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Welcome Message

Institute of Forestry, Tribhuvan University in collaboration with Department of Forest Research andSurvey, Ministry of Forests and Soil Conservation and the Forests and Landscape University ofCopenhagen, Denmark, is organizing a three-day international conference on Forests, People andClimate: Changing Paradigm on 28-30 August, 2013 at Fulbari Resort and Spa, Pokhara. The broadobjective of the conference is to build and enrich existing knowledge on improved livelihoods throughsustainable and equitable management of forest resources. The conference deliberates on threethematic areas of Forest and Livelihood Relation, Biodiversity Conservation and Governance. Theconference themes emphasize the urgency for worldwide response to biodiversity conservation andlivelihood improvement through good governance, climate change adaptation, and better forestmanagement for action on the part of all stakeholders at the global, national, regional and local levels.

About 150 participants from 14 nations have confirmed their oral and posters presentations in theconference. Four internationally dignified personalities Prof. Keijiro Otsuka (Japan), Prof. CarstenSmith-Hall (Denmark), Prof. Bina Agarwal (India), and Dr. Eric Dinerstein (USA) are key note speakersfor the conference. It is believed that this conference will help in collective learning and mutual sharingof experiences and also crafting better policies for conservation and sustainable utilization of forestresources for wider socioeconomic development, biodiversity conservation, exemplary governance,balanced growth and climate change mitigation and adaption.

With this brief message, International Conference Organizing Committee would like to welcomedistinguished delegates and participants in the beautiful city of Pokhara and also wish them a pleasantand memorable stay.

International Conference Organizing Committee

24th August 2013

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THEME ONE: CHANGING FOREST AND LIVELIHOOD RELATIONS

ASSESSING VULNERABILITY AND PLANNING ADAPTATION IN PANCHASE: AN ECOSYSTEM-BASEDADAPTATION APPROACH

Madhav B. Karki, Ajaya Dixit, Yogendra Subedi, Kamal Thapa, Shova Yadav, Sravan Shrestha, Deeb R.Rai, Rabi Wenju, Shristi Silwal, Minaxi Chhetri, Emma Karki and Anustha Shrestha

ISET-Nepal and EbA team, Nepal

This paper presents the vulnerability impact assessment (VIA) assessment of Panchase ecosystem inNepal. With rich biological, cultural, and religious diversities, this unique ecosystem connects lowlandTarai with highland Himalayan eco-regions. The VIA aimed to establish information base and developknowledge system useful for planning ecosystem centered adaptation strategies to reduce climatesensitive risks and build overall resilience of the ecosystem and its services. It aimed at proposingoptions for a sound and sustained adaptive ecosystem management plan to enhance resilience of bothcommunities and ecosystems. The approach is based on coupled human-environmental system andembedded systems-agents-institutions-exposure framework by delineating the ecosystems at core,secondary, and tertiary regions. Using 25 indicators comprising of socio-economic, ecological, bio-physical, and institutional factors at landscape level the approach systematically maps resources,climatic stresses and capacities and present ward level vulnerabilities in series of maps. These are thenlayered by trends in historical and predicted temperature and precipitation as well as future scenarios,both of which suggest high variability and unpredictability in climate related extreme events.Preliminary VIA results suggest moderate to high exposure and sensitivity of the landscape andpeople, which is likely to increase in the future. The ward-level vulnerability maps indicate that thelandscapes characterized by mountainous/ hilly topography with moderate to high slope gradients anddifferent landscape features generally show south and west facing slopes more vulnerable. Theecosystem and the local communities are likely to face moderate to high climatic and non-climaticstresses in future manifested by drying up of water sources, increasing landslides and flood events,degrading biodiversity, decreasing grazing lands, and declining agricultural productivity.

Some of the first order ecosystem based adaptation (EBA) options arrived through participatoryconsultations include launching of climate mainstreamed eco-tourism; improved management ofecosystem services enhancing livelihood opportunities; promoting conservation agriculture; managingwild life by protecting/improving habitats; and strengthening local organizations by building humancapacity and skills. The VIA identifies the vulnerability of ecosystems and integrates nature-basedsolutions into adaptation strategies to enhance the resilience of the ecosystem and communitiesdependent upon the ecosystem services and reduce their vulnerability. It suggests options foradapting to negative impacts of climate change. With low to moderate capacities of the agents andsystems, there is an urgent need for undertaking adaptation options that reflect the collective needsof the coupled human-ecological system.

Key words: ecosystem, vulnerability, sensitivity, exposure, adaptation capacity, impact assessment,resilience, adaptation options.

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INTEGRATING TRANSFORMATIVE WISDOM IN THE HIGHER EDUCATION AND RESEARCH FOR

CLIMATE CHANGE ADAPTATION AND MITIGATION

Bishal Sitaula

Department of International Environment and Development Studies, Norwegian University of LifeSciences, 1430 Ås, Norway; Email: bishal.sitaula@umb.no

Primary causes and consequences of climate change are deeply rooted in the human mind, and sosolutions must be searched within us. Materialism, consumerism and severe erosion of human valuesare widespread problems. Naturally, materialism will increase consumerism because extremematerialism creates greed, attachment, ego, etc., which eventually lead to severe depletion of naturalresources. Education, which is not turned into wisdom in the end creates various forms ofconsumerism and collectively leads to different forms of global crises. Therefore, any global challengesshould be understood in linked context as they are rather complex phenomena influenced by differentfactors and processes following law of dependent origination as web of life are connected. Growingneed for interdisciplinary work across natural, social and noetic/yogic science demands that eachachieve some common understandings about global crises as multidimensional issues and in linkedcontexts. To understand this better, one must first identify linkages between environmental problemsdeeply rooted in human greed and its manifestation in various forms such as biodiversity losses,climate change and land degradation. All these major components of global environmental challengesare linked together in a complex cybernetics network of feedbacks. If one is altered, it will produce achange in other components in more complex way than presently understood. To address theseproblems at their source will require understanding of human desires and how this can be balancedusing yogic science for personal and social transformation. There are international initiatives forenhancing coordination between individual/social behaviours and links among climate change,biodiversity and desertification. There are also research challenges for unfolding linkages betweenenvironment and security, particularly between environmental causes, such as natural disasters, watershortages and famine, and their effects on security of people and societies. Issues of global foodchallenges and environmental degradation leading to violent conflict are a recent focus of scientificinvestigation. One effect of environmental degradation is the large displacement of people creating alarge flux of environmental refugees. These linked problems require a rarely seen collaboration amongscientists and spiritual masters. Therefore, science of wellbeing including noetic/consciousness-basedspiritual sciences coupled with environmental science is quite essential in the present time. The questis how to tailor such course curricula in universities that effectively establishes memory of wholenessin students who will be a part of solution in “Being”, “Thinking” and “Doing” for addressing globalenvironmental challenges.

Key words: Human values, global crises, global challenges, web of life, noetic/yogic science

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WHO EXTRACTS THE FOREST PRODUCTS? – A GENDERED PERSPECTIVE

Helle Overgaard Larsen and Mariéve Pouliot

University of Copenhagen, Denmark

Forest management is frequently considered a male domain. Women typically earn less income fromforest products and have less influence on forest governance. Women’s uses of forest products – whattype of products they extract, how much they extract-are not well known, and this may give reasonsto fear that female forest uses are invisible, and therefore, not recognized. The purpose of this paper isto provide empirical data on women’s forest product extraction and to explore differences betweenmale and female forest utilization strategies in four community forest user groups in Nepal. Study sitesare located in the mountains, middle hills and lowlands of Nepal; data were collected with fourquarterly household questionnaires; in total 557 households were sampled. Results include data onintra-household forest product extraction in female and male headed households.

Key words: Forest management, male domain, forest governance, forest utilization, community forest

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PEOPLE FOREST AND CLIMATE CHANGE ADAPTATION: AN ANALYSIS OF COMMUNITY FORESTSYSTEM IN THE MID-HILLS OF NEPAL

Prativa Sapkota₁, Dr. Rod Keenan₂ and Dr. Hemant R. Ojha₂,₃

₁The University of Melbourne₂South-Asian Institute of Advanced Studies₃The University of New South Walespsapkota@student.unimelb.edu.au

Adaptation to climate change has now become an urgent task for reducing vulnerability of the localcommunities. Forest constitutes integral part of livelihood system, not only in Nepal but moregenerally in developing world; its role in adaptive capacity has been neglected in both scholarlyresearch and policy debates. The interface between people and forests is poorly recognized incontemporary adaptation studies.

Over thirty years of its development in Nepal, community forestry offers an interesting situation tounderstand how people’s dependence on forest has changed over time, in relation to both climaticstress and other socio-economic changes. It is also the region where some of the world’s poorest andclimate vulnerable communities reside. In addition, CF offers a rich case of a social-ecological systemwith diverse forms of interactions between the forest ecosystem and community dynamics. Whileecological and livelihoods impact of Nepal’s CF is well studied, no studies have yet been conducted inrelation to whether, how and to what extent CF can contribute to the adaptive capacity of themarginalised groups. The proliferating literature on adaptation lacks evidence and theoretical insightsinto how forest-community interactions affect adaptive capacity.

Taking a community forestry user group in middle hill social and ecological contexts, it focuses onestablishing possible causal relations between community forestry system and adaptive capacity ofthe forest dependent communities. It analyses changes in forest condition, people’s dependence onforest, institutional dynamics, forest management practices and decision systems. Marginalised peopleare the focus group of this study and understanding their adaptation is outcome of this study which isanalysed using historical and contemporary information. This study has used a mix of social scienceand natural science tools to understand both socially constructed realities and attributes of forestcondition. Qualitative research methods including in-depth interviews, focus group discussion andparticipatory rural appraisal are the tools used in this study.

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CROSS REGIONAL STUDY OF ADAPTATION ACTIONS OF FARMERS TO CLIMATE CHANGE IMPACT IN NEPAL:DOES IT SUPPORT FARM PRODUCTIVITY?

Madhu Sudan Gautam

Southasia Institute of Advanced Studies (www.sias-southasia.org)Kathmandu College of Management, Kathmandu University (http://www.kcm.edu.np/).gautammadhusudan@hotmail.com

The impact of anthropogenic climate change is much higher in the developing country like Nepal.While not contributing significantly in the global warming, Nepal is more sensitive to effects of climatechange because of weak adaptation capacity. Majority of people receives main income and livelihoodfrom agriculture sector in rural areas. However, little is known on self-adaptive capacity and responsebehavior of farmers to the impact of climate change. This paper provides an empirical analysis, byusing primary data obtained from survey of 400 farm households producing cereal crops, of theadaptation actions of Nepalese farmers and its role in supporting crop productivity across differentregions and altitudes of Nepal. The logit model is applied to analyze the adaptation actions of farmerswith climate variables after accounting for regions, soil, farm and household specific characteristics.The econometric estimates showed that an adaptation action across regions and altitudes wasdifferent and there was no evidence that adaptation actions supported farm productivity. Substitutingto cereal crops, changing action in soil preparation and tree planting for soil conservation, alteringtiming of cultivation, using different variety of crops, and increasing use of pesticides and fertilizers arecommon actions observed in the study sites. We observed some determinants of adaptation and cropsproductivity. Education of household head, total farm size and opportunity to off farm employmentaffected positively and significantly to the chances of adopting adaptation actions. On the other hand,the most contributing factor to productivity of crops was found to be education. The findings highlightthe urgent necessity of implementing adaptation actions focusing on very low capacity of householdfarm enterprise on adaptation, his/her socio-economic condition and climate change impact variationacross regions and altitudes.

Key words: Self-adaptive capacity, response behavior, climate variables, cereal crops, determinants ofadaptation

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INCOME STRATEGIES AMONG THE FARM HOUSEHOLDS IN RURAL NEPAL:THE ROLE OF NON-FARM ACTIVITIES

Bir Bahadur Khanal Chhetri, PhD

Institute of Forestry, ComForM Project, Pokhara

This paper investigates the household-level importance of various income sources and the factorsassociated with the non-farm work activities in rural Nepal. Qualitative contextual information wascollected in two community forest user groups followed by a structured survey of 275 randomlyselected households; income data was collected quarterly throughout 2009. The income data arepresented in absolute and relative terms by different household categories. The determinants of non-farm work participation were tested using probit regression model. Results showed that non-farmincome constituted on average of 55.5% of the total household income, the major share of which is theremittances constituting an average of 3/4th of the total. Larger sized non-Dalit households holdingrelatively larger value of implements and smaller land area showed their significant association withnon-farm work participation. The varying share of the non-farm income to the total household incomeresulted by the combination of household’s individual and socio-economic characteristics arediscussed.

The study claimed that Nepal’s rural economy is moving from a high dependence on traditionalpractices of subsistence agriculture to a higher dependence on income generatedfrom non-farm activities. Non-farm income, in particular through remittances (migration forwork abroad) and pensions, constitutes the most important source of income for all categoryhouseholds. The study suggests that typical policies such as improvement in human capital, e.g.improved literacy and skills, and rural infrastructures will remain important for promoting and makingthe poor benefited from the income opportunities through various non-farm sectors.

Key words: Income dependence, non-farm work participation, remittance, poor, subsistenceagriculture

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LIVELIHOOD, TREE DIVERSITY AAND CARBON SEQUESTRATION IN THE FOREST MARGIN: CASE

STUDY FROM EASTERN INDONESIA

Noviana Khususiyah1, Subekti Rahayu1, Betha Lusiana1,2 and Suyanto1

1 World Agroforestry Centre – ICRAF Southeas Asia Programme, Bogor, Indonesia2 Institute for Plant Production and Agroecology in the Tropics and Sub-Tropics, Hohenheim University,

Stuttgart, Germany

This study explored the contribution of community based forest management (CBFM) on farmers’income, tree diversity and carbon sequestration. The study draws on a case study in eastern part ofIndonesia, Sesaot-Lombok Island where CBFM provides landless farmers with access to cultivate landon designated forest conservation areas that has already been converted and become degraded land.In return, farmers must plant trees to improve watershed function of the area. Based on village levellists of households, we surveyed 80 participating and 40 non-participating CBFM farmers in Sesaot.The CBFM Programme is intended for landless farmers. However, contrary to the regulation, permit toaccess state land are often being transacted between farmers in the area. This lead to 3 typology offarmers: (i) pure CBFM (own State Land only), (ii) non-CBFM farmers (own private land) and (iii) hybridCBFM (own state and private land). The average land holding was 0.48, 0.65 and 1.01 for pure CBFM,non-CBFM and hybrid CBFM respectively. Hybrid CBFM farmers had the highest income per capita of1.8 USD/capita/year, compared to 1.2 and 1.5 USD/capita/year of pure CBFM and non-CBFM farmersrespectively. The land productivity of CBFM farmers was 1,829 USD/ha/year, roughly 12% lower thannon-CBFM and also, hybrid CBFM farmers had almost similar land productivity. The state land hadsimilar tree diversity with private land of 7 and 8 tree species respectively, where state land wasenriched with shade/fruit trees as opposed to timber trees in private land. The carbon sequestration ofstate and private land was also similar of 48 Mg/ha and 66 Mg/ha, respectively. Overall, CBFM hasimproved the income of the vulnerable/landless farmers by 50% (contribution from state land).However, the acquisition of CBFM permit by farmers owning private land may lead to inequity ofincome. CBFM also improved the tree diversity and carbon of degraded state land (grass land) tosimilar condition as private land, even though it is still less than secondary forest condition.

Key words: Community based forest management, income equity, tree diversity, land productivity,degraded land

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REDUCING POVERTY OF FOREST DEPENDENT COMMUNITIES: AN IMPACT OF SEABUCKTHORN

JUICE PRODUCTION IN MUSTANG DISTRICT OF NEPAL

Bishnuhari Pandit1, Shiva Shankar Neupane2, Shambhu Paudel3 and Laxman Ghimire4

Kathmandu Forestry College, Amarawati Marg, Koteswor, Kathmandu, Nepal1 bhpandit29@gmail.com2 ssneupane@gmail.com3 oasis.excurrent@gmail.com

Despite the recognition of the role of forests in various facets of livelihood capital, there has beenrelatively little empirical exploration related to its contribution to poverty reduction, and the relationof social learning processes to natural resource governance and management. This article is part of theAction Research Project of the Community Based Forest Management in the Himalayas-Phase III,Institute of Forestry, Pokhara, Nepal. The study was conducted in two Conservation Area communityforestry user groups of Mustang district. A before and after approach was used to measure the changein income level of the sample households. Most data were generated through discussion withcommunity groups and Key informant survey. Besides this, household survey was done in 32households dividing these into four wellbeing groups (well-off, poor, medium poor and ultra poor).The findings indicate that the financial and forest assets of both women and the poor—and especiallypoor women increased as a result of participatory action research intervention. As a major projectintervention, several trainings related to processing of seabuckthorn and its sustainable management,were delivered to the target groups. At the end of the project, local people’s awareness (98%), skills(96%) and enrolment time (70%) were significantly increased. Further, it was recorded that timeinvested by female (17.54 days) was greater than male (15.08 days) in each activity implemented byproject (t= -5.85, p=0.000). The study further revealed that total annual average income of thebeneficiary increased from NPR 82,303 in 2010 to 112,958 in 2012 (1USD = 84NPR) in two years. Overallbeneficiary income increased by 37 percent owing to project intervention. Income from seabuckthornwas 23 percent of the total household income, which was more than two-thirds (86%) of the totalchange. The seabuckthorn juice making is the strongest driver to reduce poverty (72 % to 34%) in thestudy area.

Key words: Action research, people’s awareness, household income, enterprise, income

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DETERMINANTS OF ADAPTATION TO CLIMATE CHANGE IN RURAL FARMING PRACTICES OF

NEPAL HIMALAYA

Krishna.R. Tiwari1, Ridish.K. Pokharel, Santosh Rayamajhi and Mohan K. Balla

Institute of Forestry, Tribhuvan University, Pokhara, Nepal1 krishna.iof@gmail.com

Climate change (CC) impacts on rural framing and adaptation practices adopted by the local farmersare new areas of study in the rural farming systems. This study focused on better understanding of CCimpacts and adaptation practices in rural farming in three different agro-climatic regions (Trans-Himalayan- Mustang, Mid-Mountain-Dhading and Kavre and Inner Terai-Chitawan district) of Nepal.Household survey, key informant interview and focus group discussion methods were applied tocollect primary information at household and community levels supplemented with national climatedata. Soil moisture or irrigation deficiencies are the main limiting factors for farm production of theupland framers, particularly, in the mid-mountain region. It is observed that adaptation to CC islocation specific and determined by market, exposure from CC impact and income from the farmproducts. Logistic regression model indicated different factors, such as year of schooling, experiencesin the farming, resources availability, family labour availability, farm income, institutional activities andinvolvement in the community level organization of households influenced adaptation practices.Barriers of the adaptation in the rural farming practices included lack of information on adaptationmethods and financial constraints. Planners and development workers should formulate locationspecific adaptation programmes and activities focusing on water management for minimizing theimpacts of CC.

Key words: Socioeconomics, institution, upland farming, water management, farm production

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IMPROVING FOREST BASED LIVELIHOODS THROUGH INTEGRATED CLIMATE CHANGE ADAPTATION

IN CHITWAN ANNAPURNA LANDSCAPE OF NEPAL

Pratima Shrestha and Dev Raj Gautam

CARE International in Nepal, Kathmandu

The Chitwan-Annapurna Landscape (CHAL), a North-South linkage includes whole or part of 19 districtsof the Gandaki river basin had a total of 1.14 million hectares (35.5% of landscape area) of forest in 2010.Hariyo Ban Program, CARE Nepal, leading major component as climate change adaptation has carriedout integrated climate vulnerability and capacity assessment (ICVCA) and prepared community basedintegrated climate change adaptation plans of action targeting poor, vulnerable and socially excludedpeople in different location of three river system (Seti, Marsyangdi and Daraundi) of Kaski, Syangja,Tanahu, Lamjung and Gorkha. People residing in this region are highly dependent on fragile sensitivenatural resources, especially forest for their livelihoods. Forest based livelihoods are harshly affectedby climate change and other non climatic stressors. Forests as one of the precious natural assetsavailable in the landscape is best means to address community and ecosystem vulnerability throughadaptation works like plantation, protecting against hazards like landslide, floods, water scarcity, etc.In Nepal, community forest users groups (CFUG) are playing unconditional role in adaptation.

CFUGs with legal entity serve as grass-root organization in preparation of community based adaptationplan of action (CAPA). Hariyo Ban program, CARE have facilitated in preparation of CAPAPs in remote,vulnerable and marginalized communities of different places of CHAL. Community adaptation planswere prepared using the National Framework of local adaptation plan (2010), Integrated communityadaptation plan: Guidance Manual, Hariyo Ban (2013) and other available materials. The result showscommunity perception towards climate change impacts in forest based livelihoods. Uncertainties andextreme events of climate change, such as flash floods, floods, landslide, soil erosion, drought, pests,diseases, forest fires, and other development stress like unplanned rural road construction, havemystified the grass-root communities with no better adaptation options besides forcing communitiesto suffer. CAPA has provided ray of hope towards building resilient communities and ecosystemreducing threats and vulnerabilities nearby their communities and diversifying climate resilientlivelihood options through implementation of CAPA.

Key words: Community forest, forest based livelihood, climate vulnerability, CAPA, Hariyo Banprogram

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ASSESSING THE EFFECTS OF INFRASTRUCTURAL DEVELOPMENT ON RURAL LIVELIHOODS,POVERTY AND FOREST AND ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCE USE

L.C. Charlery*, H. Meilby and C. Smith-Hall

University of Copenhagen, IFRO, Denmark*E-mail: lindycharlery@ifro.ku.dk

Nepal, like many other developing countries, across Asia, Africa and Latin America, remains burdenedwith poor public infrastructural development. This burden appears to contribute to social poverty andinequality, especially in the less accessible rural communities of these regions. Recent studies havefound that roads were among the most important factors affecting rural livelihoods in Nepal. But thequestion of “how important a factor it really is” still remains insufficiently studied, documented andunderstood. This study aims to contribute to answering this question by using the case of theconstruction of the “Beni-Jomsom road” as an example to analyze the effects of increasing communityaccess and mobility on rural livelihoods, poverty and natural resource use. We hypothesize that thechanges brought about by the new road have led to an increase in average household income, whichmostly benefit the richer households, thus having little to no positive effects on poverty reduction andsocial equity. We also believe that increased market access has driven changes in household livelihoodstrategies, which also influence natural resource use. To analyze and compare changes in householdincome, poverty dynamics and social equity, the study makes use of a dataset with one survey roundbefore the construction of the road and two rounds after. Isolating which changes can be attributed tothe new road would address through comparison of the study sites with a reference site in an adjacentdistrict. It is expected that the results stemming from this study would help guide policy makers inimplementing policies aimed at addressing the problem of poor infrastructural development in amanner that considers the impacts on all sections of the society, especially the poorer, marginalizedhouseholds.

