrophobia and only accept as astronauts those who exhibit

no symptoms. OneNASA exercise is quite a severe test.The candidate is zipped into a 36-inch diameter coated clothsphere and left for some period after which the candidate must

trust that he or she will be removed. In addition, the rigorouslyselected astronauts then train, on the average, two years inpreparation for each flight.

Clearly, if space tourism is to flourish, spaceflight will have to

be much more like airline flights thanNASA flights. Thevast majority of the population is able and willing to fly incommercial airliners. The simple training that airlines providefor passengers is brief, beginning when the plane leaves thegate and ending before takeoff or soon after, and consists of

teaching about seat belts, life preservers, exits and oxygenmasks. The big question for my team was, how closely can thisbe approximated for commercial spaceflight?

One of the primary tasks for us was to determine how much thecurrent massive pre-spaceflight preparations could be reducedand how broad a spectrum of the population can have spaceflight made available to them.

AIRLINE FLIGHT VS SPACEFLIGHT

We analyzed the ways in which flying in space would bedifferent from flying in an airliner and determined that there arethree primary differences:

1. the duration of the flights,2. weightlessness,3. the risk and novdty associated with rockets and
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spaceflight.

These three differences may not seem like much but they arequite profound and in just the manner that seems to alwaysmanifest itself when studying living systems -- it often is not

the main effects of variables that are important but the ways inwhich they interact (5).

The method used in this work was threefold in nature. First, weread everything we could find on the behavior of people inspaceflight and other severe environments such as submarines,Antarctic research stations, and undersea habitats. Second, wetalked to astronauts who have been in spaceflight. And third,we developed scenarios about what might happen or wouldhave to happen and then worked our way backwards todetermine how one would have to prepare for these events. In

the end we determined that most of the people who are able tofly in commercial airliners could probably fly to space in arocket, but it would take an intensive 48-hour period of trainingto assure that this would not only be a safe journey but apleasant one as well.

Consider the ways in whlch spaceflight differs from airlinerflights. Currently the durations of the longest aircraft flights arefrom about 11 to sometimes 14 hours. During that long a timepeople must be fed, must ingest a considerable volume ofliquid, must have opportunities to urinate and defecate, and

need to be able to move around a bit because cramping is oneof the most serious discomforts of air travel. Finally, if theflight is to be at all pleasurable the passengers must beentertained. First of all, note that cramping is not a problem forspaceflight. Cramping occurs when blood vessels which arepartially collapsed by the weight of a person in a seat cannotadequately refresh tissues with fresh arterial blood and removethe pooling venus blood. But in space flight people areweightless and this type of event simply does not occur. From adesigner's point of view this is a wonderful problem not tohave. In fact, seats in space are a real nuisance and are seldomused. So the seats we designed were only designed for aboutone hour's use on the whole four-day trip. Once in space theywould be collapsed to get them out of the way. Space, it turnsout is a very rehabilitative environment for all the ailments thatare associated with gravity such as aches and pains caused byloads on the body's joints. Figure 4 shows what a relaxed inweightlessness and what the same person relaxed in earth's


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gravity person looks like when looks like when standing

Figure 4 A Relaxed Person in Space and Standing on Earth

The relaxed body position in weightlessness is called theneutral body position -- the position into which one is pulled bythe natural tension of muscles and tendons when no otherforces are acting on the body. On earth it is the position of one'sbody when floating in salt water. Astronauts tell us that this is avery pleasant state of being. It is the position in which onesleeps in space and, as such, it presents a problem in that one'sarms float up in a zombie-like position which is perceived as

eerie and unpleasant to look at.NASA deals with that byproviding light-weight mummy type sleeping bags that restrain

the arms. Our design will have people sleep in berths wherethey can't be seen by others who are awake so this should be noproblem.

An issue thatNASA has not had to deal with, nor doairlines deal with it, but which will be important in civilianspace flight is a sensitive subject to write about but it is part ofthe rationale for having berths. The subject is sex. Airlines don'tfeel an obligation to provide couples with the opportunity forsex, even on flights that are a half a day in length. But nearly

every couple that flies for four days as space tourists will wantto become members of space's equivalent of the Mile HighClub. A passenger cabin that doesn't make that easily possiblewill be a great disappointment. From an ergonomic point ofview managing the integrated precision and robust rhythmicactivity of coitus in a weightless environment is a seriouschallenge. For instance, restraining one of the partners withstraps has certain bizarre cultural connotations and of coursethere is no one correct position that the two bodies should beplaced in. Our lab teams were able to design various kits ofclamp-on padded hand grips and bars that a leg or the back of a

knee joint can be wedged beneath. If these are provided witheach berth they will probably meet the needs of most couplesand the participants may even enjoy expressing their owningenuity in setting up a workable arrangement.

