1

Abstract:ThisdissertationexaminedtheimpactofEnglandontheearlytragediesoftheeighteenth

centuryFrenchwriterandphilosopherVoltaireashedescribeditinhisprosework“Letters

ConcerningtheEnglishNation.”ThisdissertationaddressedspecificallythemannerinwhichVoltaire

madeuseofhiscollectiveknowledgeofthestrengthsandweaknessesofFrenchandEnglishtragic

theatretraditionsinordertoreinvigorateFrenchclassicaltragedy.

ThisquestionoftheinfluencesofEnglandonVoltaire’stragedieshadcertainlybeenaddressed

before,howevernostudyhadattemptedtoexaminetheprogressioninthethreeplayschosenfor

thisdissertation.WithoneplaywrittenbeforeVoltairewenttoEngland(Œdipe1718),oneduring

(Brutus1730),andoneshortlyafter(Zaïre1732),itwassignificantthatŒdipeandZaïrewereboth

amongstVoltaire’smostsuccessfultragediesdespitethefactthatonewasheavilyinfluencedby

Voltaire’sEnglishexperiencesandtheotherwaswrittenwhenhehadvirtuallynoknowledgeofthis

othertradition.MyresearchhighlightedamarkeddeclineininterestinVoltaire’stheatreinthelast

century.Theatre,particularlytragictheatre,wasconsideredthehighestartformineighteenth

centuryFrance,thusthisdeclinepresentedaworryinglackofinterestinwhatVoltairewouldhave

consideredtohavebeenhismostimportantwork.

Thisdissertationmadeuseofclose-readingtechniques,withtheseplaysbeinganalysedin

chronologicalorderinordertodeterminetheextenttowhichtheyshowedsignsofbeinginfluenced

byEnglishideasandpracticesasdetailedin“Letters.”Focusingprimarilyonthetreatmentofthe

centralthematicconflictineachplay,thisdissertationsuccessfullydemonstratedhowVoltairewas

abletoimproveonwhatheunderstoodtobethedeficienciesofFrenchtheatrethroughhis

experienceofEnglishpracticeswithoutlosingtheessentialstrengthoftheFrenchtradition.

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“LiberatingtheTragicGenre:HowEnglandImpactsonVoltarianAmbitions.”

Introduction:

ResearchintoVoltaire’splayshasdeclinedsignificantlyinrecentdecadesinfavourofhis

proseworks,yetVoltairedeclaredthat‘DetouslesartsquenouscultivonsenFrance,l’art

delatragédie[…]c’estceluidanslequellesFrançaissontlesplusdistingués.’1Thisdecline

reflectscontemporarytastes,foramasteryofdramawasessentialforanywriter

determinedtoprovetheirworthineighteenth-centuryFrance.Willemsdiscussesthe

paradoxthatVoltaire,whogainedstatusthroughtheatreandlostitthroughhis

philosophicalprosewritings,isnowrememberedforhisproseworkswithhisplays

essentiallyforgotten.2AsDelmasmakesclear,‘depuisladécennie1630lethéâtreest

devenuundivertissementdequalité’and‘unlieuoùl’onsemontre.’3Thus,asignificant

portionofVoltaire’sworkshavebecomelargelyignoredinthecurrentacademicsphere.

Frenchdramaintheeighteenthcenturyfollowedtheseventeenthcenturyclassicaltradition,

withtragedyconsideredthemostexaltedformgivenitsstylisticdemands.Despitethese

stylisticstrictures,aFrenchclassicaltragedywasonlyconsideredsuccessfulifitemotionally

touchedthespectator.4Thus,thegreatestachievementforanywriterwastohaveaverse

tragedyperformedattheComédie-FrançaiselikeCorneilleorRacine,thetwofoundersof

thistradition.5

Thetragicgenredemandedthattheplay’sstructure,characterinteractions,andthe

developmentofthecentralconflictshouldallbedevelopedwithintheboundariesof

1MarieWellington,inTheArtofVoltaire’sTheatre:AnExplorationofPossibility,ed.byMarieWellington,2ndedn(NewYork:AmericanUniversityStudies,1987),pp.7-24(p.10).2MichèleWillems,‘Voltaire,’inGreatShakespearians:Voltaire,Goethe,Schlegel,Coleridge,ed.byRogerPaulin,(London:Bloomsbury,2010),pp.5-43(p.8).3ChristianDelmas,‘Lespectacledelatragédie,’LaTragédiedel’ÂgeClassique,1533-1770(Paris:ÉditionsduSeuil,1994)pp.26-105(p.100).4Wellington,9.5RogerPearson,‘BacktotheBastille,’inVoltaireAlmighty,ed.byRogerPearson(London:Bloomsbury,2005)pp.48-68,(p.49).