Key words: Nepal, rural roads, livelihood strategies, social inequality, market access, mobility

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FOOD SECURITY AND CLIMATE CHANGE IN RUPA LAKE AREA OF KASKI DISTRICT, NEPAL

Sajani Shrestha

Division of Agriculture and Food Technology, Research Center for Applied Science and Technology,Tribhuvan University, Kirtipur, Kathmandu, Nepal; Mobile: 9841360723

The Rupa lake area in Lekhnath Municipality, Kaski district, Nepal was selected to explore impacts ofclimate change on livelihoods in terms of food security. 20% of the wetland dependent communitiesconstituted sample households (HH) and semi-structured questionnaire and focused groupconsultations held. It is found that majority of population (87%) of lake basin is dependent onagriculture for food security in terms of availability of lake resources, nutritional status and localeconomy for which the lake is proven to be very instrumental. Status of community forest and lakeenvironment has improved in a period of 10 years because of conservation practices initiated bycommunities including the Rupa Lake Restoration and Fishery Cooperative. As a result abundance ofNTFPs has increased - 49 NTFPs are available in the lake basin. 10% HHs has additional income fromNTFP-based medicine as indirect provider to food security. A few HHs already started farming ofNTFPs. Availability of fodder and fuelwood from community forests has significantly contributed tolivelihoods whereas wild edible fruits and vegetables have supplementary roles. Further, nutritionalsecurity has improved because of fish farming in lake yet in practice by the cooperative, and the shareincome thereby, distributed to HH members directly contributing to the livelihoods.

There is a year-round food security for 50% HHs, with 22% of this having surplus food. A 5% of HHs hasfood security for less than three months whereas 19% HHs have food security for more than sixmonths. Within this scenario, over 90% HHs responded to climate change in the form of rise intemperature (74%), unpredictable rainfall (77%), shift in rainfall (64%), and phonological changes (51%).However, the impacts of climate change in the context of livelihood and food security are not yetvisible at community level. It may be because, the communities in Rupa lake basin are least aware todifferentiate generic impacts and the impacts of climate change in food security, or improved lakebasin environment has been readdressing micro-climate issues such as surface temperature, soilmoisture and so on which needs further investigation.

Key words: Livelihood, NTFP, wetland, lake environment, community forest

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EVALUATING COMMUNITY PLANTED FOREST AND PUBLIC PLANTATION UNDER THE FRAMEWORK

OF CDM AND REDD+ MECHANISM

Ram Asheshwar Mandal1, Ishwar Chandra Dutta2, Pramod Kumar Jha3, Sidhibir Karmacharya4,Samshul Mohammad Haque5,1 Trichandra college, Kathmandu; ram.mandal@gmail.com2 Tribhuwan University Service Commission, Kirtipur, Kathmandu3 Central Department of Botany, Tribhuwan University, Kirtipur, Kathmandu4 Trichandra College, Department of Botany, Kathmandu5 Institute of Forestry, Hetauda Campus, Hetauda

Community planted forests (CPFs) and public plantations (PPs) are unique types of participatory forestmanagement practice in Nepal, but their eligibility issues to clean development mechanism (CDM) andreducing emission from deforestation and forest degradation (REDD+) mechanism are not evaluatedyet. The main objective of the research was to study the management practice of plantations underthe framework of CDM and REDD+. Three CPFs and three PPs in Mahottary district, Nepal wereselected for study site and their maps were prepared using GPS coordinates. Altogether 55 sampleplots were randomly distributed on the map and nested plots of size of 10m x 10m for pole and 1m x 1mfor litter and grasses were established in the field. Height and diameter at breast height (DBH) ofpoles and sapling were measured. Soil samples were taken from each plot at 0-0.1m, 0.1-0.3m and 0.3-0.6m depth. The biomass was calculated using the equation of Chave et al. and converted into carbonwhile soil carbon was analyzed in laboratory. Available documents regarding management practiceswere evaluated under the framework of CDM and REDD+. The CPFs are the patches of national forestmanaged by users while PPs are public land managed especially by disadvantaged community underagro-forestry practice. The carbon stock ranged from 30.34 ton/ ha in Bisbitty PP to 148.89 ton/ ha inSita CPF. It is difficult to certify plantations under CDM because of its complex eligibility technicalelements, which may be easy under REDD+ applying bundling with large forest blocks.

Key words: Participatory forest management, soil carbon, carbon stock, bundling

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LIVELIHOOD STRATEGIES AND POVERTY IN RURAL NEPAL

Bir Bahadur Khanal Chhetri, Helle Overgarrd Larsen, Santosh Rayamajhi, Øystein Juul Nielsen,Carsten Smith-Hall and Mariève Pouliot

This paper uses a novel quantitative activity choice approach, based on identification of activityvariables and application of latent class cluster analysis, to identify seven major rural livelihoodstrategies pursued by households (n=861) in rural Nepal. Preliminary findings reveal that lessremunerative livelihood strategies are associated with gender and ethnic affiliation and otherhousehold characteristics that should be addressed simultaneously in targeted poverty interventions.In particular, education and access to natural capital and migrant work improve income earningsamong poor households. Livelihood strategies are partly location specific while poverty is widespreadand not confined to remote areas only. Accordingly, it is important to consider likely regional impactsassociated with rural development policies.

Key words: Ethnic affiliation, household characteristics, natural capital, migrant work

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HOLOCENE CLIMATIC CHANGES VIS-À-VIS FLUCTUATIONS OF GANGOTRI GLACIER WESTERN

HIMALAYA

Amalava Bhattacharyya*, Parminder Singh Ranhotra and Santosh K. Shah

Birbal Sahni Institute of Palaeobotany, India

* amalava@yahoo.com

Tree ring and pollen are widely used for the reconstruction of climate during Holocene from theHimalayan region. Tree-rings of Birch (Betula utilis) growing at 3900 m.a.s.l along the moraines atBhojbasa, about 3 km south of snout of Gangotri Glacier have been studied towards understanding ofprobable linkage with the climate and fluctuations of this glacier. This tree exhibits negativerelationship with temperature of January, March and April; and direct relationship with precipitation ofMarch, April and June; and temperature of February. Further, increased tree growth recorded in recentyears matched with the rapid recent retreat of this glacier. We hypothesize that the fast retreat of thisglacier might be cumulative effect of several climatic parameters, which enhance tree growth i.e.increased precipitation of March, April, June and increased temperature of February, latter might belinked with low snowfall. Similarly, pollen from sub-surface sediments near snout of this glacier gives aglimpse of paleovegetation-palaeoclimate changes during the Holocene. Around 8.7k yrs BP climatewas warm-moist when thermophilous trees used to grow in vicinity of the site and their decline withthe expense of steppe elements around 8.3k yr BP, turned to arid climate, which is interrupted by briefmoist conditions during 7.3 to 6.0 k yr BP. Progressive increases of steppe taxa also indicated a climaticchange towards drier phase, which cumulating in peak around 5 k yr BP. Around 5-3 k yr BP climate wasless-dry when both conifers and birch declined. Around 2 k yr BP, climate became cooler and moisterwith further amelioration subsequently around 1.7 k yr BP. The sharp increase of steppe elementsaround 1.0-0.85 k yr BP reflected a trend towards cool-dry climatic conditions. During recent time,climate again reverted to warmer condition.

Key words: Betula utilis, temperature, precipitation, pollen, paleovegetation, palaeoclimate

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AGRICULTURE INTENSIFICATION, PESTICIDE USE, HUMAN HEALTH AND ECONOMIC COSTS

Kishor Atreya1, Bishal Kumar Sitaula1, Roshan Man Bajracharya2 and Subodh Sharma2

1 Department of International Environment and Development Studies, Norwegian University of LifeSciences, 1432 Aas, Norway.

2 Department of Environmental Science and Engineering, Kathmandu University, Post Box 6250,Dhulikhel, Nepal.

The excessive use of chemical pesticides in vegetable farming in hills of Nepal not only pollutes theenvironment but also affects farmers’ health. It may adversely affect human health and increasedeconomic costs for the farmer. A study was carried out in Ansikhola watershed of central mid-hills ofNepal. The objective was to observe the effect of the use of chemical pesticides on intensive farmingand its health and economic consequences. Data was collected through household surveys, groupdiscussions and individual interviews. The Test-mate ChECholinesterase Test System was used tomonitor erythrocyte acetylcholinesterase (AChE) activity before and after pesticide applicationseasons. Cost-of-illness, defensive expenditures, and willingness to pay approaches were applied forestimating health costs of pesticide use. To this, an opportunity cost of spraying time, and amountspent on purchasing chemical pesticides were added for estimating total economic cost of pesticideuse.

The study found low levels of care with regard to pesticide use and high level of awareness among thefarmers with regard to the environmental impacts of pesticide use. However, farmers failed to takeadequate safety precautions. Current levels of use of pesticides were sufficient to cause acute healthsymptoms and acetylcholinesterase (AChE) depressions. Also, it revealed that exposed farmers werelikely to have carried increased economic costs as a result of pesticide use. On average, the healthcosts of illness associated with pesticide use was equivalent to nearly 5% of agricultural cash income,which was likely to be higher for small-scale households (5.7%) than the large-scale (3.6%). Similarly, thetotal economic costs of pesticide use for farmers amounted to 15% of agricultural cash income and/or5% of total household cash income.

Key words: chemical pesticide, vegetable farming, intensive farming, acetylcholinesterase,environmental impact

18

AN ASSESSMENT OF CLIMATE CHANGE IMPACTS AND ADAPTATION MEASURES ON WATER

RESOURCES IN RURAL AREAS OF WESTERN NEPAL: A CASE STUDY OF UPALLO LOHORE SUB-WATERSHED AREA OF DAILEKH DISTRICT

KISHOR ARYAL

The study entitled was carried out during February to July, 2012 to assess the impacts of climatechange and its adaptation measure on water resources. Six VDCs in the North East high altitudinal sub-watershed were taken for the study purposes. Various tools including structured and semi-structuredquestionnaire survey of 115 households, 6 group discussions, 15 key informants survey, directobservation and trend line observation were carried out to collect the primary data. Data analysis wasdone by both qualitative and quantitative means. Although, most of the people were found to beunaware of the impacts of climate change, landslide and flooding were the major prominent problems.Scarcity of water sources for domestic as well as irrigation purposes was also imminent. Temperaturewas believed to be increasing and there was the decreasing trend of precipitation. Frequency ofoccurrence of intense rainfall, flooding, prolonged drought period and forest fires were found to beincreasing. Decrease in the production of agricultural crops due to lack of irrigation was the mostprecarious. Diarrhea was the prominent water induced health hazards. Water source protection,irrigation canal improvement, rainwater collection were found to be practiced for the adaptation towater source scarcity. Check dam, embankment, bio engineering works were in practice to minimizethe impacts of water induced hazards. Vulnerability analysis, mapping of water induced hazardousarea need to be done and participatory local adaptation plan of action for the climate changeadaptation need to be developed and Programmes and activities should be implemented accordingly.Provision of compensation to the victims of climate change impacts at policy level, identification ofmost vulnerable areas and endorsement of package Programme of climate change adaption must bethe future concerns.

Key words: Climate change adaptation, water sources, water induced hazards, adaptation plan ofaction, vulnerability analysis

19

WILDLIFE DAMAGES AND ADAPTATION STRATEGIES: A CASE FROM CHITWAN NATIONAL PARK,NEPAL

T. Silwal1*, R. Subedi1 and B.S. Poudel2

1 Institute of Forestry, Pokhara, Nepal2 Department of Forest Research and Survey, Kathmandu, Nepal*Corresponding email: thakur.silwal@gamail.com

The human-wildlife conflict is an increasing issue, which has become challenging problem for ruralcommunities and management authorities that threaten both wildlife and people in Nepal,particularly in the buffer zone (BZ) of protected areas. This case study discusses the trend of wildlifedamages, adaptation initiatives and their effectiveness in Chitwan National Park in order to explorebetter understanding issues of conflicts. Moreover, the study provides an insight into wildlifedamages and its adaptation based on information collected by using PRA tools. The focus groupdiscussions (n = 22) at each user committee, key informant interviews and victim households (n = 200)were used for questionnaire survey covering all sorts of damages. The wildlife damaged registered atBZ Management Committee were also used to assess the extent and trend of damages. The studyshowed that crop raiding, livestock depredation, property damages and human casualties by wildanimals are increasing and animals like elephant, tiger and rhino were blamed responsible in recentyears. Communities close to forest areas having agriculture and livestock based livelihoods and havingpoor infrastructure, and forest dwellers for daily livelihoods seem to be more exposed to damage.More than 50% people have major threats to elephant followed by tiger, rhino, wild boar, beer,leopard and spotted deer. About 80% respondents perceived that increase in population of largeanimals, shrinkage and deterioration of natural habitats were the major causes of animals moving outfrom the forest and create damages. Crop guarding, fire chasing, use of explosive, fencing, watchtower construction, trench construction, making noise, crop diversifying and introducing unpalatablevarieties were some initiatives. Among them electric fencing seemed more effective to controlanimals entering into farmlands. Most of respondents were unsatisfied with the wildlife damagecompensation scheme, which is minimal and is a complex process. It is concluded that existingadaptation initiatives are not readily able to cope with increasing wildlife damages. The process ofproviding relief funds should be shortened and simplified for all types of damages. Immediate needsof quick relief fund should be created and electric fences expanded to the remaining settlements.

Key words: Compensation, buffer zone, protected area, natural habitat, electric fencing

20

NATURE OF POVERTY IN COMMUNITY FORESTS AND REALIZATION OF FOREST BENEFITS BY THE

USERS (A CASE OF UNSEEN POOR IN THE MOST SEEN CF)

Rajbabu Pahadi

Deradhun, India

Two successful community forests (CFs) of Makawanpur district were purposively selected for thestudy. The objective of the research was to analyse the nature of poverty and the state of inequalityregarding CF benefit sharing by the users. The study also looked into measuring the inequality of theincome distribution among the users, examining the state of CF benefits realization by the differentclass (caste, wealth) of users and analysing the dimension of direct product and service benefits of CFto the users. 101 and 31 respondents were selected from Jhirghari CF and Simpani Devkot CFrespectively for the questionnaire survey conducted during mid April to mid June 2007. Differentmathematical and the statistical tools have been utilized to analyse the data. The collected data and itsanalysis showed the rampant poverty in both CFs. Also, there was income inequality among the usersin both CFs. Though the non- poor received more benefit from CFs in absolute term in both of CFs, theshare of CF income to their total income was more in case of absolute poor. Share of CF income tototal household income of absolute poor and non poor in Jhirghari CF were 27.64% and 22.29%respectively while in Simpani Devkot CF They were 20.45% and 3.77% respectively. There were alsosome site-specific differences between the two CFs.

Key words: Income, forest benefit sharing, inequality, Makawanpur, poor, income distribution

21

VULNERABILITIES OF SHIFTING CULTIVATORS AND POTENTIAL LAND MANAGEMENT OPTIONS IN

SHIFTING CULTIVATION SYSTEMS OF NEPAL

Keshav Thapa*, P. Chaudhary, G.B. Sharma, RC Khanal, B.B. Tamang, P. Limbu, K. Aryal, B. Ranabhat,V. Joshi and A. Shrestha

* kthapa@libird.org

This study examined vulnerability of shifting cultivators (SCs) in relation to climate variability andassociated changes using a household survey with randomly sampled 486 shifting cultivationhouseholds from selected VDCs of Nawalparasi, Gorkha, Dhading, Chitwan, Makwanpur,Sankhuwasabha and Taplejung, 12 focus group discussions and 46 key informant interviews (15females). The study also took into account of exposure of shifting cultivators, their sensitivity andadaptive capacity in order to arrive at the conclusion. Main indicators of adaptive capacity consideredare: food security, cash income (saving), sources of income, knowledge base and preparedness, statusof livelihood assets (diverse and option of choice in the use of assets). The study revealed that foodshortage (43% hh), crop failure (30% hh), loss of livestock (22%), and water scarcity (14%) were the majorshocks faced by SCs in Nepal. SCs perceived a major contribution of climate change and associatedhazards to generate these shocks. 55% respondents believed that drought has increased and 30%believed it remained same over the last 10 years. Likewise, 45% reported high intensity but shortduration rainfall has increased and 20% reported no change over the same period. Increased droughthas directly contributed to less food production, crop failure, water scarcity for livestock and waterstress for livestock; whereas increased intensity of rainfall has accelerated soil erosion and hencedecreased soil fertility of shifting cultivation land. Among SCs, households living in central Nepal havingno legal rights to their lands and few livelihood options (such as only shifting cultivation) were foundto be most vulnerable. In this context, increasing food security through increasing land productivitywith secured tenureship over land and diversifying livelihood assets and strategies of SCs is crucial. Werecommend promoting better land management practices with increasing fallow periods and usingappropriate agro-forestry interventions such as integration of legumes, fruits, fodders, and medicinalplants and wild edibles can enhance land productivity of sloping and shifting cultivation lands andimprove food security of SCs.

Key words: Climate variability, adaptive capacity, sources of income, livelihood assets, agro-forestry

22

CHEPANG AND CHIURI: OPPORTUNITY OF PARADIGM SHIFT FROM INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE AND

PRACTICE TO TRADE, AND CLIMATE CHANGE CONSEQUENCES IN LIVELIHOOD

Surya Binod Pokharel

Promotion of non-timber forest products (NTFPs) in Nepal’s trademark forest management modality“community forestry” is well known in the world. Forest coverage of Chitwan district is 128,500 ha(57%) and 30,035 ha (33%) are being managed through participatory forest management modalities.Eight Community Forest User Groups (CFUGs) have been managing 2829 ha of forest area in KorakVDC, the study area. Primary data was collected through focus group discussion and key informantinterview with CFUGs, traders and government officers. The perception of climate change, adverseeffect and coping strategies were also discussed with local community during the field study.Altogether 22,702 Chiuri trees (Aesandra butyracea roxburn) found in the study area and around 50%are matured. Chiuri seeds collection, ghee production and their use by Chepang, an indigenouscommunity are being practiced from ancient time. Out of 1610 households in the study area, around50% collected seeds and produced a significant volume of ghee by using their traditional Chepuwaextractor for its extraction. The total worth of collected seeds, ghee and oil cake produced was NPR4,587,200. The market of Chiuri ghee is expanding from home consumption to commercial andaesthetic values such as for making herbal soap and cosmetics products and for burning lights inmonasteries and temples. The facts illustrate that Chuiri ghee production has huge potential shifting totrade and can be commercialised as a major source of income for Chepang community livelihoods.However, upgrading/replacing of traditional extractor Chepuwa by modern machine, orientation onmarket linkages and agro-forestry techniques to Chepang community will increase their production,income and employment. Chepang communities were found not familiar with the term ‘climatechange’; however, they perceived a significant change in climatic parameters such as temperature andprecipitation. They have noticed drying up of water springs and decreased crops yields. As coppingstrategies, they have diversified their livelihood support measures such as crop production, sales ofNTFPs, bee keeping and preserved edible wild plants and explored the option of off-farm employment.

Key words: NTFPs, community forest, income, climatic parameters, coping strategy

23

FORESTS AND RURAL POVERTY DYNAMICS: THE CASE OF THREE DISTRICTS IN NEPAL

S. Z. Walelign, L.C. Charlery, B.B. K. Chhetri, H.O. Larsen, Ø.J. Neilsen And C. Smith-Hall,

The literature on poverty dynamics in developing country communities that are reliant on forestincome is almost entirely based on cross-sectional assessments. These snap-shot figures provideinformation on the current consumption and gap filling functions of forests but they do not allow ananalysis and understanding of the role of forests towards escaping poverty. To address this issue, weused panel income and consumption data collected in 2006 and 2009 in the same households (n=446)in three sites in Nepal. The data is used to categorize households with regard to their expected povertystatus and assess the weight of the eight major income sources in each category. Preliminary analysesshow that 66 households moved into poverty, 70 moved out of poverty, 161 remained poor and 149households remained non-poor. The roles played by the various income sources in the observedpoverty dynamics are discussed; calculations of poverty transition rates with and without forestincomes illustrate the importance of forest access to rural livelihoods.

Key words: Forest income, consumption, gap filling function, poverty status, income sources

24

FROM ENVIRONMENTAL BAD TO ECONOMIC GOOD: TRANSFORMATION OF MIKANIA MICRANTHA

INTO COMPOST

Rajan Subedi1 and Rajesh Kumar Rai2

1 Tribhuvan University, Institute of Forestry, Pokhara, Nepal; Email- subedi.rjn@gmail.com2 Green Governance Nepal, Kathmandu; Email- rjerung@yahoo.com

Managing invasive plants has become a great challenge to biodiversity conservation throughout theworld including Nepal. Mikania micrantha H.B.K., one of 32 worst invasive plant species, is colonizingrapidly in the tropical part of the country. The species is recognized as a threat to rural ecosystemsincluding forest and livelihoods of local communities. There is no strategy to control the spread ofvines, as a consequence, the vines are spreading freely and deteriorating forests. Manual cutting ofand uprooting before flowering were the most suitable control techniques in Nepalese context as localcommunities are managing forest patches. The problem arises to manage the removed vines. A properutilization of the removed biomass may have twofold benefits: (i) reduce management cost, and (ii)attracts farmers to remove vines. In this context, this study was designed to commoditize Mikania ascompost. An experiment was carried out using three composting techniques including pit, heap andvermi-composting in Janakauli Buffer Zone Community Forest, Chitwan, Nepal. Two types of materialswere prepared for compostingMikania only and mixing Mikania with other vegetation. The results ofour experiment suggest that Mikania micrantha can be used to produce compost mixing with othernative vegetation. Heap method produced more effective results compared to other two methods asMikania micrantha has high moisture content. The lab test indicated that Mikania micrantha manurehad 0.6-1.9 % nitrogen, 0.6-0.5% phosphorous and 0.2-2.5 % potassium. These values suggest thatMikania composts are nutritious to plants like other bio-fertilizers including animal manure. Highernutrients concentration and fast decomposition were observed in the mixed vegetation treatmentcompared to Mikania alone. Mixing Mikania with other native vegetation also helps to lower theallelopathic effects. This study concludes that open semi pit (Mulkhat in Nepali) nearby cattle shed ismore suitable strategy to prepare compost of Mikania.

