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Abstract

It is fair to say that the rise and fall of industry has been a significant factor in shaping the

country which we live in today. The emergence of steam power and the discovery of abundant natural

resources such as coal and iron ore on our shores has allowed industries to expand exponentially. Figures

taken from Deane & Cole’s publication on British economic growth (1960) shows how industrial and

economic output within England grew simultaneously by more than threefold between the years of 1760

and 1860.

Industrialisation changed the townscapes of the built environment in England non-more so than

in the North. The wealth generated by industries such as cotton and earthenware production funded the

construction of classically designed architecture, some of which still stands today. During the 20th Century

our industries began to suffer as competition from the emerging markets caused demand to fall for British

made products. The effects to the British economy were severe to the extent where both public and private

investment was withdrawn and whole industries ceased production. In the aftermath of post-industrial

decline, England was left with an extensive historic industrial building stock which in many cases, has

been left to fall into disrepair.

In recent times we have seen a rise in the implementation of heritage led projects where historic

industrial buildings have been used as a driver towards the regeneration of towns and cities subjected to

urban decline. The availability of funding for projects of this nature has increased with the emergence of

organisations such as the Heritage Lottery Fund and Princes Regeneration Trust. These streams of

funding have given private organisations the ability to implement changes to adapt and re-use these

buildings to meet the requirements of modern society. However, the nature of industrial heritage

regeneration is inherently problematic in that these buildings are more often than not susceptible to

design defects. It is often difficult to integrate modern servicing systems into buildings that were designed

to function very differently. Implementing these changes whilst also preventing a loss of heritage can

prove to be troublesome and can, in many cases, render schemes unsuccessful.

This document will research the challenges associated with the adaptation, conservation, regeneration

and repair of industrial heritage using primary information gathered from site visits aswell as data from

secondary sources. The writer will review a number of different industrial heritage sites to support the

information stated within the text with particular emphasis being placed on the following: Battersea

Power Station, Middleport Pottery and the Grimsby Ice Factory.

Acknowledgements

In writing this dissertation I would like to thank my family and friends for the support they

have given me during this time. I would also like to thank my employer PAYE Stonework & Restoration

for their continued support during my research. Finally, I would like to thank the tutors that have

contributed to my learning and development throughout my time at Kingston University with a special

mention to Judith Farren-Bradley for her support over the past two years.

Thanks to All.

Statement of Academic Integrity

I, Alexander Towle state that the research I have conducted within this dissertation has been of my own

accord. All information sources that have been used to collate my research have been clearly defined and

referenced using the Harvard Referencing System.

I understand the concept of plagiarism and make reference to the following definition stated within the

Oxford Dictionary (2016):

‘The practice of taking someone else’s work or ideas and passing them off as one’s own’

Signed

Table of Contents

Heading Page no.

Chapter I - Introduction 1

Chapter II - Aims & Objective 2

Chapter III – Pre-Industrialisation 3 – 4

Feudalism to Capitalism 3 – 4

Chapter IV - The Industrial Revolution 5 – 7

Chapter V – Industrial Heritage Defined 8 - 12

What is Industrial Heritage? 8 - 9

Why is Industrial Heritage Important? 10 - 11

The Conservation of Industrial Heritage 12

Chapter VI - The Challenges Associated with

the Regeneration of Industrial Heritage 13 - 42

Historic Perceptions 14 – 16

Securing Investment Opportunities 17 – 22

The Challenges Associated with Repair 22 - 29

Environmental Challenges 30 - 36

Associated Challenges of Adaptive Re-use 37 - 42

Chapter VII - Conclusion 43 – 44

Chapter VIII - Limitations & Recommendations 45

Bibliography

Chapter I - Introduction

1

One may struggle to imagine the city centres of Manchester or Leeds without the Victorian

industrial architecture present within their streetscapes. These buildings are remnants of an age where

industry was the primary contributor to the British economy. As the economic landscape has changed

over time, in many cases the functions of these buildings have been adapted to sustain the requirements

of modern society. Evidence of this adaptive re-use can be seen around the country with successful

regeneration schemes being implemented in cities which are historically associated with industrial

development. However, there is also evidence of cases where some industrial buildings of great

importance are being left non-functional and thus have fallen into a state of disrepair. These cases are

more often than not, situated in locations where funding streams are scarce and investment opportunities

are limited.

The availability of funding is one of many contributing factors that can affect the outcome of an industrial

heritage regeneration project. Inherent defects, size, scale and escalating levels of neglect can also add to

the challenge of regenerating industrial heritage to meet the requirements of modern society. In many

cases, such challenges are evident as an inherent characteristic of industrial heritage design and can be

intensified during regeneration works. That being said, one can begin to understand the means by which

to overcome these challenges when analysing examples of successful industrial heritage regeneration

schemes.

Within this document the writer will research the challenges that are associated with the conservation,

adaptation, repair and regeneration of industrial heritage. In doing so, background research will be carried

out on the history of industrialisation and the buildings attributed to it. Information captured from site

visits will be used as a primary source along with secondary data in the form peer reviewed literature,

journals and text from reliable sources.

Chapter II - Aims and Objectives

2

To further specify the project intent, the writer has detailed the following aims and objectives relative to

the subject topic described above:

Project Aims

To provide a background understanding of industrialisation and the buildings that can be attributed

to it.

To determine the most prevalent challenges associated with the conservation, repair, adaptation and

regeneration of industrial heritage and identify examples of these challenges within case studies.

To identify trends associated with the challenges of Industrial Heritage regeneration, conservation,

adaptation and repair.

To identify examples of the approaches that have been adopted as a means by which to overcome

these challenges.

Project Objectives

To utilise primary information taken from visits to site as a means of verifying the information stated

within the document.

To collate and review secondary information, comprising of legislation, peer reviewed literature and

journals from reliable sources as means of providing evidence relative to the above.

To use the information collated as a means of analysis to allow a conclusion to be formulated.

Chapter III – Pre-Industrialisation

3

Feudalism to Capitalism

Industry of some form has played a significant role in shaping the British economy from as far

back as the 5th Century BC (The British Museum, n.d, p2). Information taken from the British Museum

shows evidence of urban, industrial and economic development which pre-dates the Roman period and

is attributed to advances during the Iron Age. It is said that this industrial development coupled with

religious and governmental activity gave rise to the major cities of the Roman province and the subsequent

birth of medieval England (The British Museum, n.d. p2).

Pre-industrial England was a society that was sustained by agricultural productivity. The absence of

developed machinery and modern methods of transportation kept the yields low and limited the wide

scale distribution of agricultural produce. Crone (2003) refers to this period in time as being dominated

by scarcity where ‘people lived in very local worlds’. It is estimated during the 14th Century that between

80 - 90 percent of people lived in the countryside and the population of England was around 3.5 million

(BBC, 2014). The socio-economic structure of society during this period was feudalistic where noblemen

held lands from the crown in exchange for military service. Peasant farmers known as ‘serfs’ would then

farm the land in exchange for services from the lords or landowners.

Towards the latter part of the 18th Century, England experienced a shift in this socio-economic structure

as a result of the Industrial Revolution. In specifying this Hudson (2014) refers to a ‘simultaneous radical

discontinuity in macro-economic indicators such as national income, industrial output, capital formation,

GDP per head and productivity’. A capitalist society was born and co-existed as the Industrial Revolution

progressed into the 19th Century.

The term ‘revolution’ is defined within the Oxford Dictionary (2016) as being ‘a dramatic and wide-

reaching change in conditions, attitudes, or operation’. Eagleton and Manolopoulou (2016) explain the

changes to manufacturing processes and the subsequent expansion of foreign trade and exportation as a

result of this. It is stated that the transition from man and animal power to steam and coal powered

machinery allowed for a sharp rise in production output which in turn allowed for the economic

expansion of key industries such as cotton, steel and earthenware production.