3

bienséance(definedbyJacquesSchereras‘uneexigencemorale’whichintheatredoesnot

shock‘lesgoûts,lesidéesmorales,ou[…],lespréjugésdupublic’6).Additionally,theplay

mustbestructuredinaccordancewiththethreeunitiesofaction,time,andspace.7The

abilitythen,toprovokeanemotionalreaction,whilstallthewhilerespectingtheserulesof

bienséanceandemployingalexandrinemetrethroughout,demonstratedatriumphofthe

genre.Crucially,itwasthroughlanguageandnotphysicalactiononstageinwhich‘tousles

élémentsdejeu,ouaction,mouvements,intonations,physionomie,doiventêtreinscrits’in

Frenchtheatre.8

WhentheFrenchnarratorofVoltaire’sLettresphilosophiquesdescribesEnglishtragedies

whichobeynoneoftheserules,hisreactionisunsurprising:‘sesfarcesmonstrueuses,qu’on

appelletragédies.’9PublishedinFrancein1734,LettresphilosophiquesisbasedonVoltaire’s

experiencesinEnglandfrom1726-1728.DespitehiscriticismsofEnglishtheatre,hewould

laterwriteinpraiseofitsvirtues;theprefacetohisplayBrutus,‘Discourssurlatragédie,’

discussesthestrengthsofEnglishtragedies.VoltairewasamongstoneofthefirstFrench

peopletoseeaShakespeareplayperformedinEnglishandtoattemptatranslationof

ShakespeareintoFrench.10In‘Surlatragédie’inLettresphilosophiqueshetranslates

Hamlet’s‘Tobeornottobe’soliloquyintoalexandrinemetre.11Itissurprisingthenthat,as

ofyet,nostudyhasattemptedtoexaminespecificallytheprogressioninthetragedies

writtenbyVoltaireinthisperiodofEnglishinfluence.CriticssuchasAllainhaveremarked

6Wellington,9.7Theactionoftheplayshouldtakeplaceinonesetting,concerningonetheme,andinthespaceofoneday.CorneillenotedinhisDiscours,‘nous[lesfrançais]sommesgênésauthéâtreparlelieu,parletemps,etparlesincommoditésdelareprésentation.’(Delmas,205.).8Delmas,108.9Voltaire,LettresPhilosophiquesinMélangesdeVoltaire,ed.byJacquesVanDenHeuvel(Paris:BibliothéquedelaPléide,1961),pp.2-133(p.81).Henceforthlp.10AndréBillaz,‘VoltairetraducteurdeShakespeareetdelaBible:philosophieimplicited’unepratiquetraductrice,’RHLF,97.3,(1997),372-380.<http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k5623690d/f3.image>[accessed20March2015](p.374).11Lp,82-3.

4

that‘Voltaireavaitétéfrappéparlestragédiespolitiquesduthéâtreanglais,’12andWillems

hasacknowledgedthedefinitivelinkbetweenVoltaire’stragediesandhisexperiencesin

England;forshecitesBrutusandZaïreasbeingdirectlyinspiredbyShakespeare’swork.13

Billaz’srecentstudyonVoltaireasatranslatorofShakespearealsoreferstotheimpactof

theideasofEnglishideasonhistragedies,makingreferencetohisattempttotranslatethe

senseofShakespeareintoaFrenchcontext.14

GiventheimportanceoftragictheatreforeighteenthcenturypolitesocietyinFrance,this

studywillinvestigate,throughaclosereadinganalysis,threeofVoltaire’searlytragediesin

chronologicalorderinconjunctionwithLettresphilosophiqueswiththeaimof

demonstratinghowtheideasofEnglandimpactedonVoltaire’stragicstyle.Oneplay

writtenbeforeVoltaire’ssojourninEnglandwillbeexamined(Œdipe1718),oneduring

(Brutus1731),andoneafter(Zaïre1732).ThisstudywillanalysefirstlythesuccessofŒdipe

andhowVoltaire’sinnovationswiththisplaywereacceleratedbyhisexperiencesin

England;secondly,hisattempttoreconcilethestrengthsofŒdipewithwhatheunderstood

tobethestrengthsofEnglishtragedythroughBrutus,andfinally,thesignificanceofthis

progressionfromBrutustoZaïreinrelationtotheinfluencesofEngland.

12MathéAllain,‘Latragédieclassique:Voltaireetlafindelatragédieclassiquefrançaise,’TheFrenchReview,3.39(1965),384-393(p.387).13Willems,8.14Billaz,374-5.