Berths will be important as sick bays for those who become illand want to be alone. Astronauts have assured us that abouthalf of the passengers who go to space will become ill for about
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two days with the space equivalent of motion sickness.Vomiting in an environment in which nothing falls down cannot be tolerated. The consequences of getting vomitus into airfilters, fans, and inside various types of apparatus could bedevastating. The possibility of six or more passengers being ill

at the same time in such a small environment requires thattraining for dealing with nausea be a significant part ofpreflight preparations.

Berths will also be important as places in which to changeclothes and to allow some persons to sleep while others are upand about. People don't sleep as long in space -- more like sixhours a night than eight hours. In addition, and this may beamong the most important attributes of berths, they provide forterritorial needs. The literature from the Soviet cosmonauts andour interviews with U.S. astronauts are very clear on this issue.

People spending four days enclosed in a small compartment notonly need opportunities for privacy but they will need a place tocall their own --remember their seats have been collapsed. Wehave a good literature on berths -- they were popular on trainsand in early transoceanic flights on the famous Pan AmericanAirlines Clipper planes. With their heavy cloth curtains theyprovided excellent visual isolation, modest auditory isolation,and an easy entry and exit that diminished claustrophobicresponses. But, like so many things on earth, they workedbecause gravity pulling on the weighted cloth caused thecurtains to hang down. Curtains won't work in weightlessnesswhere there is no down so we devised solid rectangularstructures that were hinged and could be collapsed and easilystowed. By erecting the structures over the collapsed chairs wesecure the territory to which the person has become accustomedand the structures have access to power for lights and fans andthe personal entertainment center that is part of each chair.

Fans for the berths is a particularly important issue in spaceflight. On earth, as air is warmed by coming in contact with ourbodies or having been breathed in and out -- or as it comes incontact with the heated electronics in an electric clock or aradio. The warmed air expands and rises. It rises because the airat lower levels is more dense because of the weight of the airabove compressing it -- again an effect of gravity. These risingair currents that serve us so well and unobtrusively on earth arecalled convection currents. In weightlessness convectioncurrents do not exist and it would be very easy for air tostagnate and become toxic, Therefore, any air that is to bemoved must be moved mechanically and this fact alone means


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that spacecraft are always noisy environments -- for instance,the shuttles average about 72 dbA in orbit.

Discussing how air fails to rise in weightlessness and thenoisiness of a spacecraft may not seem psychologically

important but it is. The passengers must be made aware of theconvection current problem so they don't get themselves insome isolated cozy spot on board, which would be perfectlydelightful on earth, and then suffocate. As for noise, it isdifferent from the noise problem on airplanes. On airplaneseveryone is lined up facing the same direction and peopleseldom interact with anyone other than those seated adjacently.But in a spaceflight people will be moving around in allimaginable positions and nearly everyone in the group willhave to interact with most of the others at some times. In anoisy environment many older people will have difficulty

separating signal and noise when spoken to. It really helps tosee the lips of the person to whom one is listening, especially ifthe person is not speaking in his or her native language. Onearth, when people talk to each other, they are all right-side-up.But in space it is easy to be oriented in opposite directions. It isconfusing to see the lip movements, and listen to, someone whois speaking to you while upside down. So people have to betrained to orient themselves to the people with whom they willinteract.

Suppose a person leaves a seat on an airliner to go to thelavatory. The person will walk down the aisle and perhapsencounter another person. The two of them will stop and find away to get around one-another. However, in space one can'twalk. Moving about is called translating. One pushes off in thedirection one is going and continues with whatever velocitywas imparted at shove-off. Now if this person and anotherperson meet they are drifting in the air and cannot stop and willcollide. Such collisions could be dangerous so people must betrained to look in all directions before pushing off. TheRussians found that they had to train cosmonauts so thatpersons translating oriented themselves to the person beingpassed. On earth there is no reasonable way to pass one anotheroriented fanny-to-face but it is easy in weightlessness and itturns out that the person being passed feels affronted.