Chapter III – Pre-Industrialisation

4

Figure 1.0 is an early industrial impression by L.S Lowry named ‘Coming from the Mill’ and depicts a

streetscape in Manchester at the beginning of the 20th Century. The painting exemplifies the physical

changes that were brought about as a result of Industrialisation particularly within the North of England

during this time.

Figure 1.0: L.S Lowry ‘Coming from the Mill’ - 1930 (The Lowry Gallery, 2016).

Chapter IV – The Industrial Revolution

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The Industrial Revolution

The Industrial Revolution is attributed to an amalgamation of factors that co-existed and grew

during the 18th Century (Black, 2015). Evidence taken from BBC 2 documentary ‘Why the Industrial

Revolution Happened Here’ (narrated by professor Jeremy Black) references the development and

networking of new ideas as a driver towards advances in the use and harnessing of Energy. Pre-

industrialisation, Britain relied on the burning of timber as a means of producing energy. The sharp rise

in population at the turn of the 18th Century increased public demand for energy and highlighted the

need for a more efficient resource to produce it. It was during this time when coal surpassed timber as

Britain’s primary fuel source which gave rise to the coal mining industry (Black, 2015). It is said that this

transition in energy production assisted in the invention of steam powered machinery such as the world’s

first commercially successful steam engine produced by Thomas Newcomen in 1710 (Newcomen, 2011).

During this period, the intellectual climate was prolific and the exchange of scientific and technological

information was unprecedented, so much so that the perception of human thinking began to change.

This transition to a more factual and scientific way of thinking is often referred to by historians as ‘The

Age of Reason’ or ‘Enlightenment’ (Black, 2015).

As technological advances continued, so did the development of the steam engine and in 1769 James

Watt patented an improved and more efficient version of the Newcomen Engine (BBC, 2014). The

changes made to the Newcomen Engine improved its output capacity which increased the demand for its

use within industry and manufacturing. The ‘Glorious Revolution’ had in previous years established the

supremacy of parliament over the monarch and it is said that this regime change created a more liberal

and economically viable climate which paved the way for entrepreneurism (Black, 2015). To feed this

economic expansion the Government supported private investment in mercantile ventures oversees and

with this came the development of London’s ports. The growth of trade across sees gave rise to the

expansion of the British Empire which brought about the importation of exotic produce from the Far

East, North America and India (see figure 2.0).

The exploitation of people was a pivotal element in the growth of the British Empire and it is estimated

that 2 ½ million slaves were displaced during the 18th Century as a labour resource for industries such as

sugar cane production (Black, 2015). As the British Empire grew so did the British economy and the

wealth generated from foreign trade became capital that was invested in Britain’s industrial infrastructure.

It is estimated that by the end of the 18th Century Britain’s GDP was equivalent to 2 ½ Billion pounds

of today’s currency which funded commercial enterprise, banking and the emergence of the London

Stock exchange (Black, 2015).


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Figure 2.0: A map to show the geographical locations of the British Empire in 1907 noted in red (British

Empire, 1907).

The wealth that was brought into the country from the mercantile elite during the 18th & early 19th

Century gave birth to consumerism where the standard of living greatly improved and people had more

money to spend on consumer products. It is during this time where the role of marketing emerged as an

important factor in sustaining a successful business. Information taken from the Wedgwood Museum

(2016) notes Josiah Wedgwood amongst the first of many potters who would capitalise on the

opportunities presented by consumerism. It is noted how Josiah Wedgwood ‘established the role of the

travelling salesman in the late 19th Century’ equipped with ‘hand annotated catalogues’ salesmen would

‘journey nationwide gathering orders’ for Wedgwood earthenware. Wedgwood is shown to have had an

understanding of early marketing and advertising techniques through the production of the Queensware

pottery line which was a brand affiliated with the Monarchy.

Wedgwood’s contribution to the Industrial Revolution is clearly defined by Black (2015). The

development of the potteries in Staffordshire called for an improvement in infrastructure which

eventually came from petition driven by Josiah Wedgwood to build a turnpike road from his native

Burslem to the national road network. Wedgwood’s contribution to the development of the canal


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network is also noted as an important factor in the success of the pottery industry in Staffordshire and

the subsequent expansion of the Industrial Revolution.

Chapter V – Industrial Heritage Defined

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What is Industrial Heritage?

Industrial heritage is defined as ‘sites, structures, complexes, areas and landscapes as well as the

related machinery, objects or documents that provide evidence of past or ongoing industrial processes of

production, the extraction of raw materials, their transformation into goods, and the related energy and

transport infrastructures (ICOMOS – TICCIH 2011). The period definition for industrial heritage by

Gould (2012) is from 1750 to the present day with emphasis from the Industrial Revolution through to

the onset of World War I.

Great Britain is noted by Historic England (2011, p2) as having ‘outstanding international importance as

the birthplace of the Industrial Revolution’ and as a result of this, has an extensive historic industrial

building stock. Globally there are currently forty-five industrial sites or landscapes enlisted by UNESCO

as being World Heritage sites with eight of these located within the UK (Goskar, 2013). Additionally, it

is estimated that there are 17,327 industrially classified buildings that have some form of designation

which accounts for 4.4% percent of the listed buildings & scheduled monuments within Great Britain

(Gould, 2012).

The buildings attributed to this period in time are particularly significant in that they mark a major change

in human history (ICOMOS – TICCIH, 2011) and are a physical representation of the development of

the modern world and a capitalist society.

Figure 3.0: A photograph of Ditherington Flax Mill (Clegg Bradley Studios, 2012).

Industrial buildings are more often than not, distinctive in nature and can exhibit elements of innovative

design for the period of time in which they were built. A good example of this nature of building is

Ditherington Flax Mill in Shrewsbury, Shropshire (see figure 3.0). Ditherington Mill holds particular

historic significance in that the construction of the main mill (1796-97) was the world’s first iron framed


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building and it is seen as having ‘outstanding importance in the development of fully framed, multi -

storey buildings (Historic England, 2016). The textiles mill is also an exceptionally early survival of a steam

powered building and thus is designated as a Grade I listed building (Historic England, 2016).

To give a clearer and more refined picture of industrial heritage, the following table has been compiled

which gives examples of some of the most prominent industrial heritage sites around the world and also

notes the mother industries and relative time periods of which each can be attributed to. It is worth

noting that a number of these examples feature in more detail as case studies later in the document:

Industry

Notable Examples Period

Extractive Blaenavon Industrial Landscape

Cornwall & West Devon Mining Landscape

19th Century

18th Century

Manufacturing Ditherington Mill

Salts Mill

Middleport Pottery

New Lanark

Late 18th Century

Mid-19th Century

Late 19th Century

Late 18th Century

Transportation & Shipping New York High Line

Albert Dock Liverpool

Grimsby Docks

Pontcysyllte Aqueduct and Canal

Mid-20th Century

Mid-19th Century

Mid-19th Century

Early 19th Century

Production Ironbridge Gorge Early -18th Century

Energy & Services Battersea Power Station

Bankside Power Station Southwark

Early 20th Century

Late 19th Century

Fishing Grimsby Ice Factory 19th Century

Figure 3.0A: A table categorising Industrial Heritage sites (Historic England/Towle 2016).


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Why is Industrial Heritage Important?

Industrial heritage buildings have a tangible value in that they are physical evidence of past

methods, technologies and procedures which in many cases are now defunct. Tangible industrial heritage

is our means of understanding these procedures and the history relative to their implementation. The

historic industrial building stock we have is a rare commodity that is often unavailable whilst studying

earlier periods in history. Cossons (2012) notes the importance of this material, tangible evidence and its

relevance to the ‘activities that have had and continue to have profound historical consequences’ and

states that ‘the motives for protecting industrial heritage are based on the universal value of this evidence’.