Key words: Invasion, composting, pit, heap, vermin-composting

25

THEME TWO: BIODIVERSITY AND NATURAL RESOURCE MANAGEMENT

MONITORING OF ABOVE GROUND FOREST BIOMASS: A COMPARISON OF COST AND ACCURACY

BETWEEN LIDAR ASSISTED MULTI-SOURCE PROGRAM AND FIELD BASED FOREST RESOURCE

ASSESSMENT IN NEPAL

Pem Narayan Kandel

Forest Resource Assessment (FRA) Nepal, Department of Forest Research and Survey, Ministry ofForests and Soil Conservation, Nepal; pkkandelnepal@gmail.com

Analyzing forest monitoring costs and accuracy of forest carbon stock estimates are important criteriain the framework of Reducing Emission from Deforestation and Degradation (REDD), becausemonitoring, reporting and verification (MRV) system has been seen as an investment that aims togenerate financial benefits to forest owners. Thus, comparisons of cost efficiency and accuracy werecarried out between Lidar Assisted Multisource Program (LAMP) and field based multisource ForestResource Assessment (FRA) applied in 23500 km2 Terai Arc Landscape (TAL) of Nepal in 2011 toestimate above ground biomass (AGB). The model based LAMP was applied by integrating 5% LiDAR(Light Detection and Ranging) sampling, wall to wall Rapid Eye satellite image and sample field plotinventory. The design-based FRA was carried out to generate comprehensive forest resourceinformation. Administrative and initial variable costs of both approaches were calculated separately,and converted to unit costs for comparison. To compare the subsequent forest monitoring costs,cumulative costs were derived on the basis of the calculated present variable items and expenditures.The accuracies were calculated by using mean error of mean biomass estimates (tons/ha) at differentspatial scales ranging from 1 to 350,000 ha forests. Design-based FRA was cost efficient (US$ 0.22/ha)over the LAMP approach (US$ 0.28/ha) for baseline data collection, whereas administrative cost ofmultisource FRA (US$ 0.26/ha) was significantly higher. Although a huge amount of data weregenerated through multisource FRA in each cycle, LAMP approach appears cost efficient to estimateAGB in subsequent forest inventory. The mean errors in LAMP-derived mean biomass estimate aresignificantly smaller at all spatial resolutions than mean error in FRA-plot derived mean biomassestimate. The study concludes that spatial accuracy of LAMP is good enough to estimate biomassstock of community forests (CFs) where average size of CF was 150 ha in the study area.

Key words: Forest resource monitoring, model based forest inventory, baseline variable,administrative costs, spatial accuracy

26

IMPACT OF FOREST MANAGEMENT ON STAND STRUCTURE AND TREE DIVERSITY IN THE SAL

(SHOREA ROBUSTA) FOREST OF NEPAL

Sunita Ranabhat1 and Rajesh Malla2

1 Green Governance Nepal, Kathmandu, Nepal2 Department of Forest Research and Survey, Kathmandu, Nepal

Shorea robusta (Sal) forests are important for commercial and subsistence purposes in developingcountries like Nepal. Vast tracts of Sal forest have been managed and conserved either by thegovernment or by communities in the lowland of Nepal. This study was conducted to assess andcompare the stand structure and tree diversity of the Sal forest under different management regimes,i.e. national park (NP) and community forest (CF) in the buffer zone area. The Bardia National Park hasbeen under strict protection since 1969 while the Chidkaiya, Thakurdwara and Betani CF were underprotection by communities since 1996. Three transects, 200 m apart, were laid out systematically.Concentric circular plots were used at 150 m apart in each transect for the ground measurement. Thesize of the plots was designed based on diameter class of the trees. Altogether 30 and 26 sample plotswere employed in NP and CF respectively.The density of trees, poles and regenerations were higher in NP while the density of saplings washigher in CF. Similarly, basal area of trees was higher in NP than in CF. A total of 19 species of trees andpoles, 11 species of saplings and 12 species of seedlings were identified in NP. The number of trees andpoles, sapling and seedling species recorded in CF were 11, 13 and 19 respectively. Estimators of speciesdiversity such as Jack 2, Chao 2 and Shannon Wiener Index identified NP as more diverse in tree andpole stage than CF. In contrast to this, CF was more diverse in sapling and seedling stage. The presenceof low number of poles in CF indicates that before community conservation, the forest was highlydisturbed in the past. But adequate numbers of saplings and seedlings in CF show that the condition ofdegraded forest can be enhanced under community management regime in the long run. Therefore,CFs in buffer zone areas seem to be one of the best alternatives to turn out the degraded Sal forestinto better condition.

Key words: Biodiversity, buffer zone area, community forest, protected area, Bardia National Park

27

TREE-LINE DYNAMICS WITH CLIMATE CHANGE IN NEPAL HIMALAYA

Narayan Prasad Gaire1,2*, Madan Koirala 2 and Dinesh Raj Bhuju1, 2

1Nepal Academy of Science and Technology, Khumaltar, Lalitpur2 Central Department of Environmental Science, Tribhuvan University, Kirtipur, Kathmandu*npgaire2007@gmail.com

Himalayan countries are more vulnerable to the climate change impacts, and temperature warming ismore pronounced in their high altitudes. Tree-lines are sensitive biomonitors of past and recentclimate change and variability, and also taken as early warning signal to climatic impacts on highaltitude biota. Scientific information on the response of different communities to climate change ispre-requisite to develop any measures. We carried out a study at tree-lines of Mt. Everest(Sagarmatha) and Mt. Manaslu regions of the Nepal Himalaya with the aim to assess impacts ofclimate change in the tree-line ecotone and to reconstruct the past environmental history of theregion. Two to three vertical belt transect plots (20m wide x >100m length) were laid down in eachsite. Both ecological and dendrochronological tools were followed and climatic response on radialgrowth, recruitment of Abies spectabilis D. Don and Betula utilis D. Don and their age distribution wereanalyzed. The tree density, basal area, DBH, height and age were found decreased with increasingelevation though with spatial heterogeneity. Abies showed slightly bimodal distribution of DBH andage classes, which was different for Betula. Upward advancement of tree-line is expected in the recentdecades though not necessarily uniform throughout the tree-line. The tree core analysis showed thatB. utilis was established earlier than A. spectabilis. The upper distribution limit shift of A. spectabilis atManaslu was found 2.61m per year, which is comparable to other studies. Relationship between twosite chronologies of Abies showed positive indicating some common factors limiting growth of the treein both sites. Tree growth climate relationship showed negative response with temperature of March-May. Upward treeline shifting may have negative consequences to the alpine biota due to competitionwith lower species for space and resources. The differential regeneration or recruitment pattern oftwo tree-line tree species suggests: i) plant communities are changing in their composition with time,and ii) each plant species respond to environmental change differently. Hence, there should be speciesspecific conservation measures to protect the species from adverse impact of climate change.

Key words: Age, dendrochronology, species limit, Abies spectabilis, Betula utilis

28

SEASONAL CHANGES AND POSSIBLE IMPACTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE ON BIODIVERSITY

Remya K1, A. Ramachandran, Divya C and Radhapriya P

Centre for Climate Change and Adaptation Research, Anna University, Chennai-600 0251 remyak.cc@gmail.com

The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change underpins the importance of conserving biodiversityin the face of changing climatic conditions. Some of the major considerations under impact of climatechange on floral biodiversity include changes in species distribution, increased extinction rate ofspecies, changes in reproduction timings and in length of growing season for plants. Eastern Ghats ofIndia are endowed with an extensively rich variety of biological species, geological formations anddifferent ethnic tribes. Kolli hills are part of the Eastern Ghats, which houses around 854 species ofAngiosperms, 57 Pteridophytes and 5 Gymnosperms. The composite slope of Kolli hills consists ofshola (6%), evergreen (1%), semi-evergreen (8%), deciduous (4%), thorn (38%) and scrub and plantation(1%). Though the biodiversity of Kolli hills has been studied widely, the climate impact on biodiversitychanges has not been emphasized so far. Therefore, the present study aimed to understand theclimate profile of Kolli hills and the indications of its relation to biodiversity. It is seen that there is avery slight shift in the onset of rainfall in Kolli hills and there has a significant decreasing trend in thesouth west monsoon, which drains major part of the area. An increasing Northeast monsoon rainfalltrend is visible from the data analyzed over a period of four decades. Evidences on climate impactsuggest that deciduous plants phenology exhibit high risk towards the rainfall trends in the summerseason. Therefore, it could be concluded that rainfall pattern, especially increased summer rainfall willhave profound effect on the deciduous flora of Kolli Hills. Further research in this regard requiresinvestigation of temperature trend and the combined influence on biodiversity loss. Prediction offuture rainfall pattern in Kolli hills will be required for formulating better adaptation strategies toclimate change.

Key words: Forest, rainfall trend, seasonal rainfall changes, deciduous flora

29

BIOCHAR AS A SOIL AMENDMENT AND ITS INDIGENOUS USE FOR CROP PRODUCTION ONMARGINAL LANDS IN THE MOUNTAINS OF NEPAL

Roshan M. Bajracharya, N.R. Dahal, S.B. Bajracharya and N. Gautam

Department of Environmental Science and Engineering, School of Science, Kathmandu University,Dhulikhel, Nepal

Although the production and use of biochar in agriculture through indigenous methods is not new,scientific investigation into the benefits of biochar is a recent development. Biochar, the pyrolysisproduct of vegetative biomass combusted under low oxygen conditions, has unique structural,porosity and nutrient retention characteristics and hence acts as a catalyst for microbial activity in thesoil. Applied as a soil amendment, it can serve to improve the soil’s fertility and productivity, while alsohas potential to enhance the carbon storage capacity and longevity in soil. Indigenous communities inDolakha District of east-central Nepal have been using a locally developed technique for producingbiochar and using it in the cultivation of finger millet under the “Bukma” system. Although this systemof millet production is a form of shifting cultivation with 3-5 year fallow periods between successivecropping, and it is done mainly on marginal lands at elevations above 2500m, this study noted thatmillet production would have not been viable in the absence of biochar usage. While the soil physicaland chemical properties of the “Bukma” soil were not significantly better than adjacent regular uplandterrace farms, the system enabled reasonable harvests of millet despite the poor quality of the soil onthese marginal and steep lands.

Key words: Biomass, soil fertility, productivity, Bukma, finger millet

30

REDUCED SOIL CH4 UPTAKE DUE TO GRAZING IN FOREST OF BILIGIRI HILLS OF INDIA

Nani Raut1*, Bishal Kumar Sitaula1 and Roshan Man Bajracharya2

1 Department of International Environment and Development Studies, Norwegian University of LifeSciences, PO box 5003, N-1432 Aas, Norway

2 Department of Environment Science and Engineering, Kathmandu University, Dhulikhel, Nepal* rautnani7@gmail.com

We have measured the fluxes of CH4 with a closed chamber technique throughout one year in a forestof Western Ghats, Karnataka state, SW India. The results showed that the net CH4 sink was significantlyhigher in undisturbed forest compared to disturbed forest. The annual CH4 sink in undisturbed anddisturbed forest are 1.56 kg CH4 per ha and 1.04 kg CH4 per ha respectively. The accumulated CH4 sink(µg/m2/d) measured over the four different seasons were highest during monsoon whereas the lowestsink was during post monsoon season. During the monsoon season, the grazing activities are lowerdue to the heavy and prolonged rainfall, which could be the possible explanation for higher sink thanduring other seasons in both the sites. In contrast, the higher grazing pressure during post monsoonseason led to the soil compaction due to livestock treading and trampling, thus created an anaerobiccondition in the soil with reduced air filled pore spaces. This led to an increased methanogenic activityand could be the possible explanation for reduced CH4 sink during post monsoon season.

Key words: Fluxes of CH4, Western Ghats, undisturbed forest, disturbed forest, monsoon

31

EFFECT OF LAND USE ON SOIL DEGRADATION IN CHITLANG WATERSHED OF NEPAL

Hari Ram Upadhayay1,3*, Susmina Gajurel1, Roshan Man Bajracharya1, Wim Cornelis2 and PascalBoeckx3

1 Aquatic Ecology Centre, Department of Environmental Science and Engineering, KathmanduUniversity, Dhulikhel, Nepal

2 Department of Soil Management, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Coupure Links653, 9000 Gent, Belgium

3 Isotope Bioscience Laboratory-ISOFYS, Department of Physical and Analytical Chemistry, Faculty ofBioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Coupure Links 653, 9000 Gent, Belgium

*hrgene@gmail.com

Land uses affect many natural resources and ecological processes such as surface runoff and erosionby affecting soil physico-chemical properties, which are directly linked to land degradation. Five landuses were studied to assess the quality of soil physical and chemical properties in Chitlang watershed,a sub-watershed of Kulekhani water basin in the mid-hills of central Nepal. The watershed was dividedinto four sectors and composite soil samples (0-150 cm) were taken from each sector by land uses. Soilparticle size distribution, bulk density, loss on ignition (LOI), pH, erodibility (K) factor, total nitrogenand available phosphorus were determined. According to study result, top soil of the watershed wasfound dominated by medium fine (clay<35% and sand<15%) textural class that is very prone to soilerosion. Pristine forest was found to have significantly higher loss on ignition of soils while K factorwas significantly lower than in other land uses. Significant difference (p<0.05) in pH (1:1 0.01 M CaCl2)of soil between lowland (Khet) and upland (Bari) was reported. Pearsons correlation results showedsignificant correlation among K factor with other soil properties such as LOI and pH. This study showedthat soil of the study area was sensitive to erosion especially from upland during early monsoon whenthere was less surface cover.

Key words: Loss on Ignition, erodibility, land degradation, soil erosion, bari, khet

32

DOES MOUNTAIN TOURISM CONTRIBUTE TO FOREST CONSERVATION AND SUSTAINABLE COMMUNITY

DEVELOPMENT? A CASE FROM LOWER MUSTANG OF NEPAL HIMALAYA

Suresh K. Shrestha and Santosh Rayamajhi

Tribhuvan University, Institute of Forestry, Pokhara, Nepal

Potentials of mountain tourism in natural resources conservation and sustainable communitydevelopment have been emphasized by numerous scholars. Studies that compare tourism’s role innature conservation and community development (CD) in two similar areas with and without tourism(control area) are extremely lacking. The paper examines the impact of mountain tourism in CD andforest conservation (FC) by comparing income and employment status and FC activities in Lete (withsome form of tourism development) and Kunjo (without any tourism activities) of Lower Mustang.

Relevant data and information were collected using RRA/PRA and questionnaire survey of 180randomly selected households including 32 hotel entrepreneurs and sampling of 120 permanent forestplots used by respondents. Surveys were replicated among the same respondents over four quartersof the survey year. Our result supported the view that tourism contributed to CD and FC. Specifically,more households in Lete were involved in tourism business than in Kunjo and the number of hotelswas rapidly increasing in Lete. Likewise, the income level of Lete was higher than Kunjo due toincreasing tourism activities including timber and firewood collection and trading, and increased landprices. It also revealed that tourism-dependent households had not only higher income from hotelbusiness and use of forest resources, but also a higher level of awareness towards FC. Tourist incomeleakage was not too high. Major tourism borne issues in Lete were unequal distribution of tourismbenefits, lack of farm labor, increased wage of farm labor, difficult livelihood for common villagers,reduction in traditional mode of travel (trekking), reduction in length of stay (less night stay but higherday visitors) and reduction in mode of transportation (use of mule) due to road construction. Ourfindings imply that the existing tourism policy of lower Mustang should be reviewed, especially in thecontext of construction of road and develop new trekking routes for eco-tourists which is a verystrong means of distributing income and employment opportunities in remote areas like Mustang andtrain and encourage local people for hotel and other entrepreneurialship such as vegetable farming,NTFP farming, handicrafts and other traditional income generating activities.

Key words: Natural resources conservation, tourism impact, income, employment, communitydevelopment

33

LAND USE INTENSIFICATION EFFECTS ON SOIL RESPIRATION AND PHYSICO-CHEMICAL

PROPERTIES: A CASE STUDY FROM MID-HILLS OF NEPAL

Sameena Mumtaz1*, Roshan M. Bajracharya2 and Bishal K. Situala3

1 School of Science, Kathmandu University, Dhulikhel2 Department of Environmental Science and Engineering, Kathmandu University, Dhulikhel3 NORAGRIC, Norwegian University of Life Sciences (UMB), Norway* saminalam@gmail.com

Intensive agriculture is characterized by a low fallow ratio and the high use of inputs suchas capital, labor, or heavy use of pesticides and chemical fertilizers relative to land area. In the studyarea the typical two food crops per year has increased to three crops per year, reflecting agriculturalintensification. Carbon dioxide release from soil reflects the interplay of added and sequesteredorganic matter and the fraction that is being biologically decomposed. The rate of CO2 release isgenerally regarded as an indicator of soil health and used to estimate potential release of nutrientsimportant for crop production. The present study was conducted in the central mid-hills of Nepal toinvestigate the effect of land use intensification on soil CO2 respiration and physico-chemicalproperties. Soils from upland and low land of Paanchkhal were taken from intensive and non-intensiveagricultural fields, and also from forest plots (forests considering as control being least disturbed). SoilCO2 respiration was measured using Solvita® soil test gel-technology with fresh soil samples in jars. Thisstudy showed that most of the soils were approaching or declining from an ideal state of soilrespiration. The results indicated that the soil may provide adequate nitrogen for light feeders butrequires continued applications of microbially active organic matter.

Key words: Soil health indicator, Carbon dioxide, organic matter, crop production, nitrogen

34

INTRODUCTION OF MOSO BAMBOO (PHYLLOSTACHYS PUBESCENS) ON DEGRADED SITES OFCOMMUNITY FORESTS IN NEPAL

Sharad K. Baral, Hasta B. Thaha and Rajaram AryalDepartment of Forest Research and Survey, Babarmahal, Kathmandu, Nepal

Moso bamboo (Phyllostachys pubescens) is the most widely planted bamboo species in China forecological restoration and economic production. This species is mainly used for bamboo timber andshoot production. As there are several chunk of treeless sites available in community forest areas inNepal, it can be a potential bamboo species that can be planted for income generation of local users,erosion control and ecological restoration of degraded sites, and climate change mitigation throughcarbon sequestration. However, it is important to test the species on a new site to examine survivaland growth. The learning and recommendations of several field trials will guide us for its commercialplantation cautiously. Therefore, a moso bamboo plantation trial at Dhaneshwar, Kavre (27°37’00” Nand 85°31’22”E) was established in 2007 to assess the survival, growth and shoot production in abarren community forest land. Ninety six, 92 and 80% seedling survival were recorded in 4.5, 21 and 54months respectively. The bamboo attained 3m average height and 2 cm average diameter at base in4.5 years. In the mean time, on an average, 13 total shoots and 9 new shoots were developed perbamboo clump. These results indicated potentiality of successful establishment of moso bambooplantation on degraded sites of community forests in the mid-hills region of Nepal. However, theappropriate structure of a moso bamboo stand (density, age structure, culm distribution and averagediameter, etc.), which influences bamboo growth is yet to be tested. At present, caution must betaken towards the threat of soil nutrient exhaustion and invasion possibility when planting mosobamboo in other sites.

Key words: Barren land, community forest, ecological restoration, culm distribution, plantation

35

USE OF BIOCHAR FOR ENHANCING SOIL QUALITY IN MOUNTAIN AGRICULTURAL LANDS OF NEPAL

Ngamindra Dahal* and Roshan M. Bajracharya

Kathmandu University, Dhulikhel, Nepal

* ngamindra@gmail.com

Biochar is a charcoal like residual mass usually prepared by pyrolising biomass in controlledtemperature and minimum oxygen conditions. Biochar is often prepared from leafy biomass andagricultural wastes. It has recently regarded by the scientific community as a useful agent to enhancesoil quality as it brings about desirable changes in chemical and physical properties for soilmicroorganisms and crops. Studies undertaken elsewhere in the world have recognized effectivenessof biochar in improving soil quality, thus, saving costs and time of farmers though there are hardly anystudies to prove such effectiveness in Nepal. Biochar may be produced by indigenous methods, byusing improved cook stove designed for dual purpose of cooking and producing biochar, and throughindustrial-scale retort process. In Nepal, high mountain farmers have an indigenous method ofpreparing and applying biochar in their agriculture lands mostly for preparing millet nurseries andpotatoes. Availability of sufficient amount of feedstock for biochar production is a critical issue asbiomass is already used for livestock feeding, preparing compost and energy purpose in most of ruralhouseholds. A recent feedstock survey conducted among farmer households in organic coffeeplantation areas of Thuladurlung of Lalitpur, Talamarang of Sindhupalchok and Panchkhal of Kavredistricts of Nepal revealed that local farmers always have some quantity of 'unused' or 'underutilized'or 'waste' biomass at each household and community. However, none of the areas have large scalewaste biomass available as feedstock for preparing biochar. Nevertheless, there is a good prospect ofpreparing and using biochar in a small quantities round the year without adding any significant costsand time for farmers other than their 'business as usual' level. Taking examples from Nepal andelsewhere in the world, this paper throws light on prospects of promoting biochar among mountainfarmers using the 'additional' stock of biomass, and addressing concerns associated with soil qualitydegradation and climate change.

