AC3.1 Architecture

Dissertation The effect Frank Gehry’s practice had in the

development of digital representation in

architecture and its effect on building

Bradley McArdle

Student no .33255523

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Page of Contents

1. Introduction

2. The advance in software and virtual reality

2.1. Early programs

2.2. Development of software

2.3. Shift in the profession

3. Effect on building design

3.1. Brought to the masses – Disney Concert Hall

3.2. Digital and physical

3.3. Form and function

4. Effect on construction techniques

4.1. Disney Concert Hall stalled

4.2. Projects developing the technology

4.3. Effect on construction after

5. Present day

5.1. Buildings born of the digital

5.2. Projects utilising the digital

5.3. Personal experience of the digital

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6. Conclusion

7. Bibliography

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Introduction

The advances in the digital representation of architecture continues to change our

perception of architectural design, the question arises of how this will affect the

development of the places and buildings in which we live. Mankind has become ever more

reliant on technology for business, comfort, and leisure and this will have an effect on the

way in which we design and use our buildings.

As the realms of digital technology and architecture merged, and paper documents were

replaced with computer screens and keyboards in the late 1980’s, the architects themselves

found they had to adapt to new technologies. Those who adopted saw the merging as the

catalyst for breeding new ways of thinking and the unlocking of design potential. These

potentials were first explored by buildings such as Frank Gehry’s Guggenheim Museum,

which was designed using a variety of digital tools that included software and programs

such as CAD/CAM and networking based communications between numerous groups to

produce a powerful collaborative work, even though Gehry has a self-proclaimed

“illiteracy with and scepticism of computers” 1. It is also changing the way in which

architects communicate with colleagues and clients. Traditional plans, sections, and

elevations are being replaced with cinematic experiences and fly-through’s to better

express design intentions and allows the building to be experienced without having to be

constructed first. This would not be achievable without the use of digital technology. With

this in mind, in this essay I aim to analyse the development of digital representation with

the use of case studies of projects carried

out by Frank Gehry and his practice.

Critics see the digital software and

representation as nothing more than free

design which will be confined to the

computer screen until it can conform to

the tectonic requirements of the real

world. Of course, there are times when the

design is realised where the old view of

the tectonic versus the digital design is

replaced with the idea of the digital in service of the material. For example, the Yokohama

Figure 1

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Ferry Terminal in Japan by Foreign Office Architects (figure 1) was explored digitally

with the form expressing the programmatic, constructional and structural concerns. The

building was not only born but realised on a computer. This led to the exploration of

interactive spaces such as the Fluxspace Project by Hani Rashid with pneumatically

controlled air-filler envelopes which ever mutating form is relayed onto the web. The

digital is used in a way of augmenting our experience of a physical space. As architects,

we want to create spaces that provoke emotion and feelings, if digital technologies allow

us to better provoke these emotions, then I see no reason why they should not be utilised.

The digital of course does not only relate to the physical space but also to the virtual

space. With virtual space already playing a large role in our lives (many shops and

businesses now with their own online equivalent, even the Guggenheim Museum has

virtual double which allows visitors to wonder round the exhibits without ever having to

leave their homes) the future seems even more dependent on the virtual. We are already

seeing the emergence of a network economy with modern day business relying on the

balance between the material and the digital as a means of connecting consumers with

suppliers and distributors. Companies such as Apple Inc. are already decentralised with a

large amount of their production being outsourced to other companies and their

communication allowing them to constantly adapt to ever changing circumstances.

I believe that digital technology has had a positive effect on practice. Its greatest

achievement I believe is that is has allowed architecture to cross over from the material

world and into the virtual; it has allowed places that do not even exist to gain architectural

merit. The New York Times conducted a survey of words used in press since 1996.

Architecture was mentioned a total of 7,084 times, this wasn’t including the amount of

times it was used to “refer to structures in computer programming rather than buildings” 2.

I also feel that the boundaries of design have been pushed far beyond what was achievable

before, the creative is no longer limited by skill with a pen and paper.

I believe the main reason the traditional practices criticise digital representation maybe

resentment. After years of honing their skills with drawing boards and sketching, the

technology has come along to allow someone with poor drawing skills to produce

something to the same standard (and possibly higher) with the click of a button. Of course,

this could lead to the debate of whether or not it is the person or the computer doing the

design and if computers will replace architects all together. I believe though that

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technology will never be able to match the passion or commitment that a person has,

which of course comes across in design.