On the Contrary, industrial buildings also have intangible dimensions ‘embodied in the skills, memories

and social life of their communities’ in the not so distant past (ICOMOS – TICCIH, 2011). This socio-

cultural connection between buildings and the communities that have lived and worked amongst them

emphasises their value to society and can often provide a basis for their preservation. The buildings which

remain from the industrial age allow this intangible evidence to be accessed and explored. The ability to

do this is important in a social or cultural sense, but may also holds scientific and technological values.

The Industrial Revolution was a time of great innovation where advances in science and technology were

driven by the sharing of revolutionary ideas in the history of manufacturing, engineering and

construction. Cossons (2012) notes these values as being intrinsic to the sites fabric, components and

machinery and are captured in physical evidence and documentation and also through intangible

memoirs traditions and customs of society at the time.

What is also important in considering the conservation of industrial heritage is the element of identity

that is portrayed by such buildings and sites. Industrial architecture can be prominent in design and this

coupled with the socio-cultural/economic background of a building or site can provide a unique ‘sense

of place’ to a community. Evidence of this can be seen on review of ‘Ironbridge Gorge’ in Shropshire (see

figure 4.0) which is known throughout the world as ‘the symbol of the Industrial Revolution’ as it is said

to contain all of the elements of progress that contributed to the rapid development of the industrial age

(UNESCO, 2016).


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Figure 4.0: A photograph of Ironbridge Gorge in Shropshire ‘the symbol of the Industrial Revolution’

(UNESCO, 2016).

Drawing further on the above, it can be said that the element of uniqueness is something that is evident

within a high number of historic industrial buildings. During the Industrial Revolution innovation was

embraced and, as such, was implemented in the design of many of the industrial buildings and structures

constructed during this period. The surviving examples of historic industrial buildings we have, more

often than not exhibit uniqueness through innovative design and this is evident non-more-so than at

Ironbridge Gorge. Ironbridge Gorge exemplifies this notion in several aspects of its extant ranging from

the Old Furnace, where in 1709 Iron was first smelted with Coke as opposed to Charcoal to the Iron

Bridge shown in item 4.0 which is said to be the world’s first known use of structural cast iron (Cossons,

2012).


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The Conservation of Industrial Heritage

The idea of conserving our industrial heritage is a relatively new one that has become prominent over

the course of the last forty to fifty years. The key moments in the recognition of industrial heritage were

noted by Dijakovic during the UNESCO World Heritage Convention and Industrial Heritage (2001).

1978 - The establishment of The International Committee for the Conservation of Industrial

Heritage (TICCIH).

1994 - UNESCO recognises ‘Modern Heritage’ for inclusion within the World Heritage List

comprising the architecture, town planning and landscape design of the 19th and 20th Centuries.

2000 - TICCIH establishes an agreement with ICOMOS thus brining the issue of industrial

heritage closer to the world stage.

2001 - ICOMOS & DOCOMOMO begin a joint programme for the identification,

documentation and promotion of the built heritage of the modern era as the properties and sites

under this category were considered to be under threat.

As industrial heritage conservation has developed in line with the above, the challenges associated with

it have become more evident. The requirements for conserving, regenerating and adapting industrial

heritage to meet the needs of modern society is an inherently challenging scenario in itself. Historic

industrial buildings are the remnants of a bygone age where society functioned very differently. As such,

the conservation of these buildings can present difficult and sometimes contradictory situations where

there is a need for mitigation between the lesser of two evils.

As stated, the need to conserve, adapt and regenerate our industrial heritage has grown rapidly in recent

years. The development of environmental legislation which focusses on the re-use of industrial buildings

has supported this growth. Moreover, as the years have passed, further precedents have been set which

have paved the way for new adaptive re-use projects where new and innovative uses have been identified

for industrial heritage sites. The challenges that are associated with this process are extensive in nature

and are detailed further in the following chapter.

Chapter VI – The Challenges Associated with the Regeneration of Industrial Heritage

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The regeneration of industrial heritage can present a complex set of challenges for which a

cocktail of solutions is often required. With this in mind it is important to consider works to industrial

heritage individually when compared to that of the more traditional conservation projects. Industrial

buildings are commonly unique in design to suit the processes of which they have once administered and

thus may require a unique approach towards their conservation. This may include new conservation

techniques of which there may be no precedent or may call for a broad approach that combines both

traditional and modern methods of repair. The challenges that are presented by these issues can be

extensive and the essence of this is captured in the following quote by Cossons (2012) ‘Industrial heritage

is, arguably, a unique cultural discourse; it brings challenges found nowhere else in the heritage sector

and requires new answers, for there are few precedents. It is not for the faint-hearted’.

The economic effects of post-industrial decline in the past century have proved financially crippling to

many of our traditional industries and as a result, a high number of industrial heritage buildings were

either demolished or have been left to fall into disrepair. Over the course of the past fifty years, the stature

of our industrial heritage has risen in prominence and its conservation is now supported by bodies such

as Historic England, ICOMOS and TICCIH. To achieve success in the regeneration, adaptation,

conservation and repair of our industrial heritage, one must understand the challenges present and thus,

in doing so can implement measures for these to be overcome. The above bodies have assisted in doing

this through ‘growing research, international and interdisciplinary cooperation and community initiative’

(ICOMOS-TICCIH, 2012). This has subsequently contributed to a better appreciation of industrial

heritage, however the challenges that we are faced with still remain and are further described in following

text.


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Historic Perceptions

‘And did those feet in ancient time walk upon England's mountains green? And was the holy

Lamb of God On England's pleasant pastures seen? And did the Countenance Divine Shine forth upon

our clouded hills? And was Jerusalem builded here Among these dark Satanic mills?’ (Blake, 1808). This

quote is taken from ‘And Did Those Feet in Ancient Time’ which is a poem written by William Blake in

1808 and today forms part of the hymen ‘Jerusalem’. The poem references England’s ‘dark satanic mills’

a quotation which depicts the smog entrenched mass of industrial England at its peak. Historically, these

places were once a place of work where conditions were poor and the environment comprised an array of

hazards that contributed to the ill health, injury or even death of its workforce. The absence of industry

legislation during the late 18th Century maintained these conditions and kept workers’ rights to a

minimum.

Figure 5.0: Working conditions during the early age of industry (Davkor, 2012)

The Combinations Act in 1800 ruled against unionism whereby ‘any workingman who combined with

another to gain an increase in wages or a decrease in hours or who solicited anyone else to leave work’

would be sentenced to 2 months in jail or 2 months’ hard labour (Britannica, 2016). Child labour was

unregulated up until the ratification of the Health of Apprentices Act in 1802 and it was not until the

Education Act of 1880 that schooling was made compulsory for children between the ages of five and ten

(Parliament, 2016). Further developments in legislation during the past 2 centuries have most certainly


15

assisted in improving the image of industry in Britain however the preconception of earlier years is

something that cannot be forgot.

In the more recent history, the perception of industry within Britain has been heavily affected by post-

industrial decline. The economic collapse of many of our key industries has resulted in social unrest, high

levels of unemployment and severe degradation of our physical environment. In turn, one would perceive

a feeling of despair amongst the communities subjected to these issues and thus would bear no desire to

retain the buildings and sites associated with these problems. In describing these issues, Cossons (2012)

poses the question ‘why should we preserve industrial heritage’ which in the opinion of some may be a

very valid point to raise. The negative image imposed on Britain’s industrial cities as a result of post-

industrial decline is something that has needed to be addressed to achieve success in regeneration.

Figure 6.0: A photograph of a derelict pottery located on the banks of the Liverpool Leeds canal. A clear

depiction of the decline of the pottery industry in Stoke on Trent in recent times (Towle, 2016).