Key words: Climate change, mountain farmer, biomass feedstock, biochar stove, sustainability

36

IMPLICATIONS OF RIVER COURSE CHANGE ON ECOSYSTEMS SERVICES: A CASE STUDY FROM THE

KOSHI TAPPU WILDLIFE RESERVE, NEPAL

Sunita Chaudhary

Ecosystem Services, International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development, GPO Box 3226,Kathmandu, Nepal

The Koshi Tappu Wildlife Reserve, located in the foothills of Nepalese Himalayas, is a wetland ofinternational importance with significantly rich biodiversity. The reserve has been a source of vastarray of ecosystem services for supporting subsistence livelihoods of people living in its buffer zone. Inrecent years, changes in river course coupled with human pressure are leading to rapid changes in itsecosystems and their capacity to deliver ecosystem services. After declaration of Koshi Tappu WildlifeReserve in 1976 under IUCN category IV, so far, there has not been any attempt to understandimplications of river course change on various ecosystems and on future prospects of sustainingecosystem services. This paper examines people’s dependency, and shows implications of river coursechange over a period of 34 years (1976–2010) on ecosystem services. Various geo-spatial toolsconsidering multiscaled remote sensing data of 1976, 1989, 1999 and 2010 supported by secondaryinformation on human dependency on ecosystem services were used to understand linkages betweenchanges in ecosystems and its implications on sustaining services. Our results revealed that river/lake,swamp/marshes and forest were the most productive ecosystems for provisioning services, where asswamps/marshes, and forest for regulating, cultural, and supporting services. There has beensignificant lateral shift on river course inducing changes on ecosystems. Capacities of some of thecritical ecosystems are decreasing with these changes in its state with potentially negative impacts onecosystem services and dependency of people. There is an urgent need to address these changingscenarios of ecosystems for sustaining ecosystem services as well as biodiversity of the reserve.

Key words: Wetland, human dependency, subsistence livelihood, human pressure

37

BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION FOR CLIMATE RESILIENT LANDSCAPES IN NEPAL: THE HARIYO BANAPPROACH

Judy Oglethorpe, Shant Raj Jnawali, Keshav Khanal, Sunil Regmi and Ghana Shyam Gurung, NetraSharma Sapkota

The Hariyo Ban Program is five-year initiative (2011-2016). Funded by the United States Agency forInternational Development, the program aims to reduce the adverse impacts of climate change andthreats to biodiversity in Nepal. The program works to empower Nepal's local communities insafeguarding the country's living heritage and adapting to climate change through sound conservationand livelihood approaches. The program is implemented by four consortium partners – WWF Nepal(lead), CARE Nepal, Federation of Community Forestry Network and National Trust for NatureConservation, together with the government, communities, civil society, academia and the privatesector and works in two geographical areas: the Terai Arc Landscape and Chitwan-AnnapurnaLandscape.

The program takes a holistic and integrated approach, emphasizing links between people and forests.It has three interwoven components – biodiversity conservation, sustainable landscapes includingpayment for ecosystem services, and climate change adaptation. These components are supported bylivelihoods, governance, and gender and social inclusion as cross-cutting themes with a strongcommunication approach.

During the first two years of its implementation so far, Hariyo Ban has focused its efforts in areascritical for biodiversity conservation including biological corridors, catchments and climate refugia,working to link protected areas through corridors to meet ecological habitat requirements of focalspecies and enhance ecological services. The program works towards payments for ecosystemservices through plantation, rehabilitation of degraded land and promotion of sustainable forestmanagement, resulting in improved natural resource management. Climate change adaptation istaking an integrated approach acknowledging both human rights and ecosystem principles. Theprogram has supported planning and implementation of 40 adaptation plans addressing adverseimpacts of climate change in vulnerable communities and ecosystems. The program also improveslivelihoods of forest dependent communities including poor, women, and marginalized people,promoting enhanced participation and sound governance and stewardship of natural resources.

Hariyo Ban is a learning program, testing cutting-edge approaches, developing resource managementtools, refining its operations, and communicating results. The program will present preliminary resultsacross different components and discuss the advantages and challenges of taking a multi-disciplinary,holistic and integrated landscape approach to conserve biodiversity and tackle climate change.

Key words: Climate resilient, adaptation, sustainable landscape, gender and social inclusion, integratedapproach

38

ANALYSIS OF CLIMATIC TRENDS AND THEIR RELATION TO VEGETATION PERFORMANCE IN

GAURISHANKAR CONSERVATION AREA, CENTRAL NEPAL

Janardan Mainali1, 2,*, Rabindra Parajuli3, Mahesh Limbu4 and Bishnu Timilsina4

1 Resources Himalaya Foundation, Lalitpur, Nepal,2 Research Solutions Nepal, Kirtipur, Kathmandu, Nepal,3 Rural Development Tuki Association (RDTA), Charikot, Dolakha, Nepal4 Central Department of Botany, Tribhuvan University, Kirtipur, Kathmandu, Nepal*Corresponding Author: jmainali23@gmail.com

There are growing concerns over changing climate and their impact on vegetation productivity. Bothreduction and increment in productivities are documented on changing climate. This study conductedin 2010, analyzed trend of climatic parameters from 1980 to 2009 of central east region of Nepal (Jiriweather station) and shed light over response of mountain vegetation to the climatic variabilities.Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) and Normalized Difference VegetationIndex (NDVI) of four different vegetation types from 2000 to 2009 of sub alpine and alpine regionwere studied on Panchpokhari-Jatapokhari region on the vicinity of Jiri weather station, Central EastNepal. We found that maximum temperature is increasing with the rate of 0.0470C per year whilewinter rainfall also showed significant trend of increase (p<0.05). Most of the vegetation types hadsignificant increase in minimum NDVI value except that of grassland. All vegetation patches NDVIdemonstrated significant linear relationships with average monthly temperature and total monthlyprecipitation of two to five months lag. Alpine vegetations (Grassland and Rhododendron anthopogonthicket) exhibited shortest time lag of two months while subalpine forest (Juniperus recurva forest andAbies spectabilis forest) showed relatively late response to climatic variability. Although differentvegetation types responded differently to the climatic variabilities, increase in temperature and winterprecipitation in this part of central Himalaya has positive effect to productivity of subalpine and alpinevegetation.

Key words: Climatic variable, Mountain Vegetation, Central Himalaya, NDVI, MODIS

39

QUANTIFICATION OF FOREST AND SOIL CARBON STOCKS UNDER DIFFERENT MANAGEMENTPRACTICES IN NEPAL

Him Lal Shrestha1*, Roshan M. Bajracharya2 and Bishal K. Sitaula3

1 School of Science, Kathmandu University, Dhulikhel2 Department of Environmental Science and Engineering, Kathmandu University, Dhuliokhel3 NORAGRIC, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, Norway* Corresponding author: hlshrestha@gmail.com

Past studies have indicated that forest and soil carbon are major pools among the terrestrial carbonpools. International Panel for Climate Change (IPCC) under the UNFCCC has reported anddocumented the guidelines and good practices of monitoring the forest and soil carbon specificallyand estimation of green house gas (GHG) in general. Quantification of terrestrial carbon stocks in theinternational arena has advanced from field‐level physical monitoring to high‐resolution satelliteimaging and LiDAR techniques. Despite numerous separate studies of forest biomass and soil carbonstock measurements in a few districts of Nepal, there is still only limited data and capacity forextensive carbon stock monitoring in Nepal. This study aimed to explore the possibility of integratingremote sensing parameters with plot‐based forest measurement for the quantification ofaboveground biomass carbon and soil carbon. The relation between the satellite metrices and fieldmeasurement has the potential for use to prepare carbon maps of the study area. The result showedhigher carbon stocks in tropical forest than the temperate forest, likely due to forest stand density.This study focused on the techniques of quantification of aboveground forest biomass carbon pooland below ground carbon pools. It also examined the results in relation to the eco‐regions and forestsand soils under different management practices in Nepal. The results on soil characteristics, soilcarbon and biomass carbon were compared in various management practices i.e. Agriculture, Agroforestry, Community Forest, Leasehold Forest and Protected Forests. The preliminary result showedthat biomass carbon was high in community forests with 183.4 tons per ha in Buffer zone CF inRasuwa. Soil organic carbon (SOC) is found high in CF as compared to agriculture with 436 tonscarbon per ha and 371 tons C per ha respectively.

Key words: GHG, remote sensing, carbon pools, GIS, LiDAR techniques

40

COMPOSTING LEAF LITTER FOR COMMERCIAL PURPOSE: CONCERN FOR ECOSYSTEMSUSTAINABILITY

Balram Bhatta1 and Abadhesh Singh2

1Institute of Forestry, Hetauda2Institute of Forestry, Pokhara

Leaf litter plays a vital role in forest productivity, soil fertility and nutrient cycling in forest ecosystemthrough its decomposition. Litter fall is a major process for transferring nutrients from above-groundvegetation to soils for maintaining plant growth and nutrient cycling through decomposition of litter.This is functioning as ‘the bridge between plant and soil’. In Nepal, farming system depends on anintractable relationship of agriculture, animal husbandry and forestry. Forest plays an important role insustaining the production of agricultural land and animal husbandry. Community forestry, one of thehighest priority programs of forestry sector in Nepal, is a practice of controlling and managing theforest resources by the people for their domestic purposes. It has been argued that the approach issuccessful in improving the supply of forest products, rehabilitating degraded hills and also increasingbiodiversity.

The study was carried out to explore the reasons for litter collection and uses of collected litter inthree community forest of Makawanpur district. Most of the users having cattle are engaged in littercollection and among the collectors, 71% are women. The main reason for litter collection is for animalbedding and finally, to prepare compost. About 88.5% of households used the compost in their ownfarmland and 11.42% of them for commercial purpose. The users making compost for sale hired labourfor collecting litter from forests, who didn’t pay due attention to the impact. Shifting of purpose frompersonal use to commercial use has put higher pressure on the forests, which is alarming the users andplanners to include litter management as an essential component of operational plan to sustain theforest ecosystem.

Key words: Forest productivity, soil fertility, community forestry, forest ecosystem, animal bedding

41

ESTIMATION OF ABOVE GROUND PHYTOMASS AND CARBON IN TREE RESOURCES OUTSIDE THE

FOREST (TROF): A GEO-SPATIAL APPROACH

Binod P. Heyjoo

Institute of Forestry, Pokhara Campus, Pokhara, Nepal

The contribution of tree resources outside forest (TROF) in mitigating adverse effects of climatechanges is being gradually acknowledged globally. In India, few studies on phytomass and carbonassessment in TROF ecosystem have been carried out but with different methodology and fordifferent objectives. This study estimated above ground phytomass and carbon of TROF ecosystem ofpart of Bijnor district in Uttar Pradesh of India using IRS P6 LISS-IV satellite image by geo-spatialapproach coupled with field sampling. The steps followed during the research were: preprocessingand classification of the image, mapping out different TROF types (scattered, linear and block), TROFsampling design, field inventory, plot wise volume and phytomass estimation, correlation betweenspectral bands and phytomass, carbon estimation and lastly validation of the results. The totalphytomass per plot recorded was the maximum of 856.80 t/ha for linear TROF followed by 191.97 t/hafor block TROF. The carbon from phytomass was obtained by multiplying the total phytomass by aconversion factor that represented the average carbon content in phytomass. Spectral modeling forphytomass with different bands and indices were established and the best fit curve (R2 = 0.552) withred band was applied to generate phytomass and carbon distribution map of the study area. Theintegration of remote sensing techniques with ground survey covered a wide area in a short time,however, the method can be effectively improved using adequate seasonal multi spectral and high-resolution satellite imageries and precise GPS receiver.

Key words: Carbon estimation, satellite imageries, carbon distribution map, GPS, Spectral modeling

42

IDENTIFICATION AND VALIDATION OF REFERENCE SITES IN THE ANDHIKHOLA RIVER, NEPAL

Praveen Sharma1*, Subodh Sharma2 and Smriti Gurung3

1 Department of Environmental Science and Engineering, School of Science, Kathmandu University,G.P.O. Box 6250, Dhulikhel, Kavre, Nepal; praveen_sharma@email.com; Phone/Fax.: +977-11-661399;+977-11-6614432 Aquatic Ecology Centre, School of science, Kathmandu University, Dhulikhel, Kavre, Nepal3 Department of Environmental Science and Engineering, School of Science, Kathmandu University

Reference conditions having no or only minor anthropogenic disturbances, are a basic requirement forecological studies in rivers. To study ecological impact of a dam, two sites were pre-classified asreference or least disturbed in the river Andhikhola, Nepal using Rapid Field Bioscreening (RFB)protocol. Biological (Macroinvertebrates) and Physico-chemical samples were collected in January andFebruary 2013. Multi-habitat sampling (MHS) was employed in sample collection of macro-invertebratefauna. Validation of the pre-classified sites was done using several indices viz. Nepalese biotic score(NEPBIOS), British monitoring working party (BMWP), Hindu-kush Himalayan biotic score (HKHBIOS),Hilsenhoff (HILSENHOFF) and National sanitation foundation water quality index NSFWQI. TheNEPBIOS, HKHBIOS, HILSENHOFF, RFB and NSFWQI indices predicted the river quality at both the sitesas good with quality class II. Only BMWP/ASPT water quality index predicted the river quality at twosites as excellent with quality class I. Hence, preselected sites with quality of rank II i.e. good qualitieswere validated as reference sites. The study demonstrated that the multi-metric approach is suitablefor application in the monitoring and assessment of rivers where dams are built to producehydropower.

Key words: Anthropogenic disturbances, macro-invertebrates, Rapid Field Bioscreening, dams, indices

43

GEOSPATIAL ANALYSIS OF LAND USE LAND COVER CHANGE MODELING IN PHEWA LAKE WATERSHEDOF NEPAL BY USING CELLULAR AUTOMATA–MARKOV MODEL

Raju R. Regmi¹*, S.K. Saha² and Mohan K. Balla1

1 Tribhuvan University, Institute of Forestry, Pokhara Campus, Pokhara, Nepal2 Indian Institute of Remote Sensing (NRSA), Dehradun 248 001, Uttarakhand, India*Corresponding author: rrrgmi2010@gmail.com

Improper practices of land use/ land cover (LULC) are deteriorating watershed conditions. Remotesensing and GIS tools were used to study LULC dynamics using Cellular Automata (CA)–Markov modeland predicted the future LULC scenario for years 2015 and 2020, in terms of magnitude and direction,based on past trend in Phewa Lake watershed, Kaski district, Nepal. An analysis of the LULC patternduring 1995, 2000, 2005 and 2010 using satellite-derived maps showed that the biophysical and socio-economic drivers including slope, road network and settlements proximity have influenced the spatialpattern of the watershed LULC. These lead to an accretive linear growth of open forest and built uparea but decrease in other LULC classes. The annual rates of increase from 1995 to 2010 in open forestland and built up land were 81.97 and 24.21 ha/year respectively, while decreases in dense forest,terrace agriculture, valley agriculture and waste land were 30.23, 33.67, 21.63 and 6.42 ha/yearrespectively. Subwatershed-wise LULC change showed decrease by 261 ha and 76 ha of dense forest,and increase in open forest by 357 ha and 31 ha in mid and North flowing Subwatershed respectivelyfrom 1995 to 2010. Open forest is predicted to increase by 103ha and 205.3 ha and dense forest isdecreased by 65 ha and 124.5 ha from 2010 to projected 2015 and 2020 in Andheri Subwatershed. Thepredicted LULC scenario for the year 2015 and 2020, with reasonably good accuracy would provideuseful inputs to the LULC planners for effective management of the watershed. The study is a maidenattempt that revealed the expansion of built up land, which is the main driving force for loss ofagriculture land, waste land, and grass land, and an increase in open forest leading to decrease indense forest and bush/ scrub land in the watershed. This study utilized three time period changes tobetter account for the trend and the modeling exercise; thereby advocates for better agriculturalpractices to arrest further forest change and LULC alternations.

Key words: GIS, subwatershed, biophysical drivers, socio-economic drivers, open forest, built up land

44

FOREST DYNAMICS AND WOOD EXTRACTION IN COMMUNITY MANAGED FOREST: EIGHT YEARS

AT THREE RESEARCH SITES IN NEPAL.

Henrik Meilby1 and Lila Puri2

1Associate professor, University of Copenhagen, Faculty of Science, Denmark. email: heme@ifro.ku.dk1Assistant professor, Institute of Forestry, Tribhuvan University, Nepal. Email: puri07878@itc.nl

In order to monitor forest dynamics and wood extraction, a network of 241 permanent sample plotswas established at three community-managed forest sites representing the lowlands (Chitwan), themiddle hills (Kaski) and the high mountains (Mustang) of Nepal. The plots are located at altitudesranging from 200 to 2600 m.a.s.l. and represent tropical Shorea robusta forest, subtropical Schima-Castanopsis forest and temperate Pinus wallichiana forest. The plots were measured in the springs of2005, 2010 and 2013. The measurements included trees, shrubs and regeneration. In this paper, weexamine the dynamics of the forest structure and the extraction of wood products by the localcommunities over the eight-year observation period, compare the growth capacity of the forest topresent extraction practices and discuss future management options. We compared tree density,volume and diameter distributions between sites and over the period to assess the structural dynamicsof the forest and interpret the observed changes in the context of management practices adopted ineach site. With regard to wood extraction, we referred to data collected in 2005 and 2010 only. Theanalysis revealed that the volume of the growing stock in Chitwan was increasing throughout thestudy period, whereas the standing volume in Kaski decreased between 2005 and 2010 but startedincreasing again in 2010-2013. The tree size distribution in Chitwan and Kaski was reverse J-shaped withlarge densities of small trees, as typically observed for natural and semi-natural forests. Analysis ofdata from 2005 and 2010 showed that the patterns of forest utilization varied considerably betweenthe three sites. In Chitwan, most of the increment took place in the 10-20cm diameter class whileharvest was mainly from large diameter classes with relatively little standing stock. In Mustang,increment was observed in all diameter classes. In Kaski, the standing stock was reduced in virtually alldiameter classes. Finally, in 2005-2010 the annual harvest in Chitwan and Mustang was below theannual increment, while in Kaski it was more than three times the annual increment. However, giventhe recent increase of standing volume in Kaski (2010-2013) this now appears to have changed.

Key words: community managed forest, permanent sample plots, annual harvest, increment,sustainability

45

FODDER BIOMASS EQUATIONS USING INDIVIDUAL TREE DISTANCE-INDEPENDENT MODELS: A CASE

OF FICUS SEMICHORDATA FROM KASKI DISTRICT OF NEPAL

Arjun Prasad Bastola1 and Dinesh Kumar2

1 Institute of Forestry, Tribhuvan University, Nepal2 Silviculture Division, Forest Research Institute, Dehradun, India

In the mid hills of Nepal, several species of fodder trees are being used as a livestock feed since timeimmemorial. The availability and lopping season of fodder varies with species. Among the mostcommonly available trees, Ficus semichordata has high feeding value and is one of the most popularfodder trees in mid hills of Nepal. If the amount of fodder biomass yield could be traced, systematicfeeding system could be developed accordingly. Linear regression equations were developed forfodder biomass of Ficus semichordata, expressed as a function of easily measured parameters such asdiameter at breast height, crown diameter and tree height. Individual tree distance-independentmodels were used as most fodder tree species are managed on an individual tree basis. Data werecollected from experimental plots established in the farmer’s farmland in Kaski district, Nepal. Aspectspecific equations were developed at first as the plots were established on four different aspects. Thesingle variable SD1.37m (stem diameter at 1.37m height) best predicted the total fresh fodder biomass (R2

> 0.90, S.E. < 3.30) and oven dry fodder biomass (R2 > 0.87, S.E. < 1.42) in all four aspects. Inclusion ofadditional variables increased multicollinearity beyond the acceptable range; hence additionalparameters were dropped from the model. Inclusion of crown diameter data in the model broughtabout slight improvement in the performance of the model (R2 > 0.97, S.E. < 2 for fresh fodder and R2 >0.93, S.E. < 1 for oven dry fodder) but the condition index was more than 18 and 20. The data from allaspects were pooled to develop the single regional model: TFFW = -12.279 + 2.672* SD1.37m (R2 > 0.91,S.E. < 3.30) where, SD1.37m refers to stem diameter at 1.37m height from the base. The correspondingmodel for oven dry fodder weight is EODFW = -3.789 + 0.853* SD1.37m (R2 > 0.88, S.E. < 1.22). The modelsdeveloped are recommended for mature trees only. The information generated by these models isexpected to help fodder tree management and have research applications in Nepal.

Key words: Farmland, stem diameter, crown diameter, fodder tree, tree distance-independent models

46

Restoration Potentiality of Degraded Sites in the Mid-hills Region of Nepal

R. K. Jha, S. K. Baral, R. R. Aryal, H. B. Thapa

Land degradation is the reduction or loss of the biological or economic productivity of the terrestrialbio-productive system that comprises soil, vegetation, or other biota and the ecological andhydrological processes that operate within the system. It is a major challenge to Nepal. A lot ofdegraded lands are available in community forests in the mid hills region. Community forestry aims atutilizing those lands for ecological restoration as well as supporting livelihoods of the local people. Inthis context, the study was designed to test the survival capacity and growth performance of different(indigenous as well as exotic) tree species that can be used for the rehabilitation of degraded land.Firstly, Stylo, leguminous grass, was introduced in the site for enriching nutrients in the site. Secondly,six different tree species (indigenous species: Sapindus mukorossi, Prunus cerasoides, Melia azadarach,Choerospondias auxillaris and Exotic species: Pinus patula and Robinia pseudoacacia) were selected forthe trial and planted in a randomized complete block design with 4 blocks (6 species X 4 blocks). Theresult shows that the growth and survival of exotic species P. patula was outstanding however itsnative counterparts P. cerasoides and C. auxillaris and naturalized species M. azedarach also performedrelatively satisfactory result. The result also showed that R. pseudoacacia was not the suitable speciesfor rehabilitating degraded sites in the Mid-hills of Nepal. Therefore, it would be wise to select thenative or naturalized species for the rehabilitation of degraded land in the mid-hills because theintroduction of exotic species may have negative ecological consequence. Hence, the study shows thepossibility of introducing the tree species such as P. cerasoides, M. azadarach and C. auxillaris forecological restoration of degraded sites linking with income generation of local poor in the communityforests of mid hills regions in Nepal.

Key words: Land degradation, ecological rehabilitation, growth performance, and native species,naturalized species and exotic species.