I this essay I aim to analyse the development of digital representation and its effect on

architecture and building, mainly with case studies from Frank Gehry’s practice. This is

for two reasons. Firstly, the projects I am going to analyse each had a profound effect on

the other, each developing certain aspects of digital design and manufacture that would

later be employed in future projects. Secondly, Frank Gehry was one of the first architects

to fully exploit digital representation and manufacturing techniques to create aesthetically

pleasing and functional buildings, despite his computer illiteracy.

The advances in software and virtual reality

Early Programs

In the 1960’s the first graphical systems were developed for computer design. The main

aim of these systems was to try and mimic the “predictive possibilities that…were being

well practised in the field of structural engineering” 3. However, it was soon realised that

optimisation was not an ideal approach. This is because the number of constraints,

requirements, and intentions that come with an architectural problem cannot simply be

solved by optimisation. This development took place at the same time as cybernetic theory

was becoming popular. This questioned the new existence of man-machine relationships,

suggesting that computers may indeed be utilised to stimulate and expand the human

intellect. This led to the idea that architecture can be viewed and pursued as a system. The

formulation of architectural solutions occurs through understanding and developing the

complex relationships of material and social

engagement that leads the shaping of form,

space and structure.

The first systems to be developed such as

Sketchpad, GRASP and LOKAT were based

up a systems-based approach. For example,

Sketchpad, created by MIT member Ivan

Sutherland (figure 2) applied the idea of

Figure 2

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constraints to allow the testing and flexing of

geometries. It was the first system of its kind

to allow design to occur through a graphical

input. The system worked by a light-pen

creating points of geometry and geometry

dependencies (figure 3). This allowed a

graphic representation of parametric

instances showing different aspects of form, space and structure. It aided the development

of fundamental computational methods such as parametrics and ruled-based systems

generation. GRASP was a similar program, but generated random form utilising rule

systems based on solar exposure and programmatic organization. LOKAT generated form

but based on programmatic associations and proximity.

This led to a shift in the view of architecture. It was no longer seen as a material object. It

was now seen as being constructed from a series of interrelated systems. Programs could

capture interrelated geometries, and utilise environmental factors to generate forms.

“Chaos is the natural consequence of information overload, in which case, the power of

information-processing machines might prove useful” 4. Early experiments were often

based on single design briefs, but as programs would need to grow to adapt to more

scenarios, they became more biased towards methods and objects which would eventually

become standardised. These programs provided the framework which was necessary for

the generation of complex forms, order and structure. Even in these early programs, the

roots of computational architecture could be seen.

Development in Software

To understand the development of software, we must first look at the processes they take

influence from. One such process is morphogenesis. This is the natural development of

systems that provide complex organization, form and structure. The end result of which is

a functional combination of system of performance and material resourcefulness.

Applying this to architecture, the programs were used to design the form from a set of

instructions which were defined by internal and external forces. This is linked to ideas

discussed in John Frazer’s book, An Evolutionary Architecture. This suggested that

architecture would develop like biological systems, through a series of environmental and

Figure 3

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evolutionary factors. This

would be reflected in how

the building would interact

with its environment.

This led to computer

programs operating on an

evolutionary basis.

Parameters would generate

a number of potential

solutions within the framework of a given brief. Algorithms are used to generate solutions

to these briefs. They work on an evolutionary basis producing potential solutions without

ever explicitly defining the evolutionary process itself, working on a multitude of

possibilities as opposed to one (figure 4). Much like the natural systems they are based on,

evolutionary algorithms they find novel solutions through evolution of selection, mutation

and inheritance. This allows for truly explorative processes for form generation. Peter

Weibel stated the “character of creativity is an open horizon, even though it is generated

through a finite number of rules” 5. Algorithms are described as being the soul of the

software as they are what allow the magnitude of form generation. In virtual reality

algorithms are used to create simplified worlds where the very workings of materials can

be studied with accuracy. This allowed architects to create interesting forms; however

these had to be combined with a knowledge of the structural properties of form along with

stresses and strains. Computers allow for design based upon “what is understood, but also

as vehicles for exploring what is not understood.” 6. This software affected not only

architects but other professions such as structural engineers. This allowed them to gain

much greater understanding of surface tectonics, stresses and strains. Of course this aided

the architects whose designs of the digital could now be realised in the real world.