Since the turn of the Century, the East Manchester has strived to escape the grasps of the urban decline

that came about because of the demise of the manufacturing and extractive industries. The city of Stoke-

on-Trent, historically associated with the production of pottery, has implemented similar measures to

reverse the effects attributed to the decline in industry. Striving to remove this negative image whilst

preventing against a loss of heritage can sometimes be difficult as Rice (2010) explains ‘One of the ways


16

that life in between trips (to Stoke-on-Trent) manifested itself was in the fact that huge gaps appeared

from one week to the next as another Victorian factory fell afoul of the bulldozer. The awful wastefulness

of this must, of course, be set against the benefits of a clean-up that has eradicated much sootiness’.

The image of industrial decline during the latter part of the 20th Century is something that is synonymous

with the North of England. Historically, Britain’s most prominent industries have been located in the

North and thus have been most severely affected by the onset post-industrial decline. The differences in

output between the Northern and Southern cities has been labelled by economist as the ‘Great Divide’

and illustrated in figure 7.0 (The Economist, 2012). The economic outlook of our Northern and Southern

regions has in the past been exemplified through cinema. In the past we have seen films such as ‘The Full

Monty’ ‘Kes’ and ‘Billy Elliot’ which have portrayed a desperate image of the economic decline of Britain’s

industrial North. These perceptions may well have worked to accentuate the ‘Great Divide’ by portraying

a negative image of Northern England that has resulted in a lack of investment in recent years.

Figure 7.0: A comparison on the GVA for Northern and Southern Regions of Britain (The Economist,

2012).

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

Figure 7.0: A comparison of GVA for Northern and Southern Regions of Britain (The Economist, 2012)

Northern Regions Southern Regions


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Securing Investment Opportunities

Securing investment in industrial heritage regeneration projects can prove challenging for various

reasons. Industrial heritage buildings/sites are subject to neglect and are three times more likely to be

deemed ‘at risk’ than other categories of listed buildings/sites (Historic England, 2016). As a result of

this, the common perception (which in many cases is a reality) is that substantial investment is necessary

to achieve success in the regeneration of industrial buildings because of the level of change that is required

in restoring a viable function. When compared to the cost of a constructing a new building, the

investment capital required can be substantial which can thus limit investment options. The following

text details the most prevalent challenges in securing investment for industrial heritage regeneration

projects and makes references to case studies to support the points stated.

The Location of Industrial Heritage Sites

More often than not, industrial heritage sites are geographically located in areas of the country where

economic conditions are ‘unfavourable’ to secure investment. A report composed by Colliers

International (2011) on behalf of English Heritage found this as being a key challenge in obtaining

investment for many industrial heritage sites around the country. The absence of funding streams in the

areas that have been most severely affected by post-industrial decline in the past three decades has in many

cases made it difficult to regenerate our industrial heritage. The link between the collapse of our industries

and social, economic and environmental deprivation is demonstrated in figure 8.0 which shows the

geographical locations of five of the UK’s most prominent industries compared against the locations of

the country’s most severely deprived communities. One can draw obvious comparisons from this when

correlating the two and thus can appreciate the difficulties that are apparent when striving to secure

funding for industrial heritage regeneration works.

A prime example of the above can be seen within the proposals for the regeneration of the Grimsby Ice

Factory in North East Lincolnshire. The building is an early 20th Century example of a Victorian ice

production factory (see figure 9.0) and is described by Historic England as being the most important

example of industrial scale fishing in the UK (Great Grimsby Ice Factor Trust, 2016). With limited private

investment opportunities in the area, the Great Grimsby Ice Factory trust (a registered charity formed to

save the building) have been pursuing a £11 million HLF funding grant to regenerate the building and

create a multipurpose facility for the local community. In 2014 the funding bid was rejected and as such

the building remains in a state of disrepair to date. The absence of further investment avenues to pursue

has drawn a holt to the regeneration of the Ice Factory and it seems that the building’s fate lies solely in

the hands of the Heritage Lottery fund at this stage.


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Figure 8.0: A British map demonstrating the link between the locations of traditional industries and levels of deprivation in the UK (Towle, 2016).


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Figure 9.0: A photograph of the exterior of the Grimsby Ice Factory taken from the Dock side (Towle, 2015)

Repair Costs

As previously stated, industrial heritage buildings are subject to neglect and as such can require extensive repair during their regeneration. The necessity for this

extensive repair scope to reinstate functionality can be complicated and is likely to require input from a specialist conservation design team. With evidence to show

that the heritage industry is in the midst of a shortage in skilled labour (English Heritage, 2014) the effects of this on the overall cost of a project can deter interest

from potential investors. The sheer size and scale of many industrial heritage sites can amplify these costs to levels that prove ineffective in comparison to new

build schemes and as a result investment opportunities are lost. Take Battersea power station for example, a once coal fired power station that supplied London

with electricity until its closure in 1983 (Historic England, 2016). A site with an area of over 470,000 square meters (Battersea Powerstation, 2016) that has been

subject to a number of failed regeneration schemes in recent years. The current redevelopment scheme is funded by Malaysian Consortium S P Setia Berhad, Sime

Darby, and Employees Provident Fund and is predicted to cost around £8 billion to complete (Battersea Power Station, 2016). One would assume that if it were

not for the prime location of the site (in central London) the scale and associated project costs would render this scheme unachievable.


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Adaptation Costs

Restoring functionality to a historic industrial building is often very difficult because of the level of change

that may be required to achieve this objective. It is important to remember that these buildings were

designed and built to serve a purpose in industry and introducing a new use can first and foremost be a

difficult task to achieve without implementing drastic change to the buildings fabric. In doing so, one

may run the risk of inadvertently affecting the features of the building that make it significant in the first

place. Implementing change to industrial heritage can be a lengthy and costly process and as is stated by

Colliers (2011) can add to the difficulties of securing investment to fund regeneration works.

Heritage Industry Skills Gap/Shortage

In securing investment for specialist heritage works it is important from an investors perspective to have

the correct design team on board to deliver the project. This can prove difficult in the current climate as

there is evidence to suggest that the historic environment sector is currently experiencing skills

gaps/shortages thus causing industry costs to rise. One would refer to the English Heritage Intelligence

Team Assessment Report (2014) that suggests potential skills gaps/shortages in the following areas of the

sector:

(Note: For the purpose of this report the definition of a ‘skills shortage’ is where ‘there aren’t enough

suitably skilled individuals in the workplace’ and the definition of a ‘skills gap’ is where ‘existing workforce

members have lower skills levels than are necessary to meet the business’ or industry objectives, (English

Heritage, 2014)).

Archaeology Labour:

A serious skills shortage was identified in post field-work analysis

Significant skills shortages were identified in fieldwork (invasive or

non‐ invasive); artefact or ecofact conservation and in information

technology.

Significant skills gaps were identified in post‐fieldwork analysis;

fieldwork (invasive or non-invasive); information technology; people

management; and in project management.


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Repair, Maintenance and Retrofit of Traditional Buildings Workforce:

The research within the survey noted the poor economic climate (2014) as causing an effect on

the demand for skills, the supply of skills and the provision of training.

Built Heritage Sector Professionals:

Skills shortages are most prevalent among architects and engineers,

and considered very severe by 80% of building professionals.

Concern exists that there will be inadequate numbers of suitably

knowledgeable younger recruits to take over as experienced

professionals retire.

The cost of commissioning conservation-accredited professionals was

mentioned as being prohibitive by some stockholders.

In digesting the above information, it is worth noting that the industrial heritage sector is again a specialist

division of the historic environment sector as a whole. Taking account of this, one would assume that the

skills gaps/shortages stated above would be intensified relative to industrial heritage regeneration because

of the specialist nature of this area of the industry.

Associated Risk Element

Taking account of the above would infer that capital investment in industrial heritage regeneration

schemes can have associated risks that are not apparent when compared to conventional heritage projects

or new build schemes. In summarising these risks, one is drawn back to the factor of change. Changing a

building’s function from an industrial use to residential or commercial use is a complicated process that,

in the case of industrial heritage, requires additional measures which are not apparent in conventional

regeneration projects. To further develop the above one notes requirements for decontamination to

remove the environmental hazards that are associated with past industrial processes. The need to meet

the requirements of modern regulations in buildings that often have no capacity to do so and all without

compromising the character of the building. Again, one would look to Battersea Powerstation as an

example of the complexity involved in changing a building to meet the requirements of the modern era.