47

ABOVE GROUND BIOMASS ESTIMATION IN THE PART OF MUSSOORI HILLS AND RAJPUR HILL OFUTTARAKHAND, INDIA USING EO-1 HYPERION DATA

Dharmendra Singh1 and Sarnam Singh2

1 Forest Survey of India, Ministry of Environment and Forests, Kaulagarh Road, Dehradun 248001, India.2 Indian Institute of Remote Sensing, ISRO, Dehradun, 248001, India

The study estimated the above ground tree biomass at Mussoorie and Rajpur hills in Doon Valley usingground survey and geospatial technology. Hyperspectral remote sensing data (Hyperion EO-1) wasused for the species level classification using Spectral Angle Mapper (SAM). On the basis of spectralangle matching of ground spectra and image spectra SAM enabled us to map Quercusleucotrichophora, Shorea robusta, Cedrus deodara, Thuja orientalis, Lantana camara, etc. Stratifiedrandom sampling technique was used for laying 26 plots of 0.1 ha. The homogenous strata species mapavailable from Hyperion EO-1 data was used for sampling design. The biomass was calculated bytraditional approach of estimation using volume equation and multiplying by specific gravity. The studyfound that Quercus species was dominant in the temperate region while the Shorea robusta in thetropical region. The exotic species, Lantana camara was mapped in the area, which is distributed fromtropical to lower subtropical region. The biomass of the Quercus sp. varied from 8.35 ton to 178.45 t/hawhile the biomass of Shorea robusta varied from 247.53 to 483.03 t/ha. In case of Cedrus deodar thelowest biomass was 226.77 t/ha while the highest was 545.53 t/ha. The biomass of Thuja orientalisvaried from 37.6 t/ha to 76.8 t/ha. The highest (545.53 t/ha) biomass was found in Cedrus deodaraspecies while the lowest (8.35 t/ha) in the Quercus sp. open forest. The mean biomass of Quercus sp.was estimated lowest (85.15 t/ha) while highest mean biomass was estimated for the Cedrus deodara.Quercus and Shorea robusta together contributed about 78.64 percent of the total biomass, becauseof their dominance in the study area. Total biomass of the Shorea robusta in the mapped areaestimated was 755,002 tons. Total biomass of the Quercus sps estimated were 407509 tons in the pureform and 294,735 tons in the mixed form. The total mapped area biomass estimated in the Cedrusdeodara class was 8,014.22 tons and in the Thuja orientalis class was 12,985.3 tons.

Key words: Hyperion EO-1, SAM, tropical and temperate forest species, volume equation, specificgravity

48

ALLOMETRIC BIOMASS MODELS FOR LEAF OF TAXUS BACCATA IN FAR WEST OF NEPAL

D. Chaudhary1, S. K. Bhandari2, Y. P. Timilsina2 and B. K. Paudyal2

1Department of Forest, Ministry of Forest and Soil Conservation, Kathmandu, Nepal2Department of Social Forestry and Forest Management, Institute of Forestry, TU, Nepal

The precursor of chemotherapy drug taxol can be derived from the leaves of Taxus baccata, which isused for the treatment of breast and ovarian cancer. Estimation of green leaf biomass from standingtree is of great importance in commercial utilization of this species. But the quantification techniquesfor leaf biomass are very limited. Therefore, this study was carried out to develop leaf biomass models.We collected diameter at breast height (D), total height (H) and total green leaf biomass (W) of 43individual T. baccata trees from Bajura, Nepal. Leaf biomass models were developed by using threevariables (D, DH, D2H), and designated first, second and third model category respectively, and thus,each model category contains 15 alternative models (i.e. 3 × 15 = 45 models). Least square regressiontechnique was used to develop biomass models. The models were estimated using lm (for linearmodels), nls and nlsLM (for non linear models) procedure in R. The estimated models were evaluatedby using criteria such as (1) significance of parameter estimates, (2) root mean squared error (RMSE)(3) adjusted coefficient of determination (R2adj), (4) Akaike information criterion (AIC) and (5)graphical analysis. Among 45 different models tested, the model of the form: Wi=β0+β1D2H+β2(D2H)2

with explanatory variable D2H accounted for the largest proportion of leaf biomass variations (R2adj =0.87; RMSE = 44.17; AIC=452.7) for individual T. baccata tree, and showed relatively better graphicalappearance and biological logic. Since our models are site-specific, their application should berestricted to site, size and stand conditions similar to this study. Further works for validation andverification of our models with new data from wider range of site, size and stand conditions of T.baccata are recommended.

Key words: Green leaf biomass, diameter at breast height, total height, Least square regression,biological logic

49

PRE-MONSOON TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS IN FAR-WESTERN NEPAL SINCE THE BEGINNING OF

18TH CENTURY AS INFERRED FROM RING WIDTHS OF PICEA SMITHIANA (WALL.) BOISS

Udya Thapa1, Dinesh R. Bhuju2, Santosh K. Shah3 and Narayan P. Gaire4

1 Golden Gate Int’l College (Tribhuvan University affiliate), Kathmandu, Nepal; nepuday@gmail.com2Central Department of Environmental Science, TU, Kirtipur, Nepal3 Birbal Sahni Institute of Paleobotany, Lucknow, India4 Nepal Academy of Science and Technology, Lalitpur, Nepal

Lack of instrumental data for sufficiently long period is the current challenge for scientific communityto make decision regarding the pattern of current and future climate change. Tree rings serve as oneof the high resolution proxies to reconstruct the past climate. This study was conducted with an aim toreconstruct the past climatic variations in the mountains of far-western Nepal. A total of 160 tree coresamples of Picea smithiana (Wall.) Boiss were collected from Lokhada region in Khaptad National Park.The samples were processed following standard methods of dendrochronology and analyzed usingLinTab at Dendro-Lab of Nepal Academy of Science and Technology. Further data analysis was done atBirbal Sahni Institute of Paleobotany, Lucknow, India. Out of the total samples analyzed, 106 serieswere successfully cross dated and a ring-width chronology of 422 years was developed dating back toAD 1591. Climate growth relationship analysis revealed that pre-monsoon climate was detrimental inthe growth of ring-width. Significant negative correlations were observed between ring-width andtemperature of March, April and May whereas, the ring-width showed positive correlations with theprecipitation of the same months. Then, transfer functions for temperature of March, April and Maywas developed, with which temperature of the region since AD 1701 was reconstructed. Thisreconstruction showed several periods of warming and cooling over the last three centuries withwarming trends in the recent decades. The coolest period AD 1807-1812 is attributable to the eruptionof undocumented volcano in AD 1809, six years preceding Tambora in Indonesia. However, thereconstruction did not show the persistent pattern of cooling during the Little Ice Age.

Key words: Climate reconstruction, dendroclimatology, Khaptad National Park, past climate, ring-width

50

STATUS OF DEAD WOODS AND THEIR CONTRIBUTION TO CARBON SEQUESTRATION: ACOMPARATIVE STUDY IN COMMUNITY FOREST AND PROTECTED FOREST TYPES OF NEPAL

GandhivKafle1*, YagyaTimilsina2 and Moti Rijal3

1Agriculture and Forestry University, Faculty of Forestry, Hetauda, Nepal2Tribhuvan University, Institute of Forestry, Pokhara, Nepal3Tribhuvan University, Central Department of Geology, Kirtipur, Nepal

*GandhivKafle, gkafle@scientist.com

Dead wood can contribute as a medium for carbon sequestration or sink; and habitat to diverse floraand fauna species. In Nepal, dead wood are usually removed from community forest considering it as ahost for insects and diseases. In European countries, dead wood has been considered as an importantindicator of biodiversity, forest health and sustainable forest management; prioritizing it in their forestmanagement policies. Forest policies of Nepal have not considered importance of dead wood. Currentpractices of assessing forest carbon have not included dead wood in the survey and analysis. It canfoster underestimation of the forest carbon stock, preventing from obtaining actual benefits in futurecarbon accounting business.

This research was conducted to assess and compare the status of dead wood in Kankali CommunityForest (KCF) and Parsa Wildlife Reserve (PWR), and its role in carbon sequestration. Systematic fieldsurvey, meetings and literature review were carried out to collect both primary and secondaryinformation. Both standing and down dead woods were found in PWR but only stumps were found inKCF. Total volume of dead woods in PWR and KCF were 39.83 m3/ha and 0.03730 m3/ha respectively.Total biomass of the dead wood in PWR and KCF were 22.39 ton/ha and 0.20704 ton/ha respectively.The total carbon stock in dead wood were 10.741 ton/ha and 0.097 ton/ha in PWR and KCF respectively.Total volume of deadwoods was dominated by intermediate class (61%) in both dead wood categories(standing and down) followed by sound (23%) and rotten (16%) density classes in PWR. About two thirdparts of volume was occupied by sound density classes with value 0.02255 m3/ha and remaining byother two classes in KCF. In PWR, standing dead tree has contributed almost 2 times carbon stock thanthat of down dead wood. Statistically, it revealed that each density class was equally responsible tocontribute the carbon stocks in PWR. The average carbon of sound density class was 2.6 and 1.1 timesmore than that of intermediate and rotten respectively in KCF. Average carbon stock of intermediateclass varied considerably from rotten and sound classes in stumps in KCF.

Key words: Biodiversity, forest health, sustainable forest management, density classes

51

THEME THREE: GOVERNANCE

CLIMATE FORESTRY AND MARGINALIZATION OF LOCAL FOREST MANAGERS: INSIGHTS FROM

REDD PROCESS IN NEPAL

Naya Sharma Paudel and Paul Vedeld

Forest Action, Nepal

Forest management priorities and governance regimes are increasingly shaped by the emergingclimate change discourses and policies. Many of the traditionally distant and less visible actors havenow become stakeholders and have become active in defending and expanding their interests overlocal forest management. In this context, this paper explores how community forestry and other localpractices of forest management have been subjected to climate change responsive framework. Basedon the observation and analysis of three different levels of forest resource governance – internationalclimate discourses, national forest policies and local forest management practices, this paper identifiesand explains diverse ways how climate change is shaping forest management practices oftenmarginalizing the local agenda.

Multi-stakeholder processes and forest policy decisions have been some of the frequently adoptedstrategies to bring climate change agenda into local forestry practices. These processes have beenseen as the convenient ways to legitimise the climate informed external interventions that often bringabout gradual changes in forest management practices. Many of these changes are the results ofmainstreaming local forestry practices into climate friendly policies. While multi-stakeholder processesare promoted as democratic and inclusive approaches, current practice have often marginalized - thelocal communities and indigenous people – the central actors and rights holders from defending theirinterests. Under the climate forestry regime, local forestry practices are not only dictated by nationalpolicies but are increasingly shaped by international debate and negotiations on climate change.

Key words: Forest management, governance regime, climate change, forest policy, communityforestry

52

COMMUNITY FOREST GOVERNANCE FOR CLIMATE CHANGE IN INDONESIA

G. Galudra, P. Agung, J. Jasnari and D. Catacutan

Community forest governance has been recognized as a policy option other than ‘command-and-control’ models and privatization schemes. Since 1998, Indonesia has developed a range ofcommunity-based forest management schemes as complementary strategies to decentralize forestgovernance, such as community forestry (hutan kemasyarakatan), village forest (hutan desa), people’splantation forest (hutan tanaman rakyat) and customary forest (hutan adat). Despite this, it remainsdoubtful whether local communities can sustain forest management without support from externalparties. It was suggested that successful management depends on institutional arrangements that 1)establish local residents’ rulemaking autonomy; 2) facilitate the flow of external financial andinstitutional assistance for monitoring and enforcement of local rules; and 3) buffer residents and theirrespective local institutions from more powerful, and at times, corrupt actors involved in forestexploitation.

Nevertheless, the key questions on community-based forest governance are: ―what types of policyinterventions will help support or create local institutions, supported by higher level institutions, toprotect current and encourage positive local forest transitions? There are some doubts whethercommunity actually can manage forest sustainability, without any support from external parties. Usingthe theory of the commons by Elinor Ostrom, this paper seeks to address the problems above byexamining the limitations of community based forest management (CBFM) in Indonesia and howexternal organizations should address these problems. The centrality of the issue remains on tenureand collective rights especially in the issue of REDD+. Here, we use two case studies in Jambi, thecommunity forestry in forest peatland in lowland and the village forest in mountainous area in Jambi.Not only are they both represent different schemes, but also, different purpose, populations andnatural resource conditions.

Key words: Community based forest management, REDD+, natural resource, community rights,participation

53

ACTIVE FOREST MANAGEMENT: CONSTRAINT AND OPPORTUNITY FOR ECONOMIC GROWTH

Nagendra Prasad Yadav1 and Kamlesh K Yadav2

1 Green Nepal Consultancy Pvt Ltd., Lalitpur, Kathmandu; npyadav7@gmail.com2 Leasehold Forestry and Livestock Programme, FAO, UN House, Pulchowk, Lalitpur

Nepal's forests are being managed and protected under different modalities- community forestry (CF),active forest management (AFM), leasehold forest (LF), etc. Out of them, CF is most widelyrecognized. Till date, 1,652,654 ha of CFs have been handed over to 21, 77,858 households of 17,685CFUGs (DoF, 2013). Even though CF is popular in the country, it has not yet adopted principle ofsustainability, which has resulted into degraded forest condition, unsustainable production and supplyas well as lowered quality of products. FUGs are conserving the forests rather than managing them,which facilitates illegal felling in government-managed forest. AFM, which is the fusion of scientificforestry and users' perspectives, is not being adopted. The present forest management is associatedwith several technical and social issues including conservative operational plan due to unclearguidelines and directives and limited practical knowledge with staff and users, etc. Consequently,sustainable supply of forest products has not been ensured due to poor forest health and vitality. Thispaper highlights the constraints of AFM related to forest policy and forestry institution. The forest haseconomic potential, which depends on ability of forest manager to provide input for application ofsilvicultural operations on time. Review of existing policy and strategic documents and CFUGsoperational plans, results of action researches, and long experiences of the authors in Nepalese forestmanagement are the methodological basis of this paper. This paper explores the issues that restrictactive forest management and also, share the opportunities of AFM in terms of improving forestcondition and economic growth.

Key words: Active forest management, FUGs, guidelines, economic growth

54

ENHANCING REDD+ OUTCOMES THROUGH IMPROVED GOVERNANCE OF COMMUNITY FOREST USERGROUPS

Bishnu Hari Poudyal1, Govinda Paudel2 and Harisharan Luintel3

1 RECOFTC-The Center for People and Forest, Nepal; bishnuharipaudel@yahoo.com2 ForestAction Nepal3 The School of Environment, Portland State University, USA;

Since forests are both source and sink of the carbon, scholars have suggested avoiding deforestationand forest degradation, conservation and sustainable management and enhancement of forest carbonstock to be part of the climate negotiation. Studies have shown that forests can play role in reducingemissions in a cheaper, quicker and effective way, while generating important co-benefits includingbiodiversity conservation and watershed management. However, governance that shapes relationsbetween different stakeholders at the grass-root level has shown to be a crucial issue in managinglocal forests in a way that sequester more carbon from, and emit less of it to, the atmosphere. Internalgood governance (IGG) study of two community forest user groups (CFUG) have shown that range ofeffective and locally suitable governance measures that promote participation, accountability andtransparency are devised and applied at the CFUG level. Further, the study found that existing CFpolicy by and large is useful to provide space for CFUGs to exercise their rights over forest product useat the local level. However, gaining benefits from the environmental services including carbonsequestration and Reducing Emission from Deforestation and Forest Degradation (REDD+) schememay need more explicit and elaborated policy framework. The authors in this paper argue that thelessons gained at the CFUG level regarding forest governance could be useful in designing REDD+governance structure at grass-root level. For this, both positive lessons and challenges faced so farcould be documented, analyzed, synthesized and shared at the broader level. REDD+ being an externalintervention to the local communities can bring a range of challenges that influence the governancedynamics. However, if the programme is managed carefully, CFUGs are capacitated adequately andgoverned collaboratively, REDD+ may bring synergistic outcomes with existing community forestry atthe grass-root level, particularly by bringing both environmental as well as livelihood benefits.

Key words: Internal good governance, grass-root level, carbon sequestration, sustainable forestmanagement, synergistic outcomes

55

OPTIMIZING CARBON SEQUESTRATION AND OTHER BENEFITS IN NEPALESE FOREST SYSTEMS

Geoff Cockfield

Faculty of Business and Law, University of Southern Queensland, Toowoomba, Queensland, Australia

This paper reports on three projects examining strategies for optimizing carbon sequestration andother benefits in Nepalese forest systems. The first project classifies and compares different types ofagroforestry systems, the second compares the regional impacts of REDD+ investments in communityforest management and the third looks at REDD+ governance. Together, these projects havesignificant policy and investment implications. The form and sequestration value of agroforestryappears to be correlated to the size and structure of farms, so that structural adjustment in agriculturewill change sequestration outcomes. Preliminary results from the second project suggest that theoptimum locations for maximising sequestration while minimising the trade-off in net benefits, are inthe middle latitude areas. Finally, the governance work suggests that the approach of creatinggovernance standards through the multi-stakeholder, multi-level and multi-tier process is innovativeand such standards are likely to have a high degree of local ownership and relevance.

Keywords: Agroforestry systems, REDD+, community forest management, governance standards, localownership

56

SUSTAINABILITY INDEX FOR ASSESSING COMMUNITY BASED FOREST MANAGEMENT: A CASE

FROM NEPAL

Ridish K. Pokharel and Krishna R. Tiwari

Institute of Forestry, ComForM Project, Pokhara

Implementation of sustainable forest management is challenging in a country where people aredependent on forest resources for their livelihoods. Many countries have realized that it is almostimpossible to manage the country’s forest by the government alone without involving local people,and developed and adopted the forest policy in favor of community based management. However,adopting community based forest policy simply by granting responsibility to local people will not madecommunity based forestry sustainable. A monitoring tool is essential that allow local managementbodies to evaluate themselves where they are heading in terms of sustainable forest management. Anindex is used as a tool for undertaking the assessment of forest management practices. This paperexplains how sustainability index was produced and also, assesses the three different communitybased forest management practices in terms of sustainability.

The information was gathered from three different districts of various physiographic regions of Nepalby employing village to village approach. Locally identified criteria and indicators were developed inthe form of questionnaire along with the verifiers of each indicator in a Likert-type scale- poor, fair andgood, and administered it in a small group of forest users. Informants’ responses were transferred intonumeric value and calculated the indices for sustainability i.e. sustainability index for individualcriterion and overall sustainability index. Calculation of overall sustainability index for three differentmanagement practices indicated buffer zone community forestry to be higher (0.63) than communityforestry (0.51) and collaborative forestry (0.49), implying that buffer zone community forestry isperforming better in terms of sustainable forest management. The paper concludes that thecommunity needs support and guidance from the government to make their management effective interms of sustainable forest management.

Key words: Forest policy, local management body, buffer zone community forestry, communityforestry, collaborative forestry

57

IMPROVING ACCOUNTABILITY OF FOREST USER GROUP: LESSON FROM PILOTING OF

PERFORMANCE BASED GRANT SYSTEM IN WESTERN TERAI OF NEPAL

Bijendra Basnyat and Jagannath Koirala

Forest users groups (FUGs) are implementing different programmes for conserving biodiversity,fulfilling demands of forests products and improving livelihoods in Nepal. However, efforts are mostlyguided by short term gains with less realization of long term goal or priority. Conservation effortslargely remain fragmented and accountability towards realization of shared outcome is poor. Statutoryrequirements are poorly followed.

Realizing this, Western Terai Landscape Complex (WTLC) Project piloted performance based grantsystem (PBGS) on three forest corridors covering 42 FUGs in Nepal's WTLC with a view to improveaccountability towards conservation. WTLC Project1 piloted this concept for two fiscal years anddisbursed NRs 1 million. In the first year, the Project developed system, established baseline anddisbursed fund while in second year, it monitored results/outcome and lessons. PBGS involves transferof money or material goods based on performance against predetermined indicators or results. Thestudy developed 12 minimum conditions indicators and 20 performance indicators based on statutoryrequirement. Indicators are from four functional areas, which include conservation, livelihoods,governance and financial management. After assessment, fund was disbursed to each FUGs based onperformance. Average amount of fund received by FUGs varied from Rs 12,366 to Rs 33,188. TheProject monitored and mentored FUGs continuously. FUGs used fund for conservation relatedactivities together with addressing the operational constraints such as auditing, revision of operationalplan and pro-poor livelihoods related activities. The assessment revealed that performance of FUGs onboth indicators has improved. PBGSs is quite successful for generating conservation awareness anddeveloping shared vision by ensuring minimum common code of conduct and identification of capacitybuilding needs. This mechanism is quite effective on compliance of statuary and regulatoryrequirements, improving management effectiveness, increased investment and motivation forconservation together with proper documentation. PBGS has not only improved healthy competitionbut also, brought systemic changes on managing forest. Direct payments make excellent incentives toachieve conservation goal and improve accountability. It also acts as a comprehensive tool for self-monitoring processes and outcomes and facilitated for introducing systemic changes on theirmanagement approaches and performance.

Key words: Forest corridors, minimum conditions indicators, performance indicators, auditing,operational plan, livelihoods

58

PUBLIC LAND MANAGEMENT: AN OPPORTUNITY FOR LIVELIHOOD DIVERSIFICATION THROUGH

AFFORESTATION IN WESTERN LOW LAND, NEPAL

Sushma Bhattarai1, Chiranjibi Prasad Upadhyaya

2and Basant Pant

3

1 Resource Identification and Management Society-Nepal (RIMS-Nepal)Email:bhattarai.sushma@gmail.com2Institute of Forestry, Pokhara, Nepal3 International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development (ICIMOD), Lalitpur, Nepal

People in western low lands of Nepal are facing increasing livelihood problems. Mostly affected arepoor and landless people, living in highly vulnerable areas to the effect of climate change with limitedlivelihood opportunities and devoid of access to forest resources. Public lands have potential toimprove the livelihood condition of poor people through ensuring their access to forest resources andlivelihood diversification. However, most of the studies had focused on analyzing livelihood conditionbased on existing forest areas and scientific literatures on livelihood diversification throughafforestation of public land are limited. Nawalparasi district was chosen for the study as it consists ofcommunity based management initiatives in public land areas since eight years. Field observation,semi-structured and key informant interviews were the main methodological tools used for the study.Besides, review of project documents, reports and various other scientific materials was done.Empirical evidence demonstrated that community based afforestation programme in public land hasmade landless poor self reliant by providing sustainable forest products flow and generating cashincome. People have improved their livelihood condition through diversifying their incomeopportunities such as fish farming, vegetable and cash crops. The study suggests that in order to helppoor to escape poverty, livelihood diversification, sustainable public land management strategy andproper facilitation process are required.