We designed the 15 x 30 foot cylindrical cabin for the four-dayspaceflight to accommodate 12 passengers and two flightattendants. Like the rockets that, for years have carriedCosmonauts to and from the Russian space stations, these


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rockets will be autonomously controlled. That is, the only crewwill be cabin attendants and the remote controllers on theground. Fourteen people spending four days in a structure ofthis size may seem like pretty cramped quarters. But asFreedman has shown in the research that led to his developing

of the Density Intensity Hypothesis crowding is not necessarilyaversive (6). The Density Intensity Hypothesis states thatwhatever emotional state is extant when crowding occurs willbe enhanced by the crowding. If people are happy thencrowding intensifies happiness, if sad or frightened it intensifiesthose emotional states. This is evident at almost any happygathering. People can have a whole house at their disposal andstill they will end up jammed into two or three rooms happilyinteracting in close proximity. What is needed is to get thegroup in space happy and keep them happy.

The passenger cabin is designed so as to have two rooms, oneabout 20 feet long and one about 10 feet long. A pressurebulkhead will exist between the rooms so that, in an emergencythat might threaten depressurization of one room, everyonecould get into the other room and seal themselves off for aquick return to earth. This would be the spaceflight equivalentof having drop-down oxygen masks in airliners. Both roomswill have independent life support systems, either of which iscapable of supporting both sides, and they will have crossovercapability to provide safety through redundancy. The smallerroom will have the lavatory and a shower. Designing toilets andshowers for an environment in which nothing falls down is verydemanding. Even after the best efforts at making these devicesas much like their terrestrial counterparts as possible there aredifferences and these require that people have preflight trainingto use the devices. Space toilets aren't too much different to usethan earth units -- there is a toilet seat with a seat belt which isneeded to hold one on. Urine and solid waste are collectedseparately for both men and women -- use of that apparatus istaught easily, and air drawn beneath the toilet seat moves wastematter toward a squirrel cage fan that is drawing the air in. Onetype of toilet deposits the waste in a container that is removedand stored; another type sprays the waste on the inside of asphere and freeze dries it to the consistency of banana chips.The shower works by having a grill at the base beneath which afan draws air down through the top of the shower stall. Water issprayed on the body from a hand held nozzle with a trigger. Asthe squirted water ricochets about inside the stall the flowingair entrains it and moves it to the base. The problem is that aperson holding a nozzle and discharging water is holding onto a


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tiny water rocket motor and will also start bouncing off thewalls, so a circular rubber donut is provided at the base of theshower beneath which one wedges his or her toes to gainstability. The point is that spaceflight apparatus can be made towork much like its earthly Counterparts but there are enough

differences so that some serlous preflight training is required.

Figure 5 Scale Model of The Passenger Compartment ForOrbital Flight

The smaller of the two rooms will also have the cabin's entryhatch in its end cap and there will be windows arranged in acircle around the entry hatch (Figure 6).

Figure 6 Windows arranged around a hatch

Besides the safety feature of the two compartments, they alsoserve an important function in helping balance differing needsfor community and privacy among the passengers. Most of thepassengers will be awake and asleep at the same times but thesetimes do not overlap perfectly and having one room wheresome can be up and about while most are asleep may be veryimportant. This also allows two different events to be going onat the same time without interference. The small room will bepopular because it will be where the windows are located. whenthe cargo bay doors are opened on the rocket the end of thepassenger module will look out at the earth below.

Eating as we know it on earth works pretty well in space butimportant new etiquette must be learned. For example, oneusually does not sit to eat in space, because sitting is notparticularly comfortable since there is no gravity to pull oneinto compliance with the shape of a chair. Holding oneself inthe sitting position by continual contraction of abdominal andleg muscles is tiring. Even loose items such as peas can be

eaten if one is careful not to move the spoon in a jerky fashion.But astronauts tell us that sloppy eaters are very repulsive crewmates. We all make occasional errors when eating and dropthings. The carpets beneath tables are stained in even the bestof restaurants. But in space things don't drop. They just driftaway in the air currents. Liquid is drunk through straws fromsealed containers. The straws have tiny valves. when one stopsdrinking it is necessary to close the valve and then suck out any


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remaining fluid still in the straw above the valve. Otherwise,the fluid which was already moving and so has momentum, willcome out of the straw and drift away as a group of blobs heldtogether by their surface tension. Astronauts tell us that findingother people's food and drink drifting by their faces while they

are eating is extremely irritating. Fourteen people can not verylong live in a 15 x 30 foot tube if they are experiencing muchirritation. Mistakes will of course happen, but passengers mustbe taught to be vigilant and to quickly capture any of their ownfood or drink that has gotten loose.