The four great chimney pillars which stand at either corner of the main building, a ‘bold statement of the

industrial design and power’ (Purcell, 2016), are in the process of being dismantled and rebuilt due to a

failure in their design. This process will involve substantial change to the building and an associated loss

of fabric however it is seen by designers as a necessity to achieve the objectives of the scheme.


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It is unique challenges similar to the above that have resulted in the average estimated conservation deficit

(cost of repair in excess of the end value) of industrial buildings at risk being more than twice that of non-

industrial listed buildings (TICCIH UK, 2015). Bearing this in mind along with the other associated risks

of industrial heritage regeneration, one can see the difficulties in securing the investment necessary to

deliver these types of projects.


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The Challenges Associated with Repair

Neglect and Extent of Repairs

The repair of industrial heritage buildings can be problematic due to the ramifications of prolonged levels of neglect. The restraints on repair funding

coupled with other attributing factors can intensify the issues that are commonly associated with industrial heritage and thus can result in buildings that exist in a

state of severe disrepair. One would refer back to the proposals on going at the Grimsby Ice Factory as an exemplar of neglect and the extent of repairs that are

often required to bring a historic industrial building back into use. As is shown within figure 10.0 the building’s roof is highly defective and sits open to the

elements. This has allowed water to penetrate into the fabric of the building over time which has increased the rate of decline of the building’s extant.

Figure 10.0: A photograph of the Grimsby Ice Factory showing the current condition of the building’s roof (Towle, 2015).


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The Ice Factory has sat derelict since its closure in 1990 (GGIFT, 2016) and has suffered due to lack of

maintenance. The severity of decline of the buildings most vulnerable components is shown in figure

11.0 where one can see the effects of corrosion damage due to water ingress. The unmaintained ferrous

metal structure has begun to corrode which has imposed loadings onto the adjacent brickwork causing

substantial fracturing of the building’s walls. This is an inherent defect of steel framed buildings, more

commonly known as ‘Regent Street Disease’ (Broomfield, 2016). The first photograph also shows

evidence of the poor quality of repair works which have been carried out to remedy the project in recent

years. A cement based mortar has been applied to fill the fractures that have been caused by the corrosion

of the steelwork, however, it seems that this has only worked to mask the problem and has not addressed

the route cause. One can only assume that the extent of works required to properly remedy the issue may

have deterred the proprietor from addressing the defect at its route.

On review of the building’s extant one can see reoccurring defects which are present throughout. The

repairs scope is substantial and has been estimated by Purcell Miller Tritton to be in excess of £4.8m at

the time of survey in 2010. Further degradation over the past six and a half years coupled with inflation

will have no doubt caused these costs to rise again. The sharp decline in the condition of the Ice Factory

has contributed towards its inclusion in the Victorian Society’s top 10 endangered buildings and also the

World Monument Fund’s ‘under threat’ watch list. This has increased awareness of the importance of

the Ice Factory amongst the wider public, however, the building stands derelict to this day and without

substantial investment it’s future remains uncertain.

Figure 11.0: A photograph showing a recurring defect in the fabric of the Grimsby Ice Factory (Towle, 2015)


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The extensive scale of industrial heritage sites is often a common characteristic, necessary to meet the

requirements of their function. This is evident again when referring back to Battersea Power Station. The

site’s extant covers forty-two acres of South West London (Battersea Power Station, 2016) and thus

comprises an extensive repairs scope to meet the objectives of the redevelopment scheme. The remedial

works range from structural steel repairs and corrosion prevention to the conservation of historic control

room apparatus.

Figure 12.0: A photograph showing the extent of existing structural steelwork at BPS (PAYE, 2015)

The implementation of such a varied and extensive scope of works can present obvious difficulties to

designers. As previously mentioned, the conservation, repair and regeneration of industrial heritage is

still a relatively new concept and there are few precedents because of this. Battersea Power Station is an

industrial heritage regeneration project on a scale that will set a precedent in itself and will present

unprecedented design challenges in doing so.


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Complexity of Repair/Conservation Works

Giving considerations to the above, it is fair to say that to deliver a project such as Battersea Power Station

requires input from a highly skilled and adaptable design team. Conservation works to buildings of this

nature can be very different to that of conventional historic buildings and can be difficult to implement.

This is noted by Cossons (2011) ‘The techniques of preservation and conservation built up over many

years in the wider historic sector do not necessarily meet the demands of industrial heritage’. Battersea

Power Station is rife with these conservation anomalies and a prime example of this is apparent within

the proposals for the conservation works to the inside of Control Room A:

Figure 13.0: A collage of the fixtures and fittings as existing to the inside of Control Room A at BPS (PAYE, 2016)

The works comprise insitu cleaning, repair and restoration to the internal fixtures & fittings, Faience

ceiling components and Crittal windows. Over 30 years of neglect has allowed for the build-up of

corrosion and detritus which has left the inner components of the room in a state of disrepair. The

sequence of works (as stated by PAYE, 2016) will begin with initial surveys to allow for the compilation

of existing record drawings and condition schedules. Careful cleaning works will then follow to remove

the layers of dust and corrosion which will expose the bare surfaces of the internal metalwork, glazing and

Faience. On inspection of the bare surfaces, the design team will determine the extent of repairs that are

necessary to restore the structural integrity of each of the components in question. The final stage of the

works will include the reapplication of gilded or painted surfaces where required with the aim of restoring

the aesthetical value of the components that make up the inside of the control room (PAYE, 2016).


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Figure 14.0: A collage showing the Faience ceilings and Crittal windows of Control Room A at BPS (PAYE,

2016).

Cathodic Protection

Industrial Heritage buildings are commonly of Victorian design in that they are built with a combination

of ferrous metal and clay brickwork. This design element in most cases contributes to the rate in which

they decline, particularly when left unmaintained. The design of such buildings is specific to suit the

processes which they have once administered and this can result in unique building components that are

difficult to conserve. The main building at Battersea Power Station is of steel framed design (see figure

14.0) that comprises ferrous metal components which interface with brickwork façades and reinforced

concrete roofs (Buro Happold, 2013 – p7). The problems that exist relative to this design are apparent

throughout the building’s extant and as such, a holistic conservation approach is necessary. A Cathodic

Protection System is to be installed across the main building facades with the aim of preventing further

corrosion to the steelwork and the issues that arise as a consequence of this.


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Figure 15.0: A 3D model of the existing steel frame at Battersea Power Station (Buro Happold, 2013 – p7)

The complexity of achieving the objectives of the Cathodic Protection system are apparent, bearing in

mind that Battersea Power Station is the largest brick building Europe (Battersea Power Station, 2016)

the scale of the task is considerable. Again, implementing these remedial works will require a design and

build team with a very specific set of skills and will prove pivotal in the success of the redevelopment

scheme as a whole.

Design Objectives

Whilst defining the extent of the scope of repairs required to a historic industrial building, it is important

to consider the design objectives of the project. The scope of repair works may change drastically

depending on the aims and objectives of the scheme and the proposed function of the building at

handover. This is something that is apparent when comparing the recent works completed at Middleport

Pottery against the Battersea scheme. The Middleport projects objectives included the ‘renovation of the

at-risk building fabric, reclaiming abandoned and uninhabitable spaces to house new businesses and

visitor facilities’ as well as ‘improving visitor access and education facilities allowing the people of Burslem

to reconnect with their industrial heritage’ (Fielden Clegg Bradley Studios, 2014). To achieve these


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objectives, the project architects were able to maintain a relatively ‘light touch approach’ towards the

works, something which is mentioned in the Fielden Clegg Bradley Studios Video ‘Mending the Factory’

(2014). Head project architect Tim Greensmith describes how intervention was kept to a very minimum,

to the areas where it was deemed as being ‘absolutely essential’ to achieve the objectives of the project. In

comparison to the project requirements at Battersea Power Station, a building that will be home to almost

two and a half million square feet of retail, commercial and residential space, one can see that the

difficulties in implementing a ‘light touch’ approach across the board.