Key words: Poor, forest resources, vulnerable areas, landless people, public land

59

ENVIRON OF CHURIA: SOCIO-NATURAL INTERFACE ANALYSIS

Prem Prasad Paudel

Department of Soil Conservation and Watershed Management, Kathmandu

The Churia region of Nepal extends as a contiguous landscape comprising 36 districts. It has immensesocial, ecological environmental, palentogical significance. The hill slopes are geologically young andcomposed of unconsolidated loose materials originating from soft rocks such as mudstone, sandstone,siltstone and shale. Problems vary distinctly depending upon the location (eastern, middle, andwestern parts). However, Churia region has common issues, problems and threats like deforestationand forest degradation at about 1.7%/year; illegal settlement of about 4 million people; erosion (800-20000 ton/km2/year); flooding and inundation; excessive extraction of stones, sand and boulders; riverbed expansion; land use change/ land tenure/ownership; poverty and others (forest fire, over grazing,low level of awareness).

Due to the great social and ecological significance, Government of Nepal has given emphasis since1970. Many INGOs, NGos are working since past many years. However, results are not enough toaddress growing problems. The problem is directly linked with prosperity of entire nation coveringmore than 50% of total population. Hence, Rt. Honorable President of Nepal has shown concern for itsconservation and National Iconic Program entitled “Rastrapti Churia Conservation Program” wasinitiated since 2011 under Ministry of Forests and Soil Conservation (MFSC) with the aim to conservenatural environment of Churia and provide livelihood support for sustainable ecosystem maintenance.Necessity of Churia Conservation lies in facts that it is the contiguous landscape extending east westand is the main biological corridor, regarded as water recharge zone for Terai, provides direct benefitto more than 50% population and also for trans-boundary, connects upstream and downstream withsocial harmonization opportunity, paleontological, biodiversity, water quality/ quantity and uses.Problems, issues are multi-sectoral and coordinated, collaborative actions are becoming essential.Initiatives taken by the President may become the milestone for sustainable conservation of Churia.MFSC is giving due emphasis and still more concentrated efforts and multi sectors cooperation areanticipated.

Key words: Rastrapti Churia Conservation Program, deforestation, illegal settlement, river bedexpansion, contiguous landscape

60

WHO ACCESSES BENEFITS OF COMMUNITY FORESTRY? A STORY ABOUT ELITE CAPTURE IN NEPAL

Jens Friis Lund1, Bir Bahadur Khanal Chhetri2 and Ajay Karki1

1 Department of Food and Resource Economics, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark2 Institute of Forestry, Tribhuvan University, Pokhara, Nepal

This paper aims at determining who has access to different benefits arising from the management ofcommunity forests in Nepal. The paper is based on data from 45 Community-Forestry User Groups(CFUG), including 1,111 CFUG member households, from three mid-hill districts in Nepal. Weinvestigated who had access to important forest products, such as timber, firewood, and fodder, aswell as benefits arising from the finances of CFUGs, such as investments in schools, water facilities,electricity and irrigation as well as loans. Statistical analysis revealed few statistically significantdifferences in access to benefits between households when grouped on the basis of participatory well-being ranking, land ownership, and caste group. However, political status and connectedness, notablymembership of the CFUG executive committee was significantly and positively associated with accessto timber and loans, which arguably were the most lucrative, individually distributed benefits fromCFUG management. Our analyses indicate that analyses of access to benefits from community forestryshould move beyond traditional social structures associated with wealth, land and caste to becomemore attentive to peoples’ political status and connections to the decision-making bodies incommunity forestry.

Key words: Forest decentralization, forest management, forest products, political status, caste group

61

USE OR LOSE BATTLE?: LOOKING NEPAL'S COMMUNITY AND PRIVATE FORESTRY FROM THEENVIRONMENTAL AND INCOME LENS

Bharat K. Pokharel

HELVETAS Swiss Interco-operation Nepal, Nepal

This paper provides a brief analysis of Nepal's Community and Private Forestry (PF) Programme, themost priority programmes envisaged by Nepal's Master Plan for the Forestry Sector in 1988. It showsthat both community and PF have contributed positively to their environmental objectives. It is mainlyin terms of the improvement in the forest condition and its landscape, reduction in deforestation anddegradation, enhancement of biodiversity, increment in forest growth, density and tree cover inprivate land. Evidences are cited to show that the rate of forest degradation has been arrested both inthe community and private forest land. Forest cover and density have increased up to 32% in 20 yearperiod (1990-2010). Human, social and physical capital of local community groups have enhanced.There are evidences of the impact of the community forestry to the formation of the bundles ofcapitals at group level. However, there are no measurable indicators that these group capitals havebeen transferred significantly to increase the measurable national and household income. The paperargues that Nepal's community forestry programme lacks clarity in its original socioeconomicobjectives of creating jobs and employment, and has eventually failed to show its contribution atnational and household income. To what extent the forests as natural asset, the national property istransformed into group asset, then to the household, and ultimately to individual financial asset is notknown. The case of private forestry is somewhat different. Despite government’s low priority to thissub sector in terms of policy and regulatory environment, the contribution of private sector servicesand trees on private farm land to the national and per capita income is found to be significant.However, quantification of the contribution of combined effect on the community and PF to thenation, group, household's economy and individual's per capita income is not well researched,therefore, largely unknown. The paper nevertheless compiles the learning of 25 years of achievementsof the programme and concludes that the scope, objectives, approaches and policies related tocommunity and PF are to be revisited if they are to be promoted for income and employmentgeneration.

Key words: Forest condition, deforestation, forest growth, group asset, private sector services

62

ARE PRINCIPLES OF SCIENTIFIC FORESTRY USEFUL TO COMMUNITIES’ FOREST MANAGEMENT

PRACTICES? STORIES FROM NEPAL’S COMMUNITY FORESTS

Rebecca Leigh Rutt, Bir Bahadur Khanal Chettri, Jens Friis Lund, Ridish Pokharel, Santosh Rayamahjiand Thorsten Treue

Participatory forestry is based on expectations of improved environmental and socio-economicoutcomes. Yet evidence on the conservation and in particular, socio-economic outcomes is scarce. Thisscarcity has been attributed in particular, to a disparity between the theory of participatory forestryand actual implementation practices. Forest bureaucracies are often concerned over localcommunities’ (lack of) management. Scientific forest management plans (SFMPs) have become aprecondition for transferring authority to local institutions. SFMPs appear remarkably similar acrossnational participatory forestry processes, and follow scientific forest management principlesoriginating from present-day Germany in the early 19th century onwards and adopted by foresttraining institutions and forest bureaucracies throughout the world. In addition to their claimed role insafeguarding nationally important environmental values, SFMPs are justified by their practicalrelevance and indeed necessity in local communities’ day-to-day forest management. The quality of aSFMP, however, depends on the quality of data informing it and plans are useless if forest inventoriesare done haphazardly or too infrequently. Unfortunately, forest inventories are resource demanding,so resource strained forestry officials face incentives to take shortcuts. Further, the research indicatesthat local communities draw on other forms of knowledge to inform their management practicesunder participatory forestry. This raises two questions: (i) whether the forest inventories underlyingSFMPs are generally of a sufficient technical quality? and (ii) whether SFMPs, irrespective of theirtechnical quality, are useful to communities’ management practice?

Based on case studies in two locally managed forests in Nepal, this paper engages with these twoquestions. Time series analyses of remote sensing images help to understand forest development, andare supported by detailed forest inventories. Interviews with past and present community forestmanagers and an analysis of community management committees’ written documentation contributeto understanding the actual management processes and underlying rationale. Results indicated thatSFMPs have been elaborated rather haphazardly, and that local communities based their managementon other sources of knowledge and with notable success in the sense that they seemed highly awareof the condition of the forests they managed and that their forest management practices havecontributed to sustainable forest development.

Key words: Participatory forestry, forest inventories, remote sensing images, forest development

63

COLLABORATIVE FOREST MANAGEMENT IN THE TERAI: EXISTING SITUATION AND POLICY

IMPLICATION IN LIVELIHOOD IMPROVEMENT (A CASE STUDY FROM MAHOTTARI DISTRICT)

Bimal Paudyal

Institute of Forestry, Pokhara Campus, Pokhara, Nepal

This study was conducted in a collaborative forest- Banke Marha in Mahottari district of Nepal. Theobjective of the study was to assess the existing situation of collaborative forest management andpolicy implication on rural livelihood improvement. Questionnaire survey,group discussion and informal talks were the methods used for data collection. The results showedthat people were positive towards development of some of the natural, social/human andfinancial/physical assets by the introduction of collaborative forest management programme.However, there is no provision in law to address collaborative forest management properly. Theprogramme lacks clarity about how livelihood issues will be addressed. It is recommended to have aprovision in law for collaborative forest management programme, and the programme should focuson livelihood improvement activities.

Key words: Rural livelihood, livelihood issues, natural asset, social/human asset, financial/physicalassets

64

EMPIRICAL EVIDENCE OF THE DETERMINANTS OF MEDICINAL PLANT CONSUMPTION AND LOCAL

PERCEPTIONS ON THE ROLE OF MEDICINAL PLANTS IN HEALTH CARE IN RURAL NEPAL

Rikke Stamp Thorsen and Mariéve Pouliot

Traditional medicine is argued to play an important role in health care in developing countries. Healthcare behavior studies mainly include health care practices taking place outside of the household andethno botanic studies document the variety of knowledge and plants used without quantifying theactual use or characterizing the users. Very little research has been made on the extent of reliance onmedicinal plants for self-treatment and the role of these in people’s overall health seeking strategies.This paper quantifies household-level use of medicinal plants in rural Nepal, and characterizes thehouseholds and people resorting to medicinal plants for self-treatment. Moreover, it explores theconditions that facilitate or restrain the use of medicinal plants and presents a conceptual frameworkto describe the different ways people perceive medicinal plants. Structured household surveys (n=785)were conducted in four sites of rural/peri-urban Nepal in 2012 to collect data on household assets,treatment seeking behavior and knowledge and collection practices relating to medicinal plants.Qualitative interviews were conducted in three sites on 54 households to gather data on householdperceptions regarding medicinal plants and other treatment options. In total, 1539 illness episodeswere reported. Self-treatment with medicinal plants was the most often used form of traditionalmedicine and was used in 331 (21%) of all illness episodes. Preliminary results show that onlyhouseholds who perceive themselves as having knowledge on medicinal plants have used them as self-treatment. Knowledge on medicinal plants is usually transmitted within the family but is lost betweengenerations.

Key words: Traditional medicine, health seeking, local knowledge, self-treatment, illness episodes

65

WILL REDD+ CONTRIBUTE TO IMPROVE FOREST GOVERNANCE AND ENHANCE LIVELIHOODS OF

FOREST DEPENDENT PEOPLE? LESSONS FROM NEPAL’S REDD+ READINESS PROCESS

Dil B. Khatri* and Naya S. Paudel

ForestAction Nepal*Email: dil@forestaction.org

The prospect of Reducing Emission from Deforestation and Forest Degradation (REDD+) appears to bedeclining at least in the stakeholders’ view. Stakeholders in Nepal were enthusiastic on REDD+ duringinitial years of inception of REDD in Nepal. They expected its contribution to improve Nepal’s forestgovernance, resulting in sustainable forest management, and provide benefits to the forest dependentpeople. However, there is a growing realization that REDD+ is less likely to meet such expectationsthat the stakeholders had in the initial years. This paper examines Nepal’s REDD+ readiness processand associated debates with particular attention to the progress in Readiness Preparation Proposal(RPP) implementation, civic engagement in REDD+ process, and key focus of debate around it.Preliminary findings suggest that the national REDD+ readiness process has lagged behind expectedtimeline and uncertainties exists on international framework of REDD+. At the international level, keyissues like financing mechanism and Monitoring, Reporting and Verification system is yet to befinalized and timeline of implementation postponed until 2020. In Nepal, not only the implementationof RPP is considerably lagging behind the timeline, there are many procedural and substantive issuesraised over the structure and process adopted within the readiness phase. It has been revealed thatRPP implementation process has been dominated by techno-bureaucratic process and there has beenlimited space for participation of and deliberation. Civic actors have been constantly raising thequestion of inclusiveness of REDD+ related structures (especially REDD working group), participationand deliberative spaces in the REDD Working Group meetings and other public forums. On substantivepart, activities and debates led by both government and non-government actors are narrowly focusedon immediate technical issues including carbon measurement, piloting demonstrational payment andraising awareness on REDD+ among stakeholders. However, there has been limited attention towardsaddressing core issues of forest policy and governance, which ultimately determine the extent we candemonstrate the effectiveness of REDD+ implementation. Evidences in this line will lead us to concludethat REDD+ is less likely to meet initial expectations of stakeholders contribute to improvedgovernance and supporting livelihoods of the forest dependent people.

Key words: Participation, deliberation, readiness, forest policy, carbon measurement

66

OPTIMIZING CONTRIBUTION OF TIMBER IN COMMUNITY FORESTRY IN NEPAL: AN ASSESSMENT

OF ITS POTENTIALITY, POLICY CONSTRAINTS AND ASSOCIATED PRACTICAL HURDLES

Govinda Paudel*, Naya S Paudel*, Dil Bahadur Khatri*, Prakash Jha* Bishnu Hari Poudyal**

*ForestAction, Nepal** RECOFTC, Nepal

Community Forestry in Nepal has contributed significantly in generating forestry resources, improvingenvironmental health and supporting community livelihoods. Studies have shown that CF hassuccessfully generated resources both in terms of restoring greenery and growing stock. However,economical potentiality of timber resource in CF has largely remained untapped due to many reasons.Firstly, we know little about total amount of harvestable timber from community forests and its totalmonetary value. Secondly, there are various constraining factors that hinder sustainable harvestingand marketing of timber.. Inventory guideline for CF has provided methodological guidance toestimate growing stock, increment and annual allowable harvest. It is argued that the presentinventory guideline is conservative and therefore encourages under-harvest. Similarly, forest policiesand resulting bureaucratic response also limit CFUGs to harvest and market the timber. This studyquantifies the total growing stock, increment and total annual harvest of timber in community forest.For this, we apply stratified random sampling from which sample districts have been selected atrandom. Then we collect data on growing stock, annual increment and allowable harvestable amountfrom operational plans of CFUGs in the district. We also ground-truth the data by inventorying somesample CFs from each strata. Finally, we estimate the monitory value of timber from Nepal’s CF andsee its economic potentiality. In addition to quantitative estimation, we have analyzed forestinventory related guidelines and practices and identified some methodological errors. Based on thestudy, we argue that Nepal CF has huge potentiality in terms of generating income and employmentfrom timber, the potentiality being oblivious due to de-motivating and constraining regulatory barriersand bureaucratic processes, poor institutional mechanism, conservative inventory guidelines.

Key words: Community Forestry, forest inventory, timber, growing stock, increment, annual harvest

67

EXPERIENCE IN DEVELOPING SUB-NATIONAL LEVEL REDD+ MRV SYSTEM AND VERIFICATION IN

NEPAL

Shambhu Prasad Dangal

Environmental Resources Institute Pvt. Ltd., Ekantakuna, Lalitpur, Nepal

Payment mechanism for Reducing Emission from Deforestation and Forest Degradation (REDD),sustainable forest management, conservation and enhancement of forest carbon stock is emergingglobally after Bali Convention in 2007. According to the United Nations Framework Convention onClimate Change (UNFCCC), participating countries need to develop a national level measurement,reporting and verification (MRV) as a prerequisite for successful implementation of REDD+mechanisms. Nepal's REDD Readiness Preparation Proposal (RPP) 2010 has envisioned a hybridapproach including both MRV at national and sub-national levels for REDD+ implementation. In 2011, asub-national level REDD+ MRV framework was developed based on the experience gained from theimplementation of first REDD+ pilot project in Nepal and reviewing MRV system under internationalcarbon standards. This framework was implemented in 2013 at the sub-national level piloting project inNepal. This paper describes a comprehensive framework for making REDD+ a reality throughincentivising community based REDD+ initiatives at local, landscape and/or sub-national levels. Thisframework provides a cost effective and efficient monitoring, reporting and verification of GHGemission reductions as well as Social and Ecosystem Services (SES) by utilising domestic institutionaland technical capabilities. Although this framework applies to the technical and institutional capacityof Nepal, it is flexible and can be modified to suit any developing country. This framework will ensurereal, measurable and transparent emission reductions and assess SES or impacts due toimplementation of REDD+ activities. The benefits expected from REDD+ mechanism largely dependson the effective implementation of the framework which increases the negotiation capacity of REDD+project at international financial architect. Hence, the paper also highlights the experience gained inimplementing the Framework at sub-national level. The highlights include not limiting to the standardof tools and techniques, capacity of key actors, and technical and governance aspects.

Key words: REDD+, Social and Ecosystem Services, hybrid approach, carbon standards

68

PAYMENT FOR WATERSHED SERVICES AS A TOOL TO RESOLVE DRINKING WATER PROBLEM OF

MUNICIPALITIES: A CASE OF BAGLUNG MUNICIPALITY

Sushant Acharya1 and Dil Bahadur Khatri2

1 Multi Stakeholder Forestry Programme, Services Support Unit, Cluster Coordinator Office, Baglung,Nepal2 Forest Action, Lalitpur, Nepal

Shortage of drinking water is a growing challenge of municipal areas in the developing countries,which has also been prevalent in Baglung municipality. The efforts of the municipality to secure watersource from neighboring upstream villages has been successful only after five years due to conflictamong municipality dwellers and upstream community. In this context, this paper explores whetherand how payment for watershed services (PWS) can provide a mechanism to resolve resource useconflict and establish upstream- downstream linkage for sustainable provisioning of ecosystemservices. This paper provides and analyzes how the conflict between upstream community andmunicipality emerged over time and what have been the efforts to resolve such conflict and solve thewater related problem. Preliminary finding revealed that the municipality was positive towardsproviding some form of payment to the upstream community for the cost of securing the water sourcefor long-term. On the other side, the upstream community has also given green signal to provide watersource for municipality if the municipality contributed to support the development of the community.There are quite long international experiences of PWS mechanisms which has provided tool forupstream-downstream linkage and resolving water related problem of many municipalities. This hasled us to conclude that PWS can provide a framework to establish linkage between Baglungmunicipality and upstream community. This will not only resolve the enduring problem of waterrelated conflict but also helps in conservation of watershed and sustainable provisioning of ecosystemservices. Findings of this paper will provide insight to many municipalities of Nepal and elsewhere whoare facing similar water related problem.

Key words: Upstream-downstream linkage, watershed conservation, conflict, ecosystem services,community

69

FOREST WORKERS' OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND SOCIAL SECURITY: CHALLENGES FOR FOREST

GOVERNANCE IN NEPAL

Bishnu Prasad Gyawali

General Secretary/Forest Environment Workers' Union,NepalStudent/M.sc.environment science/TU bishnugyawali@gmail.com

Nepal is in forefront to contribute in conservation of natural resources and thereby working towardsclimate change. Nepal's Glacier has shrunk by 21 per cent over 30 years. The ecosystem of the region isone of the most fragile yet it offers livelihood support to 210 million people downstream. Nepalesepeople are facing such environmental problem for which they were not responsible. Beside this, Nepalis facing some local level environmental problem like deforestation and degradation of forestresources, land slide, flood by human induced causes i.e. encroachments, forest firing, timbersmuggling, fuel wood exploitation, overgrazing, poaching which are fully relying on poverty andlivelihood opportunity to its majority of population living below the poverty line. Lack of alternativelivelihood opportunity and sustainable management of Forest resources, jobs in forestry sectorbecame hazardous, unsafe and over exploited including many times illegal. This has become the greatchallenge to the policy maker for sustainable management of forest and natural resources in thecountry. Under the Descriptive and Explorative research designs, Primary and Secondary informationwere collected through reviewed the national policies and acts, international labor conventions,observation, interview ,key informant survey and focus group discussion to examine and analysis theForest workers' occupational safety and social security scenario of the country. The Governmentinitiatives were not adequate to provide socio-economical security to the forest dependentcommunities who are seeking livelihood opportunity in forestry. About 12 percent of country labordepends on forest which was vulnerable from different type of hazards including socio-psycho,physiological and biological hazards that is causing challenges for forest governance in Nepal. Forestsector act and policies were unable to ensure occupational safety and social security for the forestworkers which minimized the total cost of production and reduce the ethics and professionalism inforest worker. They were also incompatible with the international labor convention which wasratifying by the Nepal government. It is recommended to Nepal government for declaring minimumwages of forest worker and endorsement of national standard guideline to ensure decent job in forestsector for effective forest governance system to reduce deforestation and degradation.

Key word:

Forest worker, hazardous job, occupational safety and security, Decent Work, sustainablemanagement

70

GOVERNANCE IN COMMUNITY FORESTRY IN NEPAL AFTER INTRODUCING FORESTCERTIFICATION

Ram P. Acharya1,4,6, Bhola P. Bhattarai2, Nabaraj Dahal3, Ripu M. Kunwar4, G Karki4, and, HariP. Bhattarai5,

1Forest Certification National Working Group of Nepal2National Forum for Advocacy Nepal, Kathmandu3Federation of Community Forest User Groups Nepal, Kathmandu4Practical Solution Consultancy Nepal, Kathmandu5Department of Sociology/Anthropology, Tribhuvan University, Kathmandu, Nepal6Author for correspondence (ram.pacharya@gmail.com)

Forest Certification has raised a significant amount of interest around the world because it is regardedas an incentive to improve community forest management and to complement poverty reductionbecause it is intrigued with economic, social and environmental impacts, which are inseparable fromrural livelihood. The methods adopted for the present study helped analyze changes in awareness,perception, implementations, governance, institutional development, processes, provisions andlivelihood and economic development in sample CFUGs over a period of five years of forestcertification and later on through forest products and contribution to resource conservation. KalobhirCFUG of Jiri VDC—7, Dolakha and Lahare CFUG of Gadaraya VDC—9, Bajhang were selected as samplefollowing free-listing and stakeholders and key-informants consultations. The geographical location ofthe sample CFUGs was also taken into consideration for better comparison. Certification seemed to bea vehicle for local value addition, income and employment generation. It has decreased negativeenvironmental consequences, has improved the governance of community forest management andlocal enterprises, and has contribuluted to rural poverty reduction and sustainable resourcemanagement. The major positive changes in management of resources included improvement ofcollection of forest products, maintenance of records, and maintaining transparency of all process andmethods. Therefore, certification should be expanded in community managed forests to improvenatural resource governance and resource management and income and employment.