5

FigI.Source:Voltaire,ZaïreinZaïre,LeFanatismeouMahometleprophète,Nanineoul’Hommesanspréjugé,LeCaféoul’Écossaise,ed.byJeanGoldzink(Paris:ÉditionsFlammarion,2004),pp.56-132(p.17)

ChapterI:Œdipeandthevirtueofignorance

Play Recordedperformances

(firstseason)

Totalperformancesuntil1966

Œdipe 45 340(noneafter1860)

Brutus 15 110(noneafter1800)

Zaïre 31 480(noneafter1940)

6

On18November1718,Voltaire’sfirstplay,hisrenditionoftheclassicaltragedyŒdipe,was

firstperformedattheComédie-Française,achievingovernightsuccess.15Concerning

Voltaire’schoiceofŒdipeforhisdebutwork,oneshouldnotethatCorneille’smost

frequentlyperformedplayatcourtfrom1660-1700wasŒdipe.16Asopposedtowhatone

wouldinitiallyexpectinaplayaboutakingwhounwittinglykillshisFatherandmarrieshis

Mother,inVoltaire’sŒdipe,thethemesofincestandroyalauthorityareovershadowedby

themorepertinentquestionoffate,createdthroughtheestablishmentofacentral

thematicconflictbetweenloveandduty.

TheancientdramaticdeviceofthegodsisusedtogoodeffectinŒdipe.Theirearthly

representative,thehighpriest,encapsulatesboththeparallelthemeofdutyandafatalistic

approach.ItisthisstancewhichJocaste,thewifeofŒdipus,thecurrentking,andthe

widowofLaïus,theformer,arguesagainst:

JOCASTE: Nosprêtresnesontpointcequ’unvainpeuplepense,

Notecrédulitéfaittouteleurscience (IV.1.57-8)

LaterinLettresphilosphiquesinthesecondletterconcerningtheQuakers,thenarrator

attendsoneoftheirservicesandremarksontheabsenceofpriests.Accordingtothe

Quakers,priestsarenotarequirementinordertoworship,‘Quiconque[…]prieraDieude

l’éclairer.’17

Intheeighteenth-century,theproblemoftrying‘toreconcileinnocenceanddivine

punishment’wasextensivelydebatedinrelationtothestoryofŒdipus.18TheModerns

15GeoffreyTurnovsky,‘Themakingofaname:alifeofVoltaire,’inTheCambridgeCompaniontoVoltaire,ed.byNicholasCronk(Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,2009),pp.17-30(p.19).16DavidJory,‘Introduction,Œdipe’inŒuvresde1711-22(1)ed.byW.HBarber,inŒuvresComplètesdeVoltaire(1a)(Geneva,Banbury,Oxford,1968-)(Oxford:VoltaireFoundation,2001),pp.15-284(p.19).17Lp,6.18Jory,39.

7

foundŒdipustyrannusandGreektragedyingeneral‘immoralandharmfulbecauseŒdipus

wasinnocent.’19ItissignificantthatVoltaire’sversionbypassesthisdebate,presenting

Œdipusasinnocentfromtheonsetandelaboratingonhisinnocencethroughemphasisof

hisignoranceofhiscrime.Accordingly,Œdiperetainsthesenseofimpendingtragedyright

uptothefinalscenebycreatingtwosignificantshiftsinactionbothinrelationtoŒdipus’

innocenceandignorance:thefirsthalfoftheplayconcernsitselfwithuncoveringthe

identityofLaïus’killer,believedtobeattheheartoftheravagesbeingwroughtonThebes:

DIMAS lesdieuxnousontconduitsdesuppliceensupplice

Lafamineacessémaisnonleurinjustice (I.1.75-6)

Œdipus,asanxiousashissubjectstodiscovertheidentityofthekillerandpreventfurther

destructiontohiskingdombythegods,ispresentedasagrandhommewhoputshisduty

abovepersonalinterests:

ŒDIPE Maisunroin’estqu’unhommeencecommundanger,

Ettoutcequ’ilpeutfaireestdelepartager (I.3.165-6)

Thefirstmajorshiftinactionoccursinactthreescenefourwhentheoracleofthegods

pronouncesŒdipusthekillerofLaïus.Theactionnowbecomesfocusedondiscoveringhow

Œdipus,theworthyking,couldpossiblyberesponsibleforsuchacrime.Thesecondshiftin

actionexposesthenatureofŒdipus’crimes.Interestingly,evenbeforetheidentityand

motivesofLaïus’killerarerevealed,theunknownculpritisalreadyreferredtoasavictimof

thegods’wrath:

ŒDIPE Sisuruninconnuvouspoursuivezuncrime.

Achevezvotreouvrage,etnommezlavictime (I.3.271-2)

19Jory,38.

8

FrequentreferenceismadetovictimsandtoimprisonmentinŒdipe,amplifyingthesense

ofimpendingtragedyandemphasisinghowthecharacters’fateisatthemercyofirrational

divinewhim:

ŒDIPE Etj’étaismalgrémoidansmonaveuglement,

D’unpouvoirinconnul’esclaveetl’instrument (V.4.164)

Oncethefirstrevelationismade,thereisagrowingsenseofthecharactersbeingbound

moretightlytocalamity,referencesto‘l’esclavage,’‘ledestin’and‘lesort’frequentlyappear

throughouttheplay.Imagesofdarknessanddownfallservetoincreasethistension,being

evokedforcefullythroughtherhymedverse:

OEDIPE Approche,entraîne-moidanslesdemeuressombres,

J’iraidemonsuppliceépouvanterlesombres (V.4.177-8)

ThislanguageisfurtherintensifiedbytheessentialdramaticironyofŒdipe;theaudience

arefamiliarwiththestoryofŒdipus,butthecharacters’generalignoranceprovokesfear

anddread,therebymaintainingthetragicdynamicuptothefinalscene:

JOCASTE Prèsd’Œdipeetdemoijevoyaisdesenfers

Lesgouffreséternelsàmespiedsentrouverts;[…]

Danscetabîmeaffreuxparaissaitmenaçante (II.2.107-110)

Jocastecontinuouslyarguesagainstthisunquestioningobediencetotheirrationalwillofthe

gods.Embodyingthethemeoflove,Jocaste’spositioninrelationtotheguiltyparty

(Œdipus)andthevictim(Laïus)isimportantforitre-emphasisesŒdipus’innocence;Jocaste

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shouldbetheveritablevictimofthiscrime,butsherecognisestheirrationalityof

condemningŒdipus:

JOCASTE Nevousaccusezpointd’undestinsicruel,

Vousêtesmalheureux,etnonpascriminel (IV.3.255-6)

InthecontextofthesubsequentdevelopmentinVoltaire’stragediesfollowinghistimein

England,Œdipe’ssuccesspresentedasolidexampleofwhathiscontemporaryFrench

audienceexpectedandapprovedofintermsofnoveltyinaclassicaltragedy.Voltaire’s

particularcreativityhereliesinhismannerof‘correcting’hispredecessorsratherthanin

creatingcompletenovelties.20InŒdipe,VoltairemakesŒdipus’innocenceindisputable,

elaboratingonthisthroughemphasisonhisignorance,therebyintensifyingthetragic

dynamicwithinconventionalboundaries;forthismovepresentstheirrationalfatalist

adherencetothewillofthegodsasthesourceofthetragicconflict.

ChapterII:Brutusandaclashofinterests

20Jory,41.

10

In1726Voltairefoundhimself,notforthefirsttime,incarceratedintheBastillewithouttrial

forpublicallyquarrellingwithanobleman,theChevalierdeRohan-Chabot.21Itwasamajor

momentofdisillusionmentforVoltaire,forinFrancesocialhierarchywasasrigorously

enforcedastheregulationsofclassicaltheatre.Despitehavingbeenhailedasthenew

SophoclesandthenewVirgil,Voltairewasintheend‘justapoet,anentertainer.’22He

managedtoconvincetheauthoritiestoallowhimtovisitEngland,remainingthereuntil

1728.23Theproductofthisexile,Lettresphilosophiques,presentsaworldintendedto

parallelthatofFrance.Oneofthemoststrikingelementstoemergefromthistextisthefact

thatinEngland,accordingtooneletterentitled‘Surlaconsidérationqu’ondoitauxgensde

lettres,’artists,scientists,andwritersmeritthesamelevelofrespectasanynoblewould‘tel

estlerespectquecepeupleapourlestalents,qu’unhommedemériteyfaittoujours

fortune.’24

IntheprefacetoBrutus,‘Discourssurlatragédie,’VoltairededicatestheplaytohisEnglish

friendLordBolingbrokestatingthat‘latragédiedeBrutusestnéeenAngleterre.’25Here,

VoltaireidentitiesthelackofbienséanceasbeingthechiefproblemthatFrenchaudiences

wouldhavewithEnglishtragediesbuthefocusesmainlyonthevirtuesofEnglishtheatre,

especiallytheconstantpresenceofaction,‘lethéâtreanglais[…]amanquéjusqu’àprésent

àpresquetouslesauteurstragiquesdevotrenation,cettepureté,cetteconduiterégulière,

cesbienséancesdel’actionetdustyle[…]Maisvospièceslesplusirrégulièresontungrand

mérite,c’estceluidel’action.’26AswithŒdipe,Voltaire’sBrutusisborrowed,thistimefrom

21IanDavidson,‘VoltaireinEngland,’Telegraph,9April2010<http://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/books/bookreviews/7567947/Voltaire-in-England.html>[accessed28January2015].22Pearson,BacktotheBastille,67.23Pearson,Bastille,67.24Lp,97.25Voltaire,‘DiscourssurlatragédieàMilordBolingbroke,’inŒuvresde1728-30,ed.byJohnRenwick,inŒuvresComplètesdeVoltaire(5)(Oxford:VoltaireFoundation,1998),pp.156-183(p.156).26Renwick,Discours,163-4.