CAD/CAM software allowed these structures to be designed and built. It had been a

mainstay in the design and engineering industry for the past 50 years. The CAD/CAM

Software could easily be used to:

Produce scale models

Rapidly prototype

Figure 4

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Allow for print scalability

3D model production

Similar programs such as CATIA (Computer Aided Three-dimensional Interactive

Application) were used in the aerospace industry to develop and construct products. The

reason that this kind of technology was such a mainstay in the aerospace industry is

because the demands of this industry are unique. The products themselves must provide

the highest possible performance. The reliability of these products has to be indisputable,

as of course, people lives are at risk when undertaking air travel. Furthermore, as the air

travel industry boomed, the demand for more products to be produced in shorter time

periods became an issue. This kind of technology allows design ideas to be converted into

real products and manufactured as quickly and as accurately as possible. Applied to

architecture, it could be used to study structural analysis and construction techniques of a

given design. The development of 3D modelling allowed architectural design and

construction to expand.

Shift in the profession

This led to a radical departure from the norm in the profession. These programs spawned a

new way of thinking in process of building design and manufacture that had not

previously been explored but is evident today in contemporary architecture. This shift only

occurred during the late 1980’s with architects like Frank Gehry working on projects such

as the Disney Concert Hall. “The newfound ability to generate construction information

directly from design information and not the complex curving forms is what defines the

most profound aspect of much of the contemporary architecture” 7.

Effect on building design

Brought to the masses

Advances in technologies had radicalized how buildings were being formed and

constructed. The first major scheme to bring this new form of technology to the masses

was from Frank Gehry’s office. Gehry had been an architect for sixteen years before he

came to recognition for designing his own house (Gehry House in Santa Monica,

California in 1978). He was trained in an era when being an architect was an “act of social

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responsibility” 8. Although

today he is known primarily

for his use of digital aids in

his design, even though

Gehry claims to have an

illiteracy of computers, he

maintains that his main

conceptual development is

through sketching,

modelling and client

communication, utilising the

digital world in service of the material world. The Disney Concert Hall (figure 5) is a

perfect example of the digital aiding the material.

Form and Function

The brief of the project was to design a concert hall on the Los Angeles music centre site,

next to the Dorothy Chandler Pavilion, which was used as an opera house. The opera

house was currently being used by the Philharmonic orchestra but the current building was

not acoustically adequate for symphony music. During this point of the project, an

acoustician was taken on board to carry out a number of studies on different concert hall

configurations to find the perfect solution for the acoustics. They would create CAD

drafted hand-cut models onto which the acoustician would perform ray-tracing studies. A

common method of three dimensional scanning utilises a digitizing probe that traces

surfaces features of the physical

model (figure 6). This can be done in

either two ways, manually or

automatically. It is manually carried

out using a three-dimensional

digitising arm. It is automatically

carried out using a Coordinate

Measuring Machine (CMM). This

utilises a digitising position sensor that is kept in contact with the surface of the physical

model. These techniques usually employ laser light to illuminate the surface of the model

which in turn are captured by digital cameras. These images are reproduced using optical

Figure 5

Figure 6

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recognition that recreates a digitized version of the scanned object. This can then be used

in digital analysis or modelling applications. The configuration that was eventually

decided upon was a modified shoebox in-the-round configuration. The acousticians

“selection and influence on the project is an aspect…that Frank Gehry has often talked

about” 9.

Classical symphony halls hold 2,000 people, but the Disney Concert Hall had to hold

2,400. In order for them to adjust to the volume that the hall would require, further

acoustic ray-tracing studies were carried out on the physical model that had been

produced. This allowed them to place reflective, acoustical, tilted walls were developed on

to the traditional shoebox design. This allowed the hall itself to maintain greater noise

levels in the same acoustic volume that was theoretically correct for a 2,000 seat hall. The

acoustical curvature of the concert hall would become the form generator of the building.

The curvilinear forms of the interior would become reflected in the geometry of the

exterior of the building.