Key words: Forest certification, community based forest management, multiple impacts, povertyreduction, sustainable forest management.

71

COMMUNITIES, GOVERNMENTS AND COMMERCIALIZATION OF FORESTRY: EMERGING NEXUS OF

RESOURCE CONTROL IN NEPAL TERAI

Prakash K. Jha1, Dil B. Khatri1 and Hemant R. Ojha2

1 ForestAction Nepal2 ForestAction Nepal, SIAS and University of Melbourne

Nepal’s Terai forest occupies highly productive land and contains valuable timber albeit graduallyshrinking due to high demand for land and mismanagement. This is largely because governancechallenges like failure of centralized state centric management and ambiguity about community basedmanagement. Two different kind of community based management systems have evolved –Community Forestry (CF) and Collaborative Forest Management (CFM). In the recent years, majority ofthe groups (both CF and CFM) are involved in harvesting and commercialization of the timber butfacing many governance challenges. On one hand, the resource generated from the commercializationis captured by the local elite with very minimal benefit accruing to the poor and marginalized people.On the other hand, the way community interacts with market and the government is also criticized forpromotion of informal practices and nexus, which is damaging the positive image of CF itself. In thiscontext, this paper documents the varieties of ways in which CF and CFM groups interact with districtforest office (DFO) and market related actors in relation to commercialization of the valuable timber inTerai. We analyzed two CFs and one collaborative forest to understand the commercialization processand the ways community interacted with DFO and market actors. We adopted qualitative tools likeinterview with community leaders, contractors and DFO staff, and focus group discussion with groupmembers. We then related our findings with the theory of common property resource managementand understanding socio-ecological system (SES). We critically examined whether and to what extentOstrom’s (2009) theory helped explain governance and sustainability of commons involving thecomplex relations communities, government, DFO and market actors. This study thus offers importantpolicy insights as to how high value and complex forests systems of Terai can be managed, and alsocontributes to the SES framework by adding new dimensions related to market and bureaucracy.

Key words: Social-Ecological System framework, community forests, collaborative forests, governancechallenges, commercialization process

72

WHAT MAKES THE VALUE CHAIN DEVELOPMENT INTERVENTION SUCCESS? PARTICULAREMPHASIS ON MEDICINAL AND AROMATIC PLANT SUB-SECTOR IN MID-WESTERN, NEPAL

Keshav Raj Acharya

GIZ/INCLUDE

Nepal is rich in biological diversity due to its diverse climatic and topographic variations. It harborsmore than 7000 floral diversity in both agro-based and forest based. At least 700 species from theforest based biodiversity have been found to have the medicinal properties. Hundreds of differentspecies are being traded in commercial level mostly to the Indian market without any value addition.Mid and Far-Western Development Regions are contributing about 80 percent of such trade to Indiafrom Nepal (GIZ, 2010). Some other agro-based species like ginger and turmeric have also medicinalproperties and being cultivated by the farmers traditionally in the local level in Nepal. They are alsobeing traded to India following the same trade channels (JABAN, 2013).

Among the different MAPs, this paper has confined in the case of three different products in twodistricts of Mid-Western Development Region. This is the case study based on ginger, essential oil andChyuri value chain development intervention. Revisions of secondary literature, focus groupdiscussion, direct observation and interview with key stakeholder are the key methods applied toconclude the findings of the present study. Ginger and essential oil are in high demand in internationalmarket where as Chyuri butter has the high resource potential for up-scaling the processing. This studytried to explore the achievement of the intervention implemented by the Intermediaries' Organizationin Pyuthan and Surkhet districts. This study showed that the intervention supported for the processingand marketing had high success rate than the intervention supported in the production level. Keymessage from this study revealed that the value chain supporter should focus on value addition andbetter marketing linkage. The improved marketing linkage can provide business conduciveenvironment to motivate the producers to increase the quality products. The increased production cancontribute increased employment and better income to the local people.

Key words: Business conducive environment, MAPs, market linkage, production level

73

Poster PresentationsIMPACT OF COMMUNITY BASED FOREST GOVERNANCE ON LOCAL LIVELIHOODS IN PAKISTAN:IMPLICATION FOR CLIMATE CHANGE MITIGATION

Khurram Iqbal

University of Agriculture, Gobindpura Road, Faisalabad, Pakistan; kisociologist@yahoo.com

Community or social forestry remains a buzzword in the contemporary debates around forestgovernance. Community based forest governance is considered as one of the most effective tools ofcontrolling degradation of natural forests, and consequently mitigating the negative effects of climatechange. The developing countries of the world are being threatened by increasing depletion of naturalforests, which increases the harmful consequences of climate change. In most of the developing andtransitional countries of the global South, poor forest management by the state authorities is mostlyconsidered responsible for the depletion of natural forests. Most of the development donors,practitioners and researchers argue that community based forestry promotes pluralism, publicparticipation, democracy and empowerment of the poor. In this perspective, this paper presents acase study of community based forest management in the Himalaya-Hindukush and Karakorummountain range of northern Pakistan. Here the natural forests are being heavily degraded, and as aresult, livelihoods of forest dwellers are at stake. Pakistan is among those countries that have meagreforest and has one of the highest rates of deforestation in the world.

The case of Pakistan regarding community forestry is rather different from many developing countries.The main obstacle is the resistance from the state and powerful timber smugglers. This paper analyzeshow decentralized/participatory forest management impacted the state of forests and livelihoods offorest dwellers living in the marginal Karakorum-Himalaya-Hindukush regions of Northwest Pakistan.The system of community forestry has legal cover in Northwest Pakistan and it received heavy supportfrom different donor agencies but, there are many challenges in the implementation. Communityforestry represents a formal partnership between the state agencies and forest dependentcommunities. In practice this system represents a couched provision of partnership in the provincialforestry legislation of Pakistan. This paper also attempts to answer the question that whethercommunity participation in decision making regarding forests helped in minimizing the threats ofclimate change, illegal forest harvesting and livelihoods vulnerability.

Key-words: Deforestation, joint forest management, rural livelihoods, poverty, sustainable forestmanagement

74

DENDROCHRONOLOGICAL POTENTIAL OF HIPPOPHAE TIBETANA FROM SAGARMATHA NATIONAL

PARK, NEPAL HIMALAYA

Shyam Prasad Sharma1, Youba Raj Pokharel1 and Narayan Prasad Gaire2

1 Ministry of Forests and Soil Conservation, Department of Forests, Tree Improvement and SilvicultureUnit, Hattisar, Kathmandu, Nepal2 Nepal Academy of Science and Technology, Khumaltar, Lalitpur, Nepalyrpokharel@gmail.com

Dendrochronology is an important tool to assess the response of plant species to climate changebesides other changes. A dendrochronological study of the high-elevation shrub species,Seabuckthorn (Hippophae tibetana) was carried at Sagarmatha National Park, Solukhumbu district,northeast Nepal with the aim of knowing its potential for dendrochronological study and its dynamicswith environmental change. Sampling was carried at three sites (altitudes: 3600 to 3950 m asl) inDudhkoshi river valley. At least 30 discs samples were taken from the stem base considering differentdiameter classes from each site. Besides, plant density and ecological status were studied. In thelaboratory, the sample discs were air dried, sanded and polished with progressively finer sandpaper toenhance the visibility of the annual rings under microscope. Soil in the area was acidic in nature havingorganic matter 1.57% and sandy loam in texture. Major associates were Salix sps, Betula utilis,Rhododendron sps. ,Juniper, Rosa sps., Abies, spectabilis, etc. Average plant density was found to be26,800/ha with good regeneration. Diameter at base ranged from 1.05 to 2.71cm and height rangedfrom 29 to 78cm. Similarly, age ranged from 7 to 37 yrs with mean annual radial growth of 0.58mm.There was a decreasing trend in average age with increasing elevation. Positive relationship was foundbetween radial growth and precipitation in most of the months. Disc analysis showed that the annualrings of the species were distinct and could be counted easily under the microscope, indicatingsuitability of this species for further dendrochronological study.

Key words: Tree-ring analysis, dendrochronology, radial growth, plant growth, ecology

75

IMPENDING HEALTH BURDEN FROM DEFORESTATION IN BANGLADESH

Md. Shafiqur Rahman1, Rukhsana Shaheen1 and Shahreen Raihana2

1Directorate General of Health Services of Bangladesh (rahmans.shaheenr@gmail.com)2International Centre for Diarrhoeal Diseases Research, Bangladesh

The developing country Bangladesh has a landmass of 147,570 km2. About 17.08% of the landmass isrecorded as total forest, of which 9.8% is owned by public sector. This forest area is less than theminimum requirement of 25% of the landmass. In-spite of the less than required forest area,deforestation is ongoing. Biodiversity and ecosystem integrity vis-à-vis human health are beingthreatened due to deforestation. Attempt is made to alert all concerned on their responsibilitiestowards thwarting deforestation to avert health challenges.

Consultation of electronic recorded communication for conceptual analysis and etic interpretationwas done to study the human health burden from deforestation in Bangladesh. Deforestation is goingon in Bangladesh at a rate of 3.3/100 ha of forest annually, although forest preservation andaforestation laws are in place. Forest acts as ‘nature’s lung’. It also brings biophile elements (e.g.zinc, iodine, bromine, sulfur, selenium, etc.) from deep to top soils, which are taken up by crops andare assimilated by human through diet. Loss of plant-biophile is enhanced by deforestation. Plant-biophiles are essential to maintain human immunological functions and biological makeup, and thushuman health. Deficiency of plant-biophiles also causes rapid replication and growth of diseasecausing virus and bacteria posing threat to environment. Human health, an essential component ofsustainable development, is at stake in Bangladesh due to deforestation. Implementation of existinglaws for forest conservation has to be ensured along with reclaiming of lost forest land. Greaterawareness among scientists, government and local population regarding necessity of forest may helpto sustain the efforts.

Key words: Biophiles, health challenges, forest conservation, biological makeup

76

HIGHLAND CONSERVATION AREA AND LIVELIHOOD OF LOCAL PEOPLE: A REVIEW PAPER FROM

NEPAL, ASIA

Ramesh Raj Pant

Central Department of Environmental Science, Tribhuvan University, Kirtipur; rpant@cdes.edu.np; Tel.:9843315874/01-4332147

The purpose of this research paper is to understand the impacts of highland conservation area onlivelihood of local people. This study was primarily done by reviewing literatures of conservation areas.Poverty and environmental conservation are two distinct but related global concerns. In Nepal, mostof the conservation areas are declared in high mountain region largely occupied by marginalized ruralpopulation, who are being involuntarily restricted from right of access to the resources for theirlivelihood. However, revenue generated from conservation areas has been spent on livelihoodimprovement of local people. Additionally, conservation areas have also been providing education andawareness to the locals that have been reducing the dependency of people towards the naturalresources. People living in the areas where tourism is highly developed, receives more economicbenefits and are more employed. Nevertheless, people’s participation is crucial for the effectivemanagement of conservation area, and is possible only if the conservation area enhances the localeconomy.

Key words: Poverty, environmental conservation, high mountain region, rural population

77

COMPOUND SPECIFIC STABLE ISOTOPES (CSSI) FOR SEDIMENT FINGERPRINTING

Hari Ram Upadhayay1,3*, Roshan Man Bajracharya1, Wim Cornelis2 and Pascal Boeckx3

1 Aquatic Ecology Centre, Department of Environmental Science and Engineering, KathmanduUniversity, Dhulikhel, Nepal

2 Department of Soil Management, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Coupure Links653, 9000 Gent, Belgium

3 Isotope Bioscience Laboratory-ISOFYS, Department of Physical and Analytical Chemistry, Faculty ofBioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Coupure Links 653, 9000 Gent, Belgium

*hrgene@gmail.com

Soil erosion across the watershed is highly variable process occurring at different temporal and spatialscale. Suspended sediment load transported by river or stream commonly represents the mixture ofsediment derived from different locations and from different source types within the contributingcatchment. The fatty acid specific stable isotopes (δD and δ13C) approach and compound specificstable isotopes (CSSI) -based mixing models to calculate the proportion of each source soilcontributing to the eroded soil mixture could be promising. The theoretical background behind thisapproach has significant implications in our understanding of the erosion hotspot in the watershedscale.

Key words: Sediment fingerprinting, soil erosion, mixing model, erosion hotspot

78

SAARC’S ANXIETY ON CLIMATE CHANGE: WHAT DOES THIS CONCERN ENTAIL?

Baniateilang MajawNorth-Eastern Hill University (NEHU), Shillong, IndiaE-mail: <majawban@gmail.com>.

Concern over climate change has appeared frequently on the international agenda even within thebanner of regional cooperation that negotiates on binding climate agreements. Although, South Asiancountries are negligible contributors to global warming, yet climate change is generally acknowledgedas a threat to the region. The Heads of State of SAARC reiterated their deep concern at the continueddegradation of environment. In 2003, the Meeting of SAARC Cultural Affairs Ministers approvedmeasures for protection, conservation and maintenance of South Asian Cultural Heritage andcooperation among Member States in promoting culture.

With climate change the ecosystem will be particularly vulnerable. Sacred groves are a biologicalheritage and a system that has helped preserve the biodiversity conservation and livelihoodimprovement for generations in the state of Meghalaya. Communities play a central role in biodiversityconservation inside the sacred groves, which are influenced by customary regulations through ages.Sacred groves are mostly primary forest and are well preserved, often in their pristine state and arerich in biodiversity. They constitute a unique example of conservation of genetic resources, andalso, show micro climatic conditions with their own distinct floral and faunal varieties. In theabsence of effective conservation management, these sacred groves are facing challenges to hold theoriginal plant diversity they have. Since preservation and protection of the environment remains a highpriority on the agenda being pursued by the Member States of SAARC, this study will try to highlightthe aspects of the traditional forest management systems of the local tribal people thatcontribute towards preservation, conservation and protection of cultural heritage.

Key words: Climate agreements, global warming, sacred groves, biological heritage, geneticresources

79

DIVERSIFYING LIVELIHOODS THROUGH FOREST BASED MICRO-ENTERPRISES: LESSONS FROM

WESTERN TERAI LANDSCAPE COMPLEX PROJECT, NEPAL

Bijendra Basnyat and Jagannath Koirala

Western Terai Landscape Complex (WTLC) Project promoted forest based micro-enterprises (FBMEs)targeting women, poor and marginalized groups with a view to empower local communities to pursuesustainable diversified livelihoods that enable biodiversity conservation. The project established andstrengthened 54 FBMEs benefitting nearly 5000 families. FBMEs are quick impacting in nature andprovided income and employment opportunities within a very short duration of time. It createdemployment of 110 days per year per family with a net annual income of Rs 19,620 per family. Incomewas mostly utilized for child education followed by household affairs, medical treatment and loanrepayment while investment on growth and expansion of business was very limited. Membership ofpoor and marginalized communities in community institutions as well as their representation in keydecision making positions increased. Besides, few households also shifted towards the alternativeenergy, especially biogas. This reveals that FBMEs have not only ensured social and economicempowerment of the target groups but also, reduced their direct dependency on forests. Despite ofthis, sustainability of enterprises is very less. Of the 54 FBMEs promoted by the project, nearly half areoperational. There is high dropout rate among the entrepreneurs, which is mainly because of lessdemand of products in the market or problems associated with selling of products, availability ofcheap substitutes, poor product quality, less economic return, etc. The most pressing reason is theavailability of cheap substitutes where the poor people could neither compete with quality nor withthe price. Apart from this, few FBMEs has also increased direct dependency on forests because oflimited availability of raw material. Resource base creation together with environment and socialscreening is essential to minimize negative impact on forests and biodiversity. FBMEs could sustain, ina long run only, if environmental benefits of a particular product or production system is effectivelydisseminated among the consumers. Hence, eco-labeling and certification together with premiumbased marketing should be promoted for sustaining FBMEs and diversifying livelihoods.

Key words: Marketing, biodiversity conservation, employment opportunity, community institution,environmental benefit

80

MAPPING ABOVE GROUND WOODY BIOMASS USING FOREST INVENTORY, REMOTE SENSING AND

GEOSTATISTICAL MODELS

Bechu K. Yadav

Mapping forest biomass is fundamental for estimating CO2 emissions, planning and monitoring offorest operations for commercial use or the study of ecosystem productivity. This pilot projectattempted to estimate growing stock and aboveground woody biomass (AGWB) from forest inventorydata; to map AGWB combining field inventory data, RS imagery and geostatistical models viz. k-nearestneighbors (k-NN), direct radiometric relationships (DRR) and Cokriging (CoK); and toevaluate/compare the biomass maps derived from the different geostatistical models. A part of TimliForest Range of West Dehradun Division, Uttarakhand, India was selected for study (58.78 km2 area)IRS P6 LISS-III satellite data of 01 December 2012 and Software such as IDRISI/k-NN FOREST, ArcGIS 10,ERDAS 10 and ENVI 5.0 were used for processing and analyses. The whole project was divided into pre-field work (database preparation and arrangement), field work (reconnaissance survey, measurementof forest parameters and recording the information) and post field work (processing, analyzing andinterpretation of the collected data). Stratified random sampling was applied to collect biophysicaldata such as girth at breast height, average tree height, density, etc. Sample plots of size 0.1 ha(31.62m×31.62m) were laid down in the field randomly. Total 26 sample plots using Chacko’s formulafor analyses and 10 plots for validation were enumerated for biophysical data. Volumetric equationswere used for calculating volume and multiplied by specific gravity to get biomass.

Two forest type-density classes- Sal (40-70%) and Sal (>70%) and four non-forest classes- scrub, stream,agriculture and settlement were delineated in the study area. Volume in different strata of forest type-density ranged from 189.84-484.36 m3 /ha. Total growing stock of forest was found 2011412.77 m3.AGWB in forest area ranged from 143-421 t/ha. Total biomass in Sal (>70%) and Sal (40-70%) were foundto be 769311.77 tons and 662200.73 tons respectively. After validation and comparison, k-NN methodof Mahalanobis Distance (RMSE=42.25 t/ha) was found to be the best method followed by FuzzyDistance and Euclidean Distance with RMSE of 44.23 t/ha and 45.13 t/ha. DRR was found to be the leastaccurate method with RMSE of 67.17 t/ha.

Key words: Spectral bands, vegetation indices, DRR, k-NN, CoK

81

SATELLITE BASED BURNT AREA ASSESSMENT OF NEPAL FROM 2000 TO 2013

Him Lal Shrestha* and Hari Krishna DhonjuInternational Centre for Integrated Mountain Development (ICIMOD), Lalitpur, Nepal* Corresponding author: hshrestha@icimod.org

Forest fire is considered as drivers of forest degradation as it burns trees in the forest and producesash and smokes. The tendency of the forest fire, which goes up to the crown type, causes majordestruction of the forest due to loss of tender shoot and green leaves of tree‐crowns. The forest typealso matters on the spreading of the forest fire magnitude in terms of forest depletion. Forest fire hasits spatio‐temporal characteristics in terms of its occurrence, spreading and its depletion. Thegeospatial approach can better present the current scenario, assessment of damage and lossmagnitude, and even can support for the forest fire management in future. MODIS product hasmulti‐resolution data in terms of spatial, temporal, spectral and radiometric characteristics. Thosecharacteristics support for regular monitoring of forest fire occurrence and its damages over theregion. This study tried to find the current trend of forest fire occurrence and burnt areas assessmentsince MODIS operation year 2000 to the current date for entire Nepal. The study also tried to assessthe seasonality and spatiality of forest fire for the same period and region. MODIS products MCD45A1of burnt area and burn date were analyzed writing the routine code in python scripting. RS basedinformation still needs the field level validation and cross‐checking of the data in collaboration withactors working on forest fire and its management. The study shows huge rate of burnt area due toforest fire in Nepal with average rate of 261 km2 per year. The year 2001 and 2012 had high burnt areasof 552 km2 and 401 km2 for entire Nepal. Since last few years, Nepal is experiencing huge number offorest fire occurrence, however, we don’t have proper damage assessment and records from theground. In this current scenario, the assessment carried out with the help of MODIS satelliteimageries and spatial analysis could help managers, forest use communities and policy makers tointervene appropriate plan, action and strategy to deal with forest fire in coming days from forest firemanagement perspective.

Key words: Forest fire, geospatial approach, burnt areas, multi‐resolution data, MODIS product

82

BIOMASS EQUATION FOR EUCALYPTUS CAMALDULENSIS: A STUDY FROM SAGARNATH TARAI,NEPAL

Ram Asheshwar Mandal1, Iswar Chandra Dutta2, Shamsul Mohamad Haque3, Ashok K. Mallik3, YajnaTimalsina4 and Gandib Kafle3

1 Trichandra College, TU, Nepal2 Tribhuwan University Commission, Tribhuwan University, Kirtipur3 Institute of Forestry, Hetauda4 Institute of Forestry, Pokhara

Nepal proposed to adopt tier 2 and to be ready for tier 3 under REDD+ mechanism. So, standardequations are essential to calculate the species- wise tree biomass. Thus, objectives of this research areto develop the regression equations for estimation of biomass; to assess the proportion of stem,branch and leaves in total biomass and to determine the percentage of sapwood, heartwood and barkin bole biomass. Plantation sites of Sagarnath Forest Development Project were selected. 59 treeswere selected randomly based on diameter classes and were felled. Out of this 40 trees were used todevelop the biomass equation and remaining 19 used for validation purpose. Meanwhile, height anddiameter at breast height (DBH) were measured before felling. Samples of bole, branches and leavesand separated bark, heart wood and sap wood were dried in the lab. The regression equations weredeveloped between dry biomass and DBH, height and wood density. The R2 of equations of bole,branch and leaves were 0.9, 0.93 and 0.95 respectively. Statistically, equations were checked with rootmean square error (RMSE). Moreover, the value of bole in biomass ranged from 74.32 to 78.98%, whilethey were 11.34-14.04 % and 9.68-11.64% of branches and leaves respectively. Similarly, estimatedpercentages of bark, sap wood and heart wood ranged 12.6-16.4%, 43.84-47.68% and 37.42-42.08%respectively. As Nepal has proposed tier 2 in REDD+ mechanism and approaching for tier 3, suchstandard biomass model has very momentous.