11

Shakespeare’sJuliusCaesar.27Voltairecertainlywrotethefirstactoftheplayasearlyas

1728,28butevenwhenitwascompletedandsetforperformanceinDecemberof1729,he

cancelleditandsettoreworkingBrutusforanotheryear.29Theresultwasstilloneofhis

leastsuccessfulplayswithonlyfifteenperformancesinthe1730-1seasonandequallypoor

performanceratesoverthenextsixtyyears.30

Brutusisanattemptto‘correct’Shakespeare’stragedybyintroducingthebienséanceof

Frenchclassicaltragedy,butmoreimportantly,itpresentsaconsciousattempttobringthe

actionofEnglishtheatreintoaFrenchclassicaltragedy.Brutusthusbeginsandendsina

sceneinthehouseofconsuls,aframingdeviceintendedtoemphasisethevirtuesof

republicanruleasopposedtoarbitrarymonarchicalpower.Theearlyeighteenth-century

wordRepublicdesignatesinessenceaconstitutionalregimehatingtheillegitimateexercise

ofauthorityand‘yearningforlibertyandtheruleofthelaw:’31

BRUTUS Nelaisseiciqu’unnom,plusodieuxencore

Quelenomdestyrans,queRomeentièreabhorre (I.2.171-2)

However,thefocusbecomescentredonBrutus’sonTitus,andhisindecisionaboutwhether

ornottobetrayRome.Thisindecisionorlackofvolonté,reducesthepotentialforactionin

Frenchclassicaltragedy‘Rienn’estplusméprisableetmisérablequelafaiblessedela

volonté,l’irrésolution.’32Titus’betrayalshouldbethetragicoutcomeoftheconflict

betweenrepublicanandmonarchicalprinciples,butitisnotevenclearifTitusactually

betraysRome;forwhenthefatalmomentinscenefivearrives,hesimplysays‘Sersma

27WilliamEisler,‘AFather'sTears:TheImageofBrutusintheDassiers'MedallicHistoryoftheRomanRepublic,’TheBurlingtonMagazine,150.1260(2008),166-172(p.168).28Pearson,England,“LandofLiberty”,83.29Person,FromBonanzatoBombshell,89.30KennethN.McKee,‘Voltaire’sBrutusDuringtheFrenchRevolution,’MLA,2.56(1941),100-106(p.101).31Renwick,Brutus,43-4.32Lanson,Gustave,Esquissed’unehistoiredelaTragédiesFrançaise,(NewYork:ColumbiaUniversityPress,1920)(p.66).

12

fureurenfin,sersmonfatalamour;/Viens,suis-moi,’(IV.5.148-9)whichtheroyalistplotter

MessalatakestomeanthatTitushasfinallycapitulated.TitusisshockedwhenBrutusthen

entersandinformshimthat‘Romeestendanger;c’estentoi(Titus)quej’espère.’Atthis

momentoftriumph,Titushas‘tragically’succumbedtobetrayal.

MESSALA ConnaissezdoncTitus,voyeztoutesonâme,

Lecourrouxquil’aigrit,lepoisonquil’enflamme;

IlbrûlepourTullie (I.4.327-9)

DespitebeingidentifiedbytheroyalistconspiratorsaskeytoconvincingTitustobetray

Rome,VoltaireminimisedTullie’spositionastheloveinterestinorder‘toconcentratehis

dramamoreandmorearoundtheessentialdilemmaofTitus.’33However,thisresultsinthe

centralthemesofloveanddutyfailingtoachievetheirfullpotential.Love,insteadofbeing

aprimarymotivator,becomesanexplorationintothewrongtypesoflove:theexcessive

loveofoneselfandtheloveofdutyratherthanthedutytolovewhichcausesBrutusto

makethedecisionasconsultohaveTituskilled.ThereductionofTullie’sroleeffectively

minimisestheplay’srationale;forTitus’betrayalofhisfamilyandcountryinthespaceofa

dayforher,despitehavingearlieraffirmed‘NéparmilesRomains,jepériraipoureux’

(II.2.129),nowappearsmoreirrationalthantragic.IntheCorneliantradition,reasonis‘dans

l’espritquifaittriompherlesrègles.’34Inthisfashion,therecanbenochanceofthe

audiencebeingabletoemotionallyconnectwiththetragicpredicamentofthefemale

protagonistastheydowithJocasteandthelaterZaïrewhoserolesareessentialtothe

thematicconflict.Themetaphoroffirewhichisfrequentlyusedtodescribethedepthof

Titus’loveofTulliethusevokesinstabilityratherthanfierypassion:

33Renwick,Brutus,32.34Lanson,54.

13

MESSALA Lefeudesonjeuneâgeetdesespassions,

Semblaientouvrirsonâmeàmesséductions (III.2.31-2)

ThiselementofreasonbecomesanimportantpursuitforVoltaire.In‘Surleparlement’the

narratorjuxtaposeshisunderstandingoftheRomanrepublicandtheEnglishparliamentin

ordertoemphasisetheparticularbenefitsofaparliamentarybodyinEngland,‘Lanation

anglaiseestlaseuledelaterrequisoitparvenueàréglerlepouvoirdesroisenleur

résistant.’35Thisletterhighlightsthefactthatparliamentpreventstheexerciseofarbitrary

power,thekindwhichledtoVoltaire’simprisonments.WhatimpressedVoltaireandledhim

toattempttoconveyitinthistragedy,werethevirtuesoftheEnglishstatewhich,according

toLettresphilosophiques,demonstratedaformofbienséanceinasocio-politicalcontext.