It is clear that much of what has to be designed into a trainingprogram has to do with social psychology and stressmanagement procedures. New norms have to be developed forthis -- not completely different -- but somewhat differentenvironment. Consider for instance some rigious issues. what if

a person is supposed to face east when praying? which way iseast in space? Or what if prayers are said at sunrise and atsunset, which occurs twice a day on earth and now takes placeevery 45 minutes? These issues must be faced ahead of time inorder to keep people from experiencing unnecessary distress.The two religious issues just mentioned have been dealt with.Muslim leaders have determined that facing the earth isequivalent to facing toward Mecca and when in space one usessunrise and sunset at the takeoff location as the time forprayers. Keeping some minimum amount of radio or televisioncontact with events that signal the time of day at the takeoffpoint also allows the passengers to keep their circadian rhythmsconstant so they don't begin experiencing the equivalent of jetlag with all of the sunsets and sunrises.

Table 1 lists the primary stress management principles that wederived from the literature and have employed in designing aprototype training program for spaceflight.

Table 1 Stress Management Principles Used

1. Increasing predictability decreases stress.[Inform passengers about what to expect]

2. Increasing perceived control decreases stress.[Show passengers how to do things and handlesituations]

3. Performance is an optimum function of arousal(Yerkes-Dodson Law).[Teach techniques for maintaining mid-levelarousal]


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4. Stressors are best tolerated individually orsequentially.[Arrange programmed events to avoid cascades]

5. Individual needs for privacy and communitymust be balanced.

[Structure programs flexibly to accommodateindividual differences]6. Mildly aversive responses habituate with

repetition.[Use preflight training to adapt people to eachother]

Consider now the passenger compartment for suborbital flights.The ability to go anywhere in the world in 45 minutes has to be

an exciting idea and the ability of theDelta Clipper to landvertically means it doesn't have to have large expensive airportswith runways and instrument landing systems. For thesepassengers the flight is so short they do not need meals nor willthey have to leave their seats to go to the lavatories. Figure 7 isa photo of a scale model we built showing the interior of thepassenger compartment we designed for suborbital flight.

Notice that there are two lavatories. They would only be usedwhile waiting for takeoff and then again after landing whilewaiting for the transporter to remove the module from therocket. A liquid source with drinking tube will be available ateach chair as will a computerized entertainment center. Thevideo screen for this center will also serve as an artificialwindow for the seat occupant. There will be no externalwindows in this module because the cargo bay doors will not beopened in suborbital flight. There will be several video camerascenes available to be chosen from. There is a modest literatureavailable on artificial windows which suggests that these cancome very close to serving the function of real windows ifcleverly designed - e.g., Ref. (7).

Figure 7 Scale Model of the Passenger Compartment ForSuborbital Flight

One of the problems we struggled with was this. Passengers attakeoff are reclining on their backs looking straight up. Theywill not want to be looking at an upward view in their artificialwindows because that will only be blue sky. They will want to
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watch the launch pad as they move away from it during takeoff.The problem is that they will be looking forward at a scenewhich their eyes say is going away towards their backs whileall of their kinesthetic and labyrinthine senses are telling themthey are actually going foreword with great vigor.

Unfortunately that is precisely the kind of sensory conflict thatcauses motion sickness. But the passengers must be able to lookoutside or they will likely feel very claustrophobic as theirgeneral excitement mounts at takeoff. What we searched for issome experience that everyone is already familiar with thatproduces exactly the same effects but which nearly everyonehas adapted to in everyday life. Then if we could somehowmake the sensory-visual event in the rocket seem like that oneperhaps we could keep the passengers from getting sick. Wefound just such an event -- looking in the rear view mirror of acar while accelerating to pass another auto. So we designed the

artificial window to have an electronic rear view mirror in theupper right-hand corner (it is electronically shifted to the leftfor British drivers). It is in the mirror that one sees the scenefrom out back. Once this is established in the passenger'sperceptual set, the size of the electronic mirror can be increasedby directing a cursor on the screen to the bottom corner of themirror and pulling the mirror until it is almost the size of thewindow. In order to insure retention of the perceptual set oflooking in a mirror enough window is always left to serve as aclear reminder that the viewer is looking at an expanded mirror.