Key words: Regression, bole, branch, sapwood

83

FARM TREES: COMPOSITION, ABUNDANCE AND ROLE OF TREES ON FARMLAND

Lila Puri* and Henrik Meilby* Email: puri07878@alumni.itc.nl

To monitor forest dynamics and wood extraction, a network of 241 permanent plots was establishedby ComForM Project at three community-managed forest sites in the lowlands (Chitwan), the middlehills (Kaski) and the high mountains (Mustang). The plots are located at altitudes ranging from 200 to2600 m.a.s.l. and were measured in the springs of 2005, 2010 and 2013. Measurements included trees,shrubs and regeneration. In addition, surveys of soil, deadwood, biomass and litter were undertakenwithin or around the plots. In this paper we examine the dynamics of the forests and the extraction ofwood products by the local communities, compare the growth capacity of the forest to presentextraction practices and discuss future management options. We also discuss the possible use of theplot network and the potentials of the data.

Key words: ComForM Project, deadwood, biomass, litter, extraction of wood products

84

MINERALOGY OF ROCKS AND SOILS IN KANKALI AND TIBREKOT COMMUNITY FORESTS, NEPAL

Ram Prasad Sharma1*, M.K. Gupta2, A.K. Raina2 and M.K. Balla1

1Institute of Forestry, Tribhuvan University, Pokhara Campus, Pokhara, Nepal2 Forest Research Institute, Dehradun, Uttarakhand, India*Corresponding author: ramsharmag@yahoo.com

Mineralogical study has special importance in forestry where vegetation growth lasts over a longperiod and depends to a large extent, on the minerals as a source of nutrients in the soil. Soil is one ofthe most important factors for vegetation growth, which is mainly governed by weathering andclimatic conditions. The aim of the research is to investigate minerals of rocks, sand and soil clay inKankali community forest (CF), Chitwan and Tibrekot community forest, Kaski, Nepal. The rockminerals were identified by studying thin sections of rocks using a petrographical microscope, sandminerals by petrographical miscroscope and clay minerals by X-ray diffraction. The rocks of Kankali CFdominantly contained light minerals (53%) with quartz, feldspar and muscovite, and 26% opaqueminerals (biotite and chlorite) followed by 13% ground mass and cementing materials and 4% lithicfragments. The sand has embraced largely by 85% quartz, and 10% rock fragments with other minortrace minerals followed by about 4% opaque minerals, feldspar, muscovite, magnetite, hornblende andtourmaline combined. The soil clay from Kankali community forest indicated the presence of kaolinite,quartz, chlorite, illite and small traces of phengite and muscovite and Tibrekot community forest bychlorite, illite and traces of quartz, magnetite and albite. The mineralogical compositions were mostlyassociated with nature and condition of parent materials and degree of weathering. The study,therefore, suggests that soils of the study area contained low to moderate amount of weatherableminerals indicating their pedzolic nature. This indicates that there will be low to moderate amount ofrelease of the nutrient elements and will render to stable land in the area.

Key words: Weathering, climatic conditions, light minerals, ground mass, cementing materials,weatherable minerals

85

TOURISM AND SUSTAINABILITY: A DICHOTOMY DEBATE AND THE THEORY OF MEAN

Ramji Sharma

Pokhara College of Management; Email: ramjisharma@gmail.com

Tourism has been a favorite segment around the globe for quick economic prosperity and socialtransformation for developing economies although this leisure industry was traditionally the remit ofthe western rich communities mostly after the World War II. Researchers stunned for a while whilstsocio-cultural and environmental bearings appeared to surpass its economic spin-offs. The issue ofsustainability became a buzzword thereafter in tourism industry. The environment, biodiversity andindigenous cultures could not remain in isolation from the impact of tourism growth. Then ahypothesis of sustainable tourism development emerged aiming to ensure minimum impacts onenvironment, biodiversity, society and cultures. The charge yet to be challenged is the claim thattourism is ultimately unsustainable because of its multidimensional impacts on environments,biodiversity, society and cultures and then makes destinations less appealing. Tourism is accused ofbeing a despoiler of pristine natural environments, a destroyer of valued lifestyles and age-oldcultures, and an exploiter of poor nations. Therefore, it is often portrayed as a juggernaut, consumingone destination after another and then rolling on.

There are various complex issues of sustainable tourism in relation to biophysical, environmental andsocio-cultural impacts. One debate is that continued growth of tourism can dramatically transformcultures and create a homogenized world. Other argument is that tourism can counteract otherchange agents and help maintain cultures, thus contributing to socio-cultural sustainability.Furthermore, sustainable development is still a contested concept and the theory of sustainability hasadvanced through discourses of a range of different interpretations. Many issues have emerged aspoints of controversy regarding sustainable development. Hence, sustainability is a delicate issue to bediscussed in tourism management between economic development and its inevitable impacts on thesociety, culture and environment. Around this periphery, responsible tourism, the main pillars of whichare environmental integrity, social justice and economic development, has emerged as a theory ofmean for the reason that it is regarded as a means to reach to the ends - sustainable development.

Key words: Leisure industry, multidimensional impacts, sustainable development, juggernaut, socio-cultural impacts, natural environments

86

CONTRIBUTION OF CONSERVATION AREA ON THE LIVELIHOOD OF POOR AND DISADVANTAGEDGROUPS (A CASE STUDY OF API-NAMPA CONSERVATION AREA LATINATH AND KHANDESWORIVDCS OF DARCHULA DISTRICT, FAR-WESTERN DEVELOPMENT REGION NEPAL)

Ramesh Raj Pant

Central Department of Environmental Science, Tribhuvan University, Kirtipur; Email:rpant@cdes.edu.np; Mobile/Tel.: 9843315874/01-4332147

Conservation areas are an appropriate means for managing biodiversity and have an immense role onlivelihoods of many local communities living in and around the areas. Therefore, conservation area isone of the best models to interlink between environmental conservation and the livelihood of localpeople. This research explores the contribution of conservation area on the livelihood of poor anddisadvantaged groups of Api-Nampa Conservation Area- Latinath and Khandeswori VDCs of Darchuladistrict. The field observation and survey, interview with local poor people and disadvantaged groups(DAGs), along with consultation meeting, group discussion and questionnaire survey were carried out.Api-Nampa Conservation Area is the youngest conservation area established in 2010 to conserve thenatural beauty, ecosystem and improve the livelihood of local people. It was found that the areaprovided habitats for many rare, endangered and threatened wildlife species and made the area rich interms of biological diversity. The area was also rich in terms of cultural and ethnic diversity. Theenvironmental resources in as forest products especially NTFPs have direct and significant role to upliftthe livelihood of the people at local level. However, the research concluded that due to the lack ofconservation program, illiteracy, ignorance and local ownership of resources, still there is the link ofconservation with the livelihood of the people missing.

Key words: Forest products, NTFPs, biodiversity, disadvantaged groups, natural beauty, ecosystem

87

IN VITRO AND IN VIVO GERMINATION OF CROTALARIA RAMOSISSIMA, AN ENDEMIC LEGUME OF

EASTERN GHATS, INDIA

Devarajan Thangadurai

Department of Botany, Karnatak University, Dharwad 580003, Karnataka, India; Email:drdthangadurai@gmail.com

The medicinal usage of Crotolaria was long back recognized in India since Vedic periods. Thedescriptions of Crotalaria species are seen in Ayurvedic literatures. Now-a-days, genus Crotalaria showshighest percentage of endemic species. In that 33% are endemic. Among them, Crotalaria ramosissimais one of the endemic species. The present study was carried out while considering the diversity,endemism and number of species under threat. For germination study, seed viability test has beendone. In vivo and in vitro seed germination, acclimatization of in vitro germinated plantlets was carriedout. Also the effect of temperature and different media concentration on seed germination werefound out. Various treatments like H2SO4, HCl, hot water and mechanical scarification were undertakenfor seed coat breaking. Among these methods, mechanical scarification showed good results. Forpropagation, tissue culture studies on this species have also been conducted to test in vitro seedgermination percentage. In vivo germination test showed higher germination rate in case of seedstored with capsules than those of stored without capsules. In conclusion, the highest seedgermination rate was obtained in the mixture of peat, perlite and vermiculite in the ratio 10:1:1 in nativesoil and germinated at 27°C in polyhouse.

Key words: Tissue culture, endemic species, seed viability, mechanical scarification, medicinal usage

88

RESPONSIVE GOVERNANCE IN CLIMATE MITIGATION AND ADAPTATION INTERVENTIONS: NEPAL

Celeste Lacuna-Richman and Bishnu Devkota

Much of the climate change agenda seems to be generated in international forums and delegated tonational governments for amendment and implementation, and the citizens of the country in questionoften become passive entities in various policy processes. Yet, these are the same people who are andwill be heavily impacted by mitigation and adaptation interventions. For this reason, finding ways toassess the responsive governance in-country is necessary.

National Action Plans for Adaptation (NAPA) and Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and ForestDegradation in Developing Countries (REDD+) are such international initiatives that affect greatly theclimate change policy and governance of its partner countries. Nepal, due to its history of internationalcooperation, its long experience in community forestry, and its current challenges in governance, issuch a highly-impacted country. In this study, we used a variety of methods, to determine the extent ofinterventions related to NAPAs and REDD+ in the Chitwan and Nawalparasi regions of Nepal, wherethese interventions have been introduced. Crucial issues in the study are existence and extent ofresponsive governance in, and the local impacts resulting from implementing these interventions.Research methods that could be used to examine these issues are discussed in this paper.

Key words: REDD+, NAPAs, impacts, climate change policy, governance

89

REVISITING THE EXCELLENCE: DOES SUCCESS HOLD FOR COMMUNITY FORESTS WINNING

GANESHMAN SINGH CONSERVATION AWARD IN NEPAL?

Anuja Raj Sharma

Community Forestry Division, Department of Forests, Nepal

This paper is based on a study on revisiting the community forests awarded with the prestigiousGaneshman Singh Conservation Award from 1996 to 2013. The paper attempts to assess characteristicsof successful forestry outcomes, using the theoretical framework of Agrawal and Angelsen (2009). Thepaper is based on an analysis of 196 community forests nominated for the award versus 27 communityforest user groups winning the award. The paper dwells on the applicability of the mentionedframework in best practices of community forestry in Nepal. The paper stimulates policy discourse informulating criteria and indicators for successful outcomes in community forestry.

Key words: Management, nomination, user group, forestry outcomes

90

DIATOMS AS INDICATORS OF ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS IN HIGH ALTITUDE LAKES

Smriti Gurung1, Ingrid Jüttner2, Catalina Angele2, Subodh Sharma1 and Chhatra Mani Sharma1

1 Aquatic Ecology Center, Kathmandu University, Dhulikhel, Kavre, Nepal2 Department of Biodiversity and Systematics, National Museum of Wales, UK

Diatoms are eukaryotic algae characterized by the presence of siliceous cell walls. They are widely usedas bioindicators of environmental conditions in aquatic ecosystems. Benthic diatoms from differentmicrohabitats were studied in the Gokyo lakes, Sagarmatha National Park, Nepal. The objectives of theresearch were to assess (1) diatom species richness, (2) differences in diatom assemblages betweendifferent substrata and (3) whether diatoms indicate impairment by sewage. A total of 146 diatom taxawere observed indicating a rich diatom flora. The most abundant taxa were the Cymbellales followedby Fragilariales and Achnanthales. The most common taxa were Achnanthidium minutissimum andrelated species. Diatom richness and assemblages in the lake at the highest altitude and upstream oftourist facilities were significantly different than in other lakes. The diatom assemblages also differedin the lakes’ inlets and outlets during pre-monsoon and post-monsoon seasons. The assemblages in theinflow of Lake 3 were distinct from inflows and outflows of other lakes reflecting a different habitatcharacter of the inflow in Lake 3. Pollution tolerant taxa were also observed in the littoral zone of Lake3 indicating possible nutrient enrichment in this lake.

Key words: Bioindicators, environmental conditions, aquatic ecosystems, sewage, habitat character

91

ALTITUDINAL VARIATION ON PICROSIDE-I CONTENT IN THE POPULATION LINES OF PICRORHIZAKURROOA, A THREATENED MEDICINAL PLANT OF NEPAL

Jit N. Sah* and V.K. Varshney

Chemistry Division, Forest Research Institute, Dehra Dun-248006*Email: jitnarayan2008@gmail.com

Picrorhiza kurrooa Royle Ex. Benth (family Scrophulariaceae), commonly known as Kutki, is amedicinally revered herb used extensively in traditional as well as modern medicinal system of India,China, Tibet, Nepal and Sri Lanka for various immune-related diseases. The plant grows in Himalayanregion at elevations ranging from 3000-5000m. Picrorhiza kurrooa constitutes an important group ofmedicinal plants used by different communities in Nepal. Its conservation and domestication hasrecently gained unprecedented importance because of the large gap in its demand and supplyresulting into it’s over exploitation, adulteration and contamination, which have lead to inconsistentsupply of the quality raw material and ultimately threat to its efficacy and existence.

Picroside-I is one of the marker bioactive metabolites responsible for therapeutic effects of Kutki. Theaim of the study was to determine variability in picroside-I content in the population lines of Kutkigrown at different altitudes in Nepal and also to identify superior genotypes for domestication. Wildpopulations of Kutki at different altitudes in consultation of the District Forest Offices and communityforest user groups of Nepal were surveyed and plants containing rhizomes were collected fromBajhang (3170-3255m), Jumla (3947-4299m), Mugu (3446-4414m), Dolpa (3944-4282m), Myagdi (3829-4295m), Gorkha (3978-4199m), Rasuwa (3887-4098m) and Dolkha (4157-4175m) districts. Rhizomeswere shade dried, milled (80-100 mesh size), defatted and extracted with hot methanol. The methanolextract was analyzed by TLC Densitometric technique and picroside-I was quantified using the methodvalidated according to ICH guidelines. Separation and quantification of picroside-I was achieved onprecoated silica gel 60F254 aluminium plates using mobile phase CHCl3-MeOH (75:25, v/v) anddensitometric scanning at 254 nm in UV absorbance mode. Picroside-I varied considerably. Altogetherit was found to be 0.60-5.28% in populations grown at altitudes from 3000-4500 m. Populations grownat altitude 3000-3499m, 3500-3999m and 4000-4500m contained 1.58-3.96%, 0.77-5.28% and 1.27-4.88%pircoside-I respectively. The statistical analysis revealed no significant difference in the picrosidecontent altitude wise.

Key words: Kutki, TLC Densitometric technique, therapeutic effects, conservation and domestication,marker bioactive metabolites

92

PEOPLES’ PARTICIPATION IN BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION IN THE MIDDLE-HILLS OF NEPAL (ACASE STUDY OF TWO PROTECTED AREAS OF NEPAL)

Shree Prasad Dhoubhadel

Department of Zoology, Trichandra Multiple Campus, T.U., Kathmandu

Annapurna Conservation Area (ACA) and Shivapuri National Park (ShNP) are two protected areas lyingin the middle hills of Nepal. They are the most beautiful spots in the middle hills of the country and richin biodiversity. The objective of the study was to find out status of biodiversity and the peoples’attitude and their participation in biodiversity conservation activities in ACA and ShNP. Fieldobservation, Rapid Rural Appraisal (RRA), Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) and key informantsurvey methods were used to collect the required information. The status of biodiversity in the parkwas in decreasing trend. The main threat to biodiversity in the areas were forest degradation,poaching and NTFPs collection, fodder and grass collection, erosion and landslides, forest fire,urbanization and infrastructure development, park people conflict, etc. Majority of the villagers of theprotected areas had positive attitude toward biodiversity conservation. Educated people involved intourism industry understand more about the importance of biodiversity in their life than uneducatedones. Community plantations, private plantation, Chautara making, community forestry, alternativeenergy technology introduction, and soil conservation works were some positive aspects of peoples’participation in biodiversity conservation activities. Some recommendations to make the environmentof the area better, and to uplift the livelihood of the local people so that they can actively participate inthe biodiversity conservation have been made.

Key words: Annapurna Conservation Area, Shivapuri National Park, tourism industry, peoples’ attitude,forest degradation

93

CODE OF CONDUCT (COC) FOR SUSTAINABLE TOURISM IN POKHARA

Shreekanta S. Khatiwada

Tourism is an over sensitive business activity, which depends on visitors' perception about thedestination. Hence, due attention is necessary to manage well for the sustainable development oftourism in any destination. One of the effective tools that have been introduced by UNWTO for thetourism sustainability is the provision of Code of Conduct (CoC) in hospitality industry since thebeginning of this century. Pokhara has been popular destination among the domestic as well asinternational visitors. Tourism activities have been increasing with the establishment of number ofbusiness firms and recreational activities. Competition as one of the prime virtue of business sometime, converts in conflict, and has become challenge for the destination as a whole in tourism. On theother hand proper utilization of resources and conserving or managing the nature and cultural basedtourism products has become a big question for tourism sustainability. Hence, this paper tries todiscuss the opportunities and challenges of tourism related with different stakeholders and outline thegeneral CoC guidelines for tourism sustainability in the context of Pokhara.

Key words: Challenges, destination, hospitality, opportunity, service and facilities, responsible tourism

94

Recovery of Vegetation Structure and Floral Diversity after shifting of forest villagesof Achanakmar- Amarkantak Biosphere Reserve:A comparison and conservation implication

Bhavana Dixit

Department of Forestry Gurughasidas Vishwavidyalaya, Bilaspur,C.G.INDIAdixit1968@yahoo.com

The core region of Achanakmar- Amarkantak Biosphere Reserve falls in Chhattisgarh State (India) andlies between lat. 220 15’ to 200 58’ N and long. 810 25’N to 820 5’ E. Shorea robusta Gaertn F. (sal) is thedominant species occurring in this region.

The present study deals with the comparative account of composition and diversity of pure Shorearobusta forest and degraded mixed moist forest of Achanakmar- Amarkantak Biosphere Reserve.

Based on the repeated reconnaissance of the area, three representative sites of size 1 ha. in pure salforest was selected for two growth strata stages eg. upper story(trees )under story(,saplings andseedlings ). The forest vegetation was analyzed using 10 randomly placed quadrate(each 10 *10m)within the representative sites. The vegetation data were quantitavely analyzed for frequency, density,abundance and Importance value index and various indices of alpha and beta diversity.

The pure Shorea robusta forest showed high density and basal cover of trees (1233stem ha-1, basal cover36.36 m2 ha-1) and under story vegetation (density1575 stem ha-1, basal cover 1.85 m2 ha-1). Thedegraded mixed moist deciduous forest sites represent the degraded stage having low density of treesand basal cover (633 stem ha-1, basal cover 32.82 m2 ha-1) and under story vegetation (density 918 stemha-1, basal cover 0.37 m2 ha-1). The total number of species was high in pure Shorea robusta forest ascompared to degraded mixed moist deciduous forest.

Similarly plant diversity was also high in pure Shorea robusta (sal) forest for trees and understory (2.82;2.92 Shanon index; 4.76; 2.32 richness index, 0.99; 1.01 equitability, 0.21; 0.22 concentration ofdominance, 5.78; 8.82 beta diversity) respectively than on degraded mixed moist deciduous forests fortrees and understory (1.99; 2.44 Shanon index; 3.48; 1.43richness index, 0.78; 1.04 equitability index,0.39; 0.26 concentration of dominance, 8.20; 11.93; beta diversity) respectively. The climatic conditionof the region supported the regeneration of Shorea robusta (sal) and its associates in the climaxformation over a long successional process. The study focuses on the comparison and conservationimplication of this biosphere reserve.

Key words: Bioshere Reseve ,Composition, Floral diversity, Structure and Succession.

95

AN ASSESSMENT OF THE SUSTAINABLE HARVESTING, ECONOMIC CONTRIBUTION AND

INVESTMENT FEASIBILITY OF NIRMANSI (DELPHINIUM DENUDATUM) IN SUPPORTING RURAL

LIVELIHOOD (A STUDY FROM THONCHE V.D.C OF LOWER MANANG)

Chandra Prakash Sedai

Forest Technician, District Soil Conservation Office, Gulmi, Nepalchandrasedai@gmail.com

The research entitled "An Assessment of the Sustainable Harvesting, Economic Contribution andInvestment Feasibility of Nirmansi (Delphinium denudatum) in supporting rural livelihood” wasconducted in Manang sector of Annapurna Conservation Area in Thonche C.A.M.C. This research hadexplored out the biomass of Nirmansi with respect to ecological factor i.e. altitude. The research foundout the density and annual harvestable biomass of Nirmansi and investigated its variation with respectto altitude. It also assessed economic contribution, investment feasibility and explored peopleopinion regarding its sustainable management at their place.

Both biophysical data as well as social data so collected were analyzed with the help of SPSS, Excel andG.I.S soft wares.

Nirmansi was found on open areas with gentle slopes and loose soil where moisture is available at analtitude ranging from 3500-4600m. The total density of Nirmansi per hactre is 9014 and 12.88 kg. Thetotal biomass in Thonche V.D.C is 6.17 tons and 3.08 tons is available for annual allowable harvest thestratum wise density and biomass of Nirmansi was found to be different. The per hectare density ofNirmansi was slightly rising while per hectare biomass was slightly decreasing with respect to altitude

Nirmansi had a contribution of 4.5 % in annual household income. The projected NPV, IRR and B/C ratiofor five years at 5% interest rate were calculated as 1441, 74.16% and 1.04:1 respectively. However, nomicro enterprises are developed for utilization of this species. Nirmansi is processed by locally and soldto village traders. People are using Nirmansi for poisoning, stomach pain, wound, vomiting, body pain,headache and common cold at household level. Local people are positive towards sustainablemanagement of Nirmansi at their place and expect organization to support them for establishingprocessing units and provide incentives for its farming.

Key words : Nirmansi, NPV, B/C ratio, IRR, Biomass