However,itisequallyevidentthatVoltaire’sconceptofarepublicwasstillovershadowedby

theinfluencesofFrenchmonarchicalpowerasshownwhentherepublicanBrutusis

unquestionablyaccordedfullpowertopunishTitusasheseesfit:

VALERIUS C’estàvousàjugerdesoncrime;

Condamnez,épargnez,oufrappezlavictime.

Romedoitapprouvercequ’aurafaitBrutus (V.5.145-7)

Significantly,thedivineauthorityattheheartofŒdipus’tragedyisheresubstitutedwiththe

actionsofthecharactersthemselves.Theeffectofthisconflictandtheequalconflict

betweenloveanddutyisweakenedbytheoverallstructuralfragilityofBrutus,whichis

caughtbetweentryingtoreconcileFrenchandEnglishtragicconventions.However,read

alongside‘Discourssurlatragédie’andLettresphiliosophiques,itisclearthatBrutus

35Lp,21.

14

representsVoltaire’sfirstmajorattempttoreconcilethestrengthsofFrenchtragedywith

thoseoftheEnglishtradition.

ChapterIII:Zaïreandthepoliticsoflove

AfterreturningtoFrancein1728,Voltairedidnotwriteanothersuccessfultragedyuntil

Zaïrein1732.UnlikeBrutus,Zaïrewaswritteninjusttwenty-twodaysandwasaninstant

andconsistentsuccess,‘Noplayhadcausedsuchtears–maleaswellasfemale,

ecclesiasticalaswellaslay–toflow.’36Invariably,whilstapplaudingZaïrein1732,the

Frenchaudiencehadunknowingly‘renderedasortofhomagetoOthello.’37Zaïre’s

successfulreceptionontheFrenchstagewasverymuchduetoVoltaire’screative

developmentofthecentralconflictbetweenloveandreligiousimperatives.Although

VoltaireconsideredromanticlovetobeoneoftheessentialproblemswithFrenchtragedy

‘lethéâtrefrançaissemblaitincapabledesepasserd’amour,’38Zaïre’striumphmakesit

apparentthatthelimitedphysicalactionpermittedon-stageandthestricturesofrhymed

verseinFrenchclassicaltragedynecessitatedthepresenceofathemealignedwitha

powerfulemotionsuchaslove.Theconflictbetweenloveandtheculturalandpolitical

imperativesofreligionisimmediatelyapparentfromtheopeningsceneinthesultan’s

seraglio;Zaïre,andFatime,anotherwomanofChristianoccidentalorigin,arediscussingthe

factthatZaïrehasfalleninlovewiththesultanOrosmane.HeandZaïreplantomarryand

sincethenZaïrehasnotfelttheneedtopreserveherinnerconflictbetweenherChristian

pastandherMuslimpresentasencouragedtobyFatime:

FATIME Nepointlaisserdetroubleraufonddevotrecœur! (I.1.84)

36Pearson,Bonanza,93.Seefig.I.37AmidaStanton,‘AdaptionsandTranslationsofShakespeare’s“Othello”inFrance,duringtheeighteenthcentury:AComparativeStudy.’N.p.,1910.(p.7).<file:///C:/Users/Setup/Downloads/ETD_1910_Stanton_A_mediumc.pdf>[accessed11/03/15]38Allain,385.

15

Zaïre’sabilitytoreconcileherdualidentitythroughloveemphasisesthatthisreligious

conflicthas,atitssource,culturalandpoliticaldifferencesratherthanpurelyideological

ones:

ZAÏRE Peut-êtresansl’amourj’auraisétéchrétienne;

Peut-êtrequ’àtaloij’auraissacrifié:

MaisOrosmanem’aime,etj’aitoutoublié (I.1.134-6)

Lettresphilosophiquesaddressesthisculturalaspectofreligionfromthefirstletter‘Surles

Quakers,’‘Monfils[…]nejurepoint,noussommeschrétiens,ettâchonsd’êtrebons

chrétiens;maisnousnepensonspasquelechristianismeconsisteàjeterdel’eaufroidesur

latête.’39

FatimeremindsZaïrethatNérestan,aFrenchgeneral,iscomingtobargainfortheirrelease,

butforZaïre,raisedintheseragliooftheSultan,hernaturalcountrymanNéréstanismerely

‘unétranger’(I.1.40).AshiftinactionoccursinacttwoscenethreewhensheandNérestan

thendiscoverthattheyarethelostchildrenofLusignan,theelderlyformerChristiankingof

JersualemwhohasbeenimprisonedintheseragliosincetheMuslimconquest.However,

thefamilyreunionisquicklysouredbytheproblemofZaïre,issheaChristianornot?Unlike

Œdipe,inwhichthegodsthemselvespresenttheomnipresentanddivinethreattothe

characters’happiness,inZaïre,culturalimperativesanddutiesofreligionoverpowerlove

andreason.Inotherwords,thesourceofconflictcomesfromvisiblecharacterssuchas

NérestanandLusignanwhoseunwaveringadherencetoChristianideologiesthreatento

regressZaïre’slovetransformation.