Another major problem we faced was how to orient passengersin chairs. We didn't solve this problem during the design of theorbiting module but we finally solved it during the work on thesuborbital module. In the lab we devised a structure in which aperson lay supine in a chair that was mounted with its back onthe floor. when we placed people in this chair and asked themto evaluate it as a position for takeoff they rated it as differentbut satisfactory. Then we added a second chair to the rig thatwas also in the supine position and mounted directly above thefirst chair. Persons in the top chair rated it the same as thebottom chair had been rated when it was the only chair. Butnow we couldn't keep people in the bottom chair long enoughto rate it. They panicked and wanted out from thereimmediately. Clearly something would have to changedrastically if we were to have people in rows and then tip themonto their backs for takeoff.

From the literature of environmental psychology we found thata room could be made to seem either larger or smaller by where


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the perceivers eyes were focused. When eyes are focused atoptical infinity the space seems larger than when interspersedobjects cause the eyes to focus at shorter distances. This is atrick often used by restaurants that consist of one large roomand yet want to be perceived as warm and intimate. Potted

plants or other objects are hung from the ceiling. Now as one'seyes scan to what would have been the far side of the buildingwith a far focus, the plants intervene, the eyes reflexively focuson them, and the perceiver has an altered cognition. Instead ofthe room seeming warehouse-like and cold it now seems moreintimate and cozy. So we reasoned that if we reversed thisprocess we might solve our problem. The problem with oursimulated passenger in the chair on the bottom might bealleviated by allowing that person to see all the way to the farwall instead of having his or her gaze focussed only inchesaway on the headrest of the person above. Our problem was

that this was too cozy. So we stepped the floor in terraces sothat each chair was a little lower than the one behind. Whenlooking straight ahead in this condition, the eyes of everyonefocus on the far wall of the cabin. This solved the problem.

The title of this paper is, "Designing User-Friendly Civilian

Spacecraft ". It is fair to ask, "just what is a user friendlyspacecraft"? For a long time to come both airplanes andspacecraft are going to continue to have shortcomings. Theywill be noisy and confining and have too few lavatories andexercise areas. But a user friendly vehicle will be one whichminimizes the effects of these shortcomings. In aircraft inwhich passengers are all lined up in seats facing the same way,interpersonal interaction is minimized and many potentialconflicts are averted. But in a four-day trip to space in whichthe seats have been stowed interactions will increaseexponentially. These interactions can become highlights of theflight or constant irritations that could ruin what may be a once-in-a-lifetime trip. Engineers, designers, and ergonomists mustwork together to produce a safe vehicle that provides at leastthe minimum services for comfort, much as have beendescribed up to now. But once one has toilets, showers, berths,and meal servers that work reasonably well, the variables thatwill determine the success of the trip will be the concerns ofsocial and environmental psychologists and sociologists.

Earlier it was pointed out that a 48-hour intensive trainingperiod would be required before a four-day flight could beundertaken. Only about a third of that time is taken up withtraining people to use the apparatus in the spacecraft. The rest
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of the time is given to forming the people into a cohesive groupin which each of the people knows the background andintentions of the others and they practice developing newbehavioral norms appropriate to weightlessness andconfinement. Not all passengers in a group will be in the same

age cohort or of the same social status, or ethnicity, or gender,or nationality. If one considers the difficulty families can havein getting along think of the turmoil these kinds of mixes mightproduce.

In conclusion, consider an illustration of a training item in theprototype training manual that we wrote for McDonnell

Douglas (1). Passengers will have to learn aboutproxemics -- the psychology of personal space. This concept --that each of us has an invisible bubble of space around us thathas special social meanings is very important. In the U.S., fromone's body out to about eighteen inches is intimate space, fromthere out another three feet is personal space and beyond thatmore public space. Here is an illustration from the courtshipritual in the culture of the U.S.. When a young man and womandevelop their relationship to the point that they begin datingeach other exclusively the young woman signals this publiclywhen riding with her boy friend by moving from her side of theseat over to sit close to him. She leaves the far edge of hispersonal space and moves well into his intimate space.Everyone knows what this means. She will continue to sit inthis position while riding with him until the day they aremarried, after which she will move back to her own side of theseat.