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Environmental Challenges

The nature of industrial heritage sites is so that more often than not there are environmental

challenges to overcome during regeneration works. Many of our most prominent industries rely upon the

processing of natural resources to produce an end product and in doing so can cause detrimental effects

to the natural environment. The relationship between industrialisation and our natural environment is

one of prerequisite characteristics with one acting as a driver towards the other. Since the beginning of

the Industrial Revolution, Britain and much of the world has been powered by energy produced through

the burning of fossil fuels such as coal, gas and oil. The burning of coal to produce steam was instrumental

in the invention of the steam engine by Thomas Newcomen in 1710 (Newcomen, 2011). The invention

of the Newcomen engine allowed for an increase in output within the extractive industries enabling coal

to be mined at a deeper depth. Subsequent to this, James Watt had engineered Newcomen’s design to

increase its efficiency and in the years that followed, the use of the steam engine for industrial purposes

increased greatly throughout industry (Black, 2015). An early example of a steam powered factory can be

seen at the Sir Richard Arkwright Masson Mills where a combination of steam and water was used as

means of power which is said to have resulted in the invention of the power loom by Edmund Cartwright

in 1785 (BBC, 2014).

Atmospheric Pollution

It is processes such as these that have been instrumental in the development and subsequent decline of

many of our key industries and the tangible evidence of this is visible in the fabric of our surviving

industrial heritage. Figure 16.0 below is of the streetscape of early 20th Century Stoke-on-Trent and is a

visual representation of the pollution caused by the burning of coal to fuel the pottery industry:

Figure 16.0: The polluted air of Stoke-on-Trent as a result of the potteries circa 1900 (The Potteries, 2011).


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On review of figure 16.0 one can begin to appreciate the environmental implications of British industry

at its peak. The soot created from the burning of coal resonates in the air for a period of time before it

settles on the surrounding built environment. Pre-1956 and the introduction of the ‘Clean Air Act’, coal

was burned on a grand scale for both domestic and commercial purposes and the effects on the built

environment were substantial. PAYE (2014) notes the impacts of atmospheric pollution through the

burning of coal in the following quotation ‘City Centre’s used to be black with soot from the burning of

coal. I’ve been told by people living in London at the time (1920’s) that seeing a clean building for the

first time had a large impact as not many people could recall the original building appearance nor the

colours of the brick and stone beneath the soot’. The effects of this on the immediate and greater built

environment are evident when analysis existing fabric up close. Figure 17.0 is a photograph taken from

PAYE (2014) which shows ‘the heavily polluted brick facades of Battersea Power Station’ before the

commencement of cleaning works in 2014.

Figure 17.0: Encrusted surface deposits on the main façade of Battersea Power Station (PAYE, 2014)

The figure is a close up image of what is thought to be ‘hydrocarbon deposits’ which are likely to have

built whilst the Power Station was at its height, burning coal on mass to supply London with electricity.

The acidity of such deposits can accelerate the deterioration of certain building elements by forming a

thick black crust on the material’s surface which accelerates the depletion of its binder resulting in failure.


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Further building defects can be identified at Battersea Power Station which have emerged from exposure

to high levels of atmospheric pollution in the building’s lifetime. Figure 18.0 is a collage of a number of

different defects that have occurred as a consequence of the industrial processes that have been carried

out at Battersea in the past. The accompanying table in figure 18.0A describes the origin of each of the

surface deposits shown within the photograph.

Figure 18.0: Photographs of process related building defects at Battersea Power Station (Purcell, 2014).

Photograph Description of Surface Deposit

1 The first photograph (top left hand side) shows oil staining which is visible on the external

brickwork façade which is said to have been caused as a result of oil pipes leaking locally across

the East elevation of the building.

2 Photograph no. 2 (top right hand side) is efflorescence present from the leaching of salts during

water percolation through the brickwork

3 Photograph no. 3 (bottom left hand side) shows an area of Gypsum build up which was

contained in the mortar mix but has been caused to crystalize as a result of its exposure to the

Sulphuric Acid produced during the washing of exhaust gasses.

4 The final photograph positioned on the bottom right hand side is of an area of sulphur staining

thought to emanate from the washing process inside the towers. The sulphuric acid is produced

internally during this process and have leached through the mortar and has resonated on the

face of the brickwork.

Figure 18.0A: A table describing each of the surface defects shown in figure 18.0 (Purcell, 2014)


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Figure 19.0: An image showing surface staining on the central range brickwork at Middleport Potter

(Towle, 2015).

The extent of defects can vary amongst industrial heritage sites and will depend on the levels of

atmospheric pollution imposed on these buildings and consequentially the type of industry in question.

Figures 17.0 and 18.0 demonstrate that the main facades at Battersea Power Station have been subjected

to chemical processes that have taken their toll on the building’s fabric. Figure 19.0 below is a photograph

of the central ranges at Middleport Pottery in Staffordshire and when compared with figures relative to

Battersea, one can see the familiarities. The brickwork is largely covered with hydrocarbon build up that

is derived from the carbon omissions of one of the factory’s many chimneys during its lifetime. There is

also evidence of efflorescence damage and oil staining on left hand range as was present in the Battersea

photographs.


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The severity of these defects is often subjective and can vary depending on the ethos of the designers

involved in regeneration works. As was the case for Middleport Pottery, it is not uncommon for a

‘minimum intervention approach’ to be adopted towards addressing the issue of surface deposits. At

Battersea Power Station, the cleaning strategy is a little more robust as it was determined that the building

had surpassed its ‘patina of age’ with the condition of the main facades bearing more towards a ‘patina

of neglect’ as is shown in figure 20.0.

Figure 20.0: An image taken from the cleaning strategy report at Battersea Power Station showing the

condition of the facades (Purcell, 2014).

The challenge for designers is determining a level of cleaning that proves beneficial to the building whilst

also meeting the objectives of the project stakeholders, which can often be a difficult compromise to

judge. From the point of view of a conservationist, the preservation of such patina can retain an

appearance of antiquity (Purcell, 2014) and can illustrate the story of a building. From a contrary

perspective, one may perceive such ‘patina’ to be unsightly and could give preference to a more aggressive

approach towards the conservation of the building.

Asbestos

Asbestos is a product which rose to prominence for industrial usage towards the latter part of the 19th

Century. McCallum (2016) notes companies in Glasgow and the Clydesdale shipyards as being amongst

the first to develop asbestos products in the 1870s. The prominent use of asbestos from the late 19th to

the late 20th Century is described by McCallum who states that the material was utilized in abundance in

ship building and other industries alike. The material characteristics of asbestos make it perfect for use in

industry and as such, it became commonplace as a construction material in many industrial buildings


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during this period of time. On analysis of the Keltbray Asbestos report for Battersea Power Station, it is

clear that there is asbestos present in abundance around the site. Figure 21.0 below shows a plan view of

the seventh floor of the main building where asbestos is present across the whole of the West elevation

(see areas hatched in red):

Figure 21.0: A plan view of the 7th floor at Battersea Power Station showing the presence of Asbestos across

the West of the site (Keltbray, 2014)

The Asbestos report follows on to detail a number of areas where Asbestos containing materials (ACM’s)

are present throughout the building. A few examples of said areas are control Room A as (as detailed

within PAYE Control Room Repairs Specification, 2016) The Dust Bunker, Tippler house, South West

Wash Tower and so on. Considering the age and function of the building, one would assume the presence

of asbestos which in turn creates environmental issues for its removal. Although this is to be expected,

the scale of the site at Battersea has amplified the issue and has made the task of removing, controlling

or managing the asbestos much more difficult.