Lusignan’sspeechinacttwoscenefourconvincesZaïretoagreetobebaptised.Itcarries

thefullweightofhertragicpredicament,forLusignanhasbeensymbolicallyandforcefully

39Lp,2.

16

imbibedwiththestatusoftheChristianrepresentativeinthisMuslimheartland.Hiswords

carrynotjusttheweightofparentaldisapproval,butthedisapprovalofChristendomitself.

Crucially,ZaïreisrequiredtokeepthisplanasecretfromOrosmanewhoatfirstbecomes

concernedathersuddenevasiveness,aconcernwhichturnstojealousparanoiathatshe

maynotlovehimanymore;‘[…]Madame,ilfautquevousm’éclaircissiez’(IV.6.1323).

Orosmane,likeZaïre,isthematicallyalignedwithloveanddemonstratesagenuineconcern

forZaïre’swell-being,muchmorethanher‘real’familywhosemainconcernsare'L’honneur

demamaison,monpère,samémoire[…]laloide[ton]Dieu’(III.4.836-7).Nérestan,similar

toLusignan,embodiesanintoleranceengenderedbyunquestioningadherencetoafixed

ideologyandassuchistheveritableoppositeofOrosmaneandZaïre,statingthat‘Zaïre[…]

PourunmaîtrebarbareabandonnasonDieu’(II.1.441-4).Havingalsobeencapturedasa

childbytheMuslims,Nérestan’sonlymemoriesofthistimeare‘imagessanglantes’

(II.1.433).ZaïreandOrosmane,bycontrast,havebeentransformedbyloveandhavethus

putasidetheirculturalandideologicaldifferences:

OROSMANE J’attesteicilagloire,etZaïre,etmaflamme,

Denechoisirquevouspourmaîtresseetpourfemme,

Devivrevotreami,votreamant,votreépoux,

Departagermoncœurentrelaguerreetvous (I.2.189-192)

AswithŒdipeandBrutus,anexcessiveadherencetoaparticularviewpointthreatensthe

harmonyoftheplay,‘CommedetouslesexcèshumainslefanatismesemblaitàVoltairele

plusdangereux.’40In‘Surlespresbytériens’Voltaire’snarratorflagsthelackofreligious

conflictsinEnglandasstemmingfromthemultiplicityoffaithswhichallowforafluidityof

40Allain,388-9.

17

religiousinterpretations,‘S’iln’yavaitenAngleterrequ’unereligion,ledespotismeseraità

craindre;s’ilyenavaitdeux,ellessecouperaientlagorge;maisilyenatrente,etelles

viventenpaixheureuses.’41InBrutus,religionpersedoesnotcontributetotheconflict,and

thesameistrueforZaïreforitisthissenseofdutytoZaïre’snewlyre-discoveredChristian

familywhichcreatesherdilemma.Lusignan’slengthyspeechhighlightsthisconflictforZaïre,

onewhichwill,tragically,preventherfromreconcilinghertwoconflictingdesires:‘Rends-

moichrétienneetlibre’(III.5.894).Lusignan’sspeechalsohighlightsanothertragic

componentwhichappearsinBrutusbutwasnoteffectivelydeveloped;hereVoltaire’saim

ofpresentingthevirtuesofrepublicanismisweakenedsincebothregimesequallythreaten

Titus’happinessasdemonstratedwhenTulliepointsoutthatBrutusbehaveslikea

monarch:‘Maissousunautrenomn’est-ilpasroilui-même?’(IV.3.78).Bycontrast,Zaïre’s

loveallowshertoincorporatebothChristianityandIslam,thusdemonstratingtheir

similarities.Oncesheattemptstoadheretotheculturaldemandsofoneparticularideology

heridentitybecomesfracturedsincesheisneitheronenortheother.Thisabilityto

reconcileafaithtoone’sculturalcontextisatraitwhichVoltaire’snarratorattributestothe

Englishcharacter:‘C’esticilepaysdessects.UnAnglais,commehommelibre,vaaucielpar

lecheminquiluiplaît.’42

SimilartoŒdipe,thecharacters’ignoranceiseffectivelyexploitedinZaïre,suchasthe

dramaticironyofOrosmanebeingsuddenlyleftinthedarkinregardstoZaïre’sintentions

wherebeforehand,thecouplehidnothingfromeachother:

OROSMANE JevousaimeZaïre;etj’attendsdevotreâme

Unamourquirépondeàmabrûlanteflamme (I.2.205-6)

41Lp,18.42Lp,14.