The anthropologist Edward Hall discovered thisphenomenon while consulting with American and Arab oil men(8). Arabs complained that it was maddening to talk toAmericans while standing because they wouldn't stand still.

What Hall came to realize was that, while Arabs andAmericans both had intimate spaces, the intimate space of the

Arabs was a bubble with a somewhat smaller diameter than thatof the Americans. So when an Arab and an American cametogether to talk they stood the culturally proper distance fromeach other. Unfortunately, American men stand farther apartthan Arabs do. For instance, American men stand just a littletoo far apart when talking to comfortably touch hands withtheir outstretched arms so when they shake hands they have tolean slightly forward to reach each other. Since the Arab felt a
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little too far away from the American he would take a half-stepforward to adjust the distance to his cultural norm -- whereuponthe American would take a half-step back -- and away theywould go.

In an environment with no seats or guiding aisles in whichpassengers translate in three dimensions and in all possibleorientations, people have to be trained to be sensitive toproxemic needs in general and in particular to the individualneeds of their fellow passengers.

CONCLUSION

While spaceflight shares some things in common with airlinetransportation it clearly has some very significant differences.These differences require some new concepts in social

management in space transportation as well as different andmore elaborate preflight training. These differences also requiresome innovations in vehicular design to accommodate them.This paper has served to highlight some of the more salientissues dealt with in this laboratory while working with the

Delta Clipper design team.

In the beginning of the space program it was sufficient todesign vehicles that allowed astronauts to survive. Later, astechnologies improved, it was enough that carefully selectedand highly trained astronauts have the minimum comforts toaccomplish some useful work. Now however, we stand on thethreshold of the age of space tourism and spacecraft will haveto be designed to allow terrestrial humans to flourish in space.This will require the development of design teams from avariety of disciplines to bring together the many disparatepieces of information necessary to accomplish a task of suchcomplexity. Many have wondered if it is feasible for industriesto successfully manage such complex teamwork. The verysuccessful alliance between this academic laboratory and the

McDonnell Douglas Delta Clipper design teamduring the past few years is a testament to the fact that suchrelationships are not only possible but can flourish.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Parts of the work reported here were supported by the JamesIrvine Foundation, the John R. Snortum Research Fund, and the
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Claremont McKenna College Practicum Program.

REFERENCES

1.

H A Wichman , May 1993, " Proposal for the

McDonnell Douglas Delta Clipper Program ",Aerospace Psychology Laboratory technical report,Claremont McKenna College, Claremont, CA.

2. H A Wichman , June 1994, " Delta ClipperProgram Report: Suborbital Flight and Public Attitudes

", (Rev. ed.), Aerospace Psychology Laboratorytechnical report, Claremont McKenna College,Claremont, CA.

3. H A Wichman and T M Teresi , 1994, "Ergonomics of an Orbital Rocket Passenger

Compartment ", paper presented at the WesternPsychological Association Convention, Kona, Hawaii,April.

4. H A Wichman and W J Dorsey , 1995, "Ergonomics of a Suborbital Rocket Passenger

Compartment ", paper presented at the WesternPsychological Association Convention, Los Angeles.

5. H A Wichman and C B Watson , 1994, "Psychological Issues for Future Civilian Space

Passengers ", paper presented at the WesternPsychological Association Convention, Kona, Hawaii.

6. J L Freedman, 1975, 'Crowding and Behavior', W.HFreeman, San Francisco.

7. T Ruys, 1970, 'Windowless Offices', Man-Environ.Sys., Vol.1, p.4.

8. E T Hall , 1966, 'The Hidden Dimension',Doubleday, Garden City, NY.

H Wichman, December 1995, "Designing User-Friendly Civilian Spacecraft", Proceedings of the

6th International Space Conference of Pacific Basin Societies (ISCOPS ), 6-8 December
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1995, AAS Vol. 91 Paper No. AAS 95-604.Also downloadable fromhttp://www.spacefuture.com/archive/designing user friendly civilianspacecraft.shtml

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