Lead Paint

The treatment and removal of lead paint in industrial heritage buildings presents environmental

challenges (similar to the above) during redevelopment or regeneration works. SPAB (2009) notes the


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characteristics of lead paint as being highly breathable, durable to an unrivalled extent and ‘texture, depth

of colour and mellow appearance when compared to modern alternatives’. The report follows on to detail

the most prominent drawback of lead paint as being its toxicity which becomes an issue during

‘inappropriate treatment or removal’. When lead paint is sanded or removed via abrasive methods, spores

are released into the environment which, if ingested can prove highly toxic to humans (SPAB, 2009).

There is evidence of the widespread use of lead paint at Battersea Power Station which is something that

is described in more detail in the Lead Paint Hazard Assessment Report (2016) carried out by Life

Environmental Services on Behalf Skanska who are currently acting as the main contractor for the project.

The report states that ‘Lead has been identified in representative paintwork samples throughout all

accessible areas of Battersea Power Station’ and instructs its removal to areas that are in a poor condition

or that are subject to disturbance as a result of the redevelopment works being carried out.

Considering all of the above, it is fair to say that the nature of industrial heritage draws a necessity for

buildings and structures with longevity and durability to withstand the functions of which they

administer. This coupled with the fact that the construction of many of these buildings pre-dates the

ratification of legislation that would now prohibit the implementation of processes detrimental to the

environment, the likelihood of experiencing such environmental challenges is high. This is proven when

reviewing the primary data described above.


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Associated Challenges of Adaptive Re-use

Industrial Heritage buildings in general were constructed in such a way to serve a specific

industrial purpose and in turn are designed to suit this. They are functional to meet the requirements of

the industries of which they have served and it is for this reason why they are often difficult to adapt to

suit new and more modern functions. Adaptive re-use is a term which describes this change of function

and is a staple requirement of industrial heritage regeneration because the industries that these buildings

once served are, in many cases now defunct. Fragner (2012, p110) notes adaptive re-use as ‘a tool with

which to preserve threatened values and drive sustainable development’, this being said, it is likely to

bring about a wealth of challenges that must be overcome to achieve success during implementation.

Fragner (2012) suggests a key principle of achieving this success is to limit interventions to an extent

‘which does not efface the assets that led to the decision to conserve the industrial site in the first place’.

This suggests that there must be a balance between achieving the objectives of these interventions whilst

maintaining the character of the building, which can be a difficult task.

Managing Change

The changes which are implemented during adaptive re-use present a new aesthetic to a building and

consequentially can introduce a new physical form. Initially this may result in a loss of fabric or original

material but in doing this effects the ‘sense of place’ of the site. The memory of the original function of

an industrial building is portrayed through its fabric and associated machinery or equipment and when

these items are removed from their original setting this memory becomes fragmented or ‘torn from their

physical context’ Fragner (2012, p113). It is these elements that provide the link to the intangible heritage

of the building or site and implementing change to the function of these elements will more than likely

change the ‘sense of place’ of the site for better or worse. The ‘High Line’ in New York City is a perfect

example of how the sense of place of an industrial heritage site can be transformed by a change of

function. The High Line was built in 1934 (Friends of the High Line, 2016) to carry goods more efficiently

through New York’s city blocks to Manhattan’s industrial district. It’s closure (1980’s) and subsequent

redevelopment as a public park was implemented by a community led organisation named ‘Friends of the

High Line’. One could say that the level of change to the High Line is variable and in some ways subjective.

Physically, in many areas, the form of the structure has remained constant and without irreversible and

physical change, however, both aesthetically and functionally the railway line is very different (as shown

in Figure 22.0). Fragner (2011) refers to the High Line as being as a ‘symbolic edifice’ or ‘beacon’ where

the information conveyed has been ‘torn from its historical context’.


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Figure 22.0: Images of the New York High Line (Shatterspeak.net, 2014)

As stated, achieving the balance between intervention and retention can be a challenge and is often relative to the objectives of the project. Information taken

from the friends of the High Line website demonstrates that the primary objective of the scheme was the retention of the structure itself against demolition, which

in turn created recreational opportunities that have contributed to the regeneration of the area. With this being the key objective, one may assume that the

principle behind its retention may be to minimise change to the structure and the resulting loss of heritage that would occur as a result of this. It is clear that the

new function has achieved this, however it can be much more difficult to adopt such an approach when the primary objectives of the project are dissimilar to this.

Taking Middleport Pottery as a comparison, one can see the similarities in that the core objectives of the project were to repair the factory, save the jeopardised

jobs of existing employees, create additional jobs and kick start the regeneration of the surrounding town (Fielden Clegg Bradley Studios, 2016). Within both


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schemes the level of physical change to the building/structural fabric was kept to a minimum but there

were radical differences in the functionality of each of the sites. The High Line has retained a high degree

of its original fabric but is being used for a recreational function as opposed to a mechanism of industrial.

With Middleport, the building’s function has been maintained as a working factory but has been adapted

locally to meet the requirements of the project objectives. When further comparisons are made with the

project at Battersea Power Station, again one can see differences with this scheme. Judging by the scope

of works (which is largely centred around the construction of residential and commercial real estate) one

could assume that the scheme is driven more by commercial incentives when compared with the previous

examples and thus, it could be said that the building is more susceptible to change to meet these

incentives. Fragner (2011) eludes to this and identifies the roles of the project stakeholders as a catalyst

for the fate of an industrial heritage project ‘Another difference today relates to the social roles of the

professions that execute conversion projects; investors, including newly anonymous developers, with no

personal relationship to the resulting use, equipped with aggressive techniques; architects trained more

in designing structures from scratch’.

Identifying a New Function

The key principle behind adaptive re-use involves ‘the conversion of a building, site or precinct from one

use to another’ (Heritage Council of Victoria, 2013). When this principle is applied to industrial heritage,

naturally there are challenges that must be overcome because of the level of change which is often required

to adapt an industrial building to suit a new function. Expanding further on these principles, it is said

that ‘where the site being reused has heritage value the new use should support the ongoing interpretation

and understanding of that heritage while also accommodating new functions’ (Heritage Council of

Victoria, 2013). In doing so building proprietors often look towards heritage tourism as a means of

supporting the interpretation of the site whilst also generating an income to sustain it.

Although this is a common approach to adaptive re-use it can often prove challenging, particularly relative

to industrial heritage which is a more selective sector of the heritage industry. For example, an internet

search of the twenty most popular tourist attractions in London shows only one industrial heritage site,

this being the Tate Modern (Google, 2016). Built by Gilbert Scott, the Tate Modern is based in the former

Bankside Power Station and holds the national collection of British art dated from 1900 onwards (Tate,

2008). The building can be seen as being a relatively successful example of industrial heritage regeneration

however, as with the New York High Line, the function of the building has changed drastically to ensure

its sustenance into the future.


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Fundamentally, the Tate modern is an art gallery as opposed to a tourist attraction geared towards the

exhibition of its own heritage. The evidence shows that public demand for industrial heritage tourist

attractions is relatively low and as such one can begin to appreciate the difficulties in adapting a building

solely for this use. For the case studies that have been reviewed for this project, it would seem that in most

cases there is a trend for adapting an industrial heritage site to a mixed use development. This approach

provides several avenues that together can meet the principle requirements of an industrial heritage

regeneration project. Reverting back to the proposals for the redevelopment works to the Grimsby Ice

Factory, it was determined by the project stakeholders that the building would benefit from a mix of uses

which included a climbing wall, microbrewery and also an element that was dedicated to the heritage

attraction itself (GGIFT, 2012). The approach towards the works carried out at Middleport Pottery was

the same in that the scheme retained the main building as a working factory as well a serving as a museum

together with a café, visitor centre and pottery shop. Following a visit to site it was evident that the works

had met the requirements of the brief stated by the project architects, Fielden Clegg Bradley Studios. The

costs of the project were in excess of £9 million (Fielden Clegg Bradley Studios, 2016) which focused on

improving the environmental performance of the building whilst conserving the historic factory and

developing the buildings extant to create further commercial opportunities which would sustain the

building’s future. In 2015 the project was awarded national recognition by RIBA for its contribution to

the regeneration of the area and success in conservation practice (RIBA, 2015).