18

Onceagain,theimageofanintenseburninglove,uneflamme,isevokedasitwasinBrutus,

buttogreatereffectfortheseimagesillustratethepositionoftherelationshipbetween

ZaïreandOrosmane.AsPricementions,inthebeginningoftheplay,ZaïreandOrosmane

‘plantowalkproudlythroughthevastareasurroundingthepalace[…]fortheirmarriage

ceremony.’43WhenZaïreispressurisedtoconverttoChristianityshemustnow‘sneak

throughthepalaceareatoareducedanddarkenedsecretpassageway.’44Fromthispoint

onwards,asdaygraduallyturnstonightinthetwenty-fourhourtime-span,theimagesof

lightturntodarknessasthegulfofuncertaintygrowsbetweenthecouple.Crucially,Zaïre

decidestokeepOrosmaneeffectivelyinthedarkuntiltomorrow:‘Jecacheàvotreoreille

uneplainteimportune…/Demaintousmessecretsvousserontrévélés’(IV.2.1204-5).The

audienceiswellawarethattherulesoftheatre,tragically,donotallowforatomorrow.Just

asZaïreisconfusedastowhatheridentityis‘sais-jecequejesuis?’(I.1.88),Orosmane

becomesunsureastohisposition‘Oùsuis-je?ôciel,oùsuis-je?(V.7.1511)Thus,whenthe

crucialconfrontationoccurs,OrosmaneactsoninstinctandkillsZaïrewhiletheyareboth

hiddenintheshadowsjustasthetruenatureoftheirsituationsisshadowedbytheirown

blindimpetusestocompletetheirmissions:

OROSMANE Ônuit!nuiteffroyable!

Peux-tuprêtertonvoileàdepareilsforfaits? (V.8.1518-9)

Thus,inZaïrethecentralproblemofZaïre’stragicfailedstruggleagainstintoleranceis

forcefullyevoked.Thatthisintoleranceisahumancreationismadeapparent,evokedmore

forcefullythanitwasinBrutus.ZaïreandOrosmanedemonstratewhatthenarratorof

LettresphilosophiquesfindssoappealingaboutEnglishsocio-politicalpractices,namelythat

43L.BrianPrice,‘SpatialRelationsinVoltaire’sZaïre,’TheFrenchReview,50.2(1976),pp.251-259(p.258).44Price,258.

19

theirinstitutionsthemselvesembodyreasonandtoleranceasmentionedinthefirstletter

‘SurelesQuakers,’‘tun’asdoncqu’àouvrirlesyeuxàcettelumièrequiéclairetousles

hommes,alorstuverraslavéritéetlaferasvoir.’45Suchamind-setfacilitatesreasonin

socio-politicalterms.Voltaire’sdesiretoevokethisawarenessinarecognisablyFrenchstyle

isachievedinZaïre.

Conclusion

VoltairewantedFrenchtragedytobecapableofexpressingnovelconceptswhilestill

retainingitsclassicalstructure.Inchapterone,itcanbeobservedwhataspectsofEngland

wouldcometoleaveanimpressiononVoltairesuchashisexperienceswithEnglishreligious

practices,andhowthesuccessofŒdipewouldformabasefromwhichhecould

comprehendwhatweaknessesinFrenchtheatremustbetolerated.Inchaptertwo,

Voltaire’sfirstconsciousattemptatformulatingaFrenchtragedycapableofcarryingacross

thesenseofactionwhichhadsoimpressedhimintheEnglishtradition,isseentofail.

Brutus,appearingbeforeLettresphilosophiques,invariablyattemptsasimilarcontrast

betweentwotraditions.However,VoltairefailedtoconsiderthesourcesofŒdipe’s

emotionalimpactwhenwritingBrutus.Itisinchapterthreethatthedifficultyofreconciling

thesuccessofŒdipeandthestrengthsoftheFrenchclassicalgenrewiththeintentionsof

Brutusregardingideologies,isachieved.Zaïredirectlyaddressestheproblemofover-

adherencetoasystemwhichfostersalackofreason;thisiswhatleadstothefinaltragedy.

Thistragedyisevenmoreforcefulgiventhatitisverymuchoneofthecharacters’own

making;foritistheywhoenforcetheregulationswhichtheprotagonistfeelscompelledto

adhereto.

45Lp,6.

20

WhereasproseworkssuchasLettresphilosophiqueswhichdebatethesameissuesasthese

playsweresubjecttoviolentcensorship,46Voltaireclearlyrecognisedthatthetragedyplay

bycontrastaffordedamoreacceptablewayofbringingforthnovelconceptsandof

criticisingcurrentpracticesinFrance.Inthisfashion,thistragedygenreoffersauseful

insightintothevaluesandstylesofVoltaire.Mostimportantly,inrelationtoLettres

philosophiques,theseplaysdemonstratethatweareeffectivelyresponsibleforourown

tragedies.

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