Figure 23.0: A collage showing photos taken on a trip to Middleport Pottery showing evidence of the

regeneration works to the building (Towle, 2015).


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Balancing Sustainable and Intervention Initiatives

Adaptive re-use is in itself a sustainable concept in a number of ways but primarily from an environmental

aspect it optimises the embodied energy of an existing building and thus limits requirements for the

depletion of new energy and natural resources. The essence of this is captured in the following quotation

by The Australian Greenhouse Office (2012, p8) ‘the reuse of building materials usually involves a saving

of approximately 95 per cent of embodied energy that would otherwise be wasted’. The social benefits of

Adaptive Re-use have been mentioned earlier in the document and are echoed within the following

quotation by the Heritage Council of Victoria (2013, p8) ‘The adaptive reuse of heritage buildings is

increasingly valued for the contribution it can make to sustainability initiatives. This can be understood

in terms of social sustainability – supporting and developing communities, retaining memory and other

social advantages’. This being said, achieving these initiatives can be difficult and can often jeopardise the

character of a building or result in a loss of heritage. This is particularly evident when adapting a building

or site to meet the environmental requirements of Building Regulations.

Part L of the Building Regulations (2010) is the document that governs the conservation of fuel and

power in all buildings within the UK. Although many listed buildings are exempt from complying with

these regulations during works, when a building is being adapted for a new use this is not the case. Historic

England (2015, p11) states that the requirements stated in Part L of the Building Regulations (2010) are

triggered when ‘a building is to be subjected to a change of use or a change of energy status. A change of

use or energy status occurs when a new dwelling is created or an existing dwelling is changed to certain

other uses’. It is fair to say that meeting these requirements during the adaptation of a historic industrial

building can be a difficult task. For example, the U Value for a standard solid brick wall (one brick thick

or 215mm) is 2.1W/m2K (BRE, 2014) and the parameters of the document state a maximum U Value

for a wall of 0.30W/m2K (Part L of the Building Regulations, 2010). This exceeds the required U values

by almost seven times and consequently creates a need for drastic change to enable these values to be met.

These changes may include the application of thermal insulation systems or alterations to the wall that

result in a physical change to the aesthetics of the building. Implementing these changes can bring about

a potential loss of heritage from both a tangible and intangible perspective and it is the task of designers

to finely balance these elements to produce a favourable result from all sides. These difficulties are

inherent in most industrial regeneration projects and again, the extent of this problem is often dependent

on the objectives of the project.

An example of a scheme that has successfully mitigated such issues is Salts Mill and the workers’ colony

in Saltaire, Bradford. Fragner (2011) describes how in the late 1980’s, the factory stood in a state of decay

until it was purchased by a local businessman and art collector. Instead of implementing a drastic


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redevelopment scheme and the subsequent intervention and reconstruction that would have followed,

the proprietor opened an art gallery which allowed for a minimum intervention approach to be adopted.

The suitability of industrial buildings for use within the creative industries was discussed in length during

the 2015 Industrial Heritage Conference administered by Historic England, HLF and the Princes

Regeneration Trust. A key topic of the conference was the opportunities present for optimising industrial

heritage for use within the creative industries, a sector which contributes £76.9billion per year to the UK

economy (Department for Culture, Media & Sport, 2015). The Colliers/English Heritage report

‘Encouraging Investment in Industrial Heritage at Risk’ (2011) refers to these opportunities and

emphasises the suitability of industrial heritage to the requirements of the creatives industries where a

‘minimalist’ design approach is often preferred. Salts Mill is an early example of how industrial heritage

sites can be used in this way and in is seen to have set a precedent for the numerous projects of a similar

nature that have followed since.

Chapter VII – Conclusion

43

On review of the above, one’s initial considerations are drawn to the impact that industrialisation has

had on our built environment in the past three Centuries. Considering the facts, it is clear that the rise

of British industry has changed our landscapes substantially and the buildings that remain continue to

play an important role in the development of our economy. Dramatic as the arrival of industrialisation

may have been, equal considerations must also be given to the impact of its demise. The effects of post-

industrial decline were crippling to many of our towns and cities built on industry and the degradation

of the buildings attributed to it has amplified this decay. However, in the more recent history we have

seen the stature of industrial heritage regeneration grow and with this we have seen examples of innovative

adaptive re-use for buildings that were once at the core of urban and physical decline. In many ways,

industrial heritage has travelled full cycle from the steady collapse of our industries towards the end of

the 20th Century to an era where it is being utilised as a driver towards regeneration.

This being said, the information stated has shown that achieving success in the regeneration of our

industrial heritage can prove a challenge in ways that may not be apparent relative to conventional

regeneration projects. The case studies reviewed herein have shown evidence of severe levels of neglect

within industrial heritage architecture that have stood to deter potential regeneration works. It seems that

the requirement of funding is paramount as a means by which to overcome these challenges and can be

difficult to obtain in certain circumstances.

The inherent characteristics of industrial heritage sites are seen to have both positive and negative impacts

on potential regeneration works. The extent and scale of repair scope due to the size of some sites is an

issue. As noted above, this coupled with the effects of severe levels of neglect can cause project costs to

escalate to unsustainable levels to the extent where if were it not for external funding streams, projects

would be rendered impossible. Although, the degree to which these effects are an issue is shown to be

subjective and dependent on the ethos of the project designers. Analysing past case studies shows the

design of industrial heritage architecture as suiting a minimalist approach in conservation and adaptive

re-use. The projects at Middleport Pottery and Salts Mill demonstrate this.

Finally, one is drawn to the challenge of managing change within industrial heritage regeneration and the

importance of this process in the success of a scheme. In the case studies reviewed, this process is shown

as being variable subject to the objectives of the project. Although, it is felt that by maintaining a

conservative approach towards change, one can retain the intangible heritage of the site whilst also

achieving a sustainable function suitable to the modern era. Evidence of this approach is seen within the

works that have been carried out to the New York High Line.

Chapter VII – Conclusion

44

It would be fair to say that the process of managing change and subsequently controlling a loss of heritage

is particularly important in terms of industrial heritage sites because of the degree of intangible heritage

that is captured therein. As is stated by Cossons (2012) industrial heritage contains evidential value that

‘reflects activities that had and continue to have profound historical consequences’. The impact of these

activities on the course of history is considerable to the extent where the notion of its retention must be

held with the highest of regards.

Chapter VIII – Limitations and Recommendations

45

Initially, one can state a project limitation as being the focus area of site that were predominantly

in the UK. It is noted within the project that there are currently forty-five industrial sites/landscapes

globally which are enlisted by UNESCO as being World Heritage sites with only eight of these located

within the Britain. Unfortunately, it was impossible to obtain first-hand information from these sites with

all of the primary data included herein being restricted to projects within the UK. To obtain a more

comprehensive view on the challenges of regenerating industrial heritage, it would be prudent to obtain

primary information on projects which have been carried out further afield for further comparison with

the above.

Within the project emphasis was also placed on the project currently being carried out at Battersea Power

Station. As stated within the text, the project at Battersea is unique because of its size and scale and with

the completion of works scheduled for 2020 it is impossible to judge the success of the scheme until this

point. With this in mind, to justify the information stated therein, it would be sensible to make further

assessments once the project is handed over for completion.

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