The exterior form of the building was achieved through a combination of both physical

models and digital models. The digital form of the building was achieved by digitally

scanning the physical model. The building consistently moved “back and forth between

physical and digital surface models” 10. In Gehry’s case the digital is not used as

conception but used as translation. The process of scanning the physical into the digital is

the inverse of CAM and is often referred to as reverse engineering. This scanning creates

digitally what is a known as a point-cloud. This is a pattern of dots that is mapped

digitally. This is then converted by software to produce a close approximation of the forms

geometry. This technique was used to model the entire exterior of the building as one of

the concepts for the design would be that the exterior geometry would reflect the geometry

of the interior. These digital surface models allowed for mock-up façade designs to be

produced. This in turn produces digital control coding which is used to drive the various

fabrication machines. Utilising both the digital and physical allows for any changes to the

design to be made relatively quickly in the digital which of course can then be used to

produce a model of the revised design, this of course is much more cost and time effective

than producing a physical model by hand every time the design changes. Of course, once

the mock-up designs have been finalised, they can be scaled up and produced at full scale.

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This new way of design thinking, incorporating the use of both physical and digital

models, revealed that the complex and varied geometries of the form, would not

necessarily affect fabrication costs. This led to the realization that computer-aided

manufacture can produce a series of unique and individual pieces with almost the identical

effort it requires to mass produce identical pieces. This realization led to a change in

architectural manufacture and has since been exploited for design and aesthetic effect.

Effect on construction techniques

Disney Concert Hall stalled

Although, designs had been completed and the project was underway, a lack of funding

and issues of how it would be built caused the project to stop in 1991, although a $100

million had been donated to the scheme by the Disney family. The halt was a due to

concerns over the feasibility of the construction. One of the first questions asked of the

scheme was “How do we build this, from what materials and systems?” 11. Another area

called into question was the ability to complete all the documentation required for the

normal portions of the building. In 1991, digital architectural production was still a taboo

and it proved difficult to acquire the backing to complete the scheme. However, at the

same time that the Disney Concert Hall was put on hold, a number of other projects were

underway that utilised the digital for design and manufacture. These projects proved that

the project was feasible and restored faith in the Disney Concert Hall.

Projects developing the technology

One of the projects that helped

restore faith in the Disney Concert

Hall was the construction of the

Bilbao Guggenheim Museum

(figure 7) also by Gehry, which

would influence the structural

design and manufacture that,

would later be employed to help

realise the Concert Hall. The

design process of the Guggenheim

Figure 7

pg. 14

(was similar to that of the Disney Concert Hall. It began with the design switching back

and forth between the physical and the digital, again utilising the program CATIA to

model the various elements of the buildings construction. The curvature of the

Guggenheims form was used to its advantage as it would aid in the stabilization of the

structure itself. The curves themselves were developed from a single standardized detail.

These were then bent into the various shapes that were required. The design of the

structure was aided by the development of programs such as Bocad. This program allows

highly detailed steel design to be produced which can then be run through CAD/CAM

manufacturing systems. The entire structure was designed through this program, proving

that earlier concerns about the manufacture of the Disney Concert Hall could indeed be

accomplished.

During this point in the project, the cladding of the Concert Hall was changed. Originally,

the clients did not want any kind of “Gehry style

steel mesh” to clad the building, but once they

had seen the aesthetic value of the Guggenheim,

they decided to switch to a steel cladding. One

of the reasons for this change was the fact that

the building was to sit near the Northridge

earthquake site. Many of the buildings in the

area were constructed using moment frame

structures, and had suffered damage during the

earthquake. As the garage to the Concert Hall

had already been built to the old criteria, the

decision to lighten the building was undertaken.

The Experience Music Project (EMP) in Seattle

allowed for the exploration in steel forms that influenced the fabrication of the cladding

for the Concert Hall (figure 8). As with the concert hall, the exploration into the

possibilities had been carried out utilising the digital as the primary source of data

collection. These explorations were done using generative shape grammar algorithms (rule

based systems for composition). These grammar algorithms have “the capacity to use the

information of the digital model in a way that extends the number of variations a designer

can evaluate” 12. The building itself was quite evolutionary as all the components had been

Figure 8

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fabricated directly from the digital models. By doing this, it allowed for quite a complex

geometric form to be constructed on site, without mock-ups first being produced. The café

area of the project had originally been designed based upon a polygonal grid as it was

considered an inexpensive method of constructing it. However, by using digital methods,

it was found to be much cheaper to produce a free form structure. As all the components

necessary for the construction had been taken from the same digital model, it took only

four weeks for it to be constructed. It proved that the computational processes were viable

methods of constructing buildings.

The methods used to construct the curvilinear acoustical roof of the Disney Concert Hall

were also influenced by the EMP building. The fabrication of the steel and aluminium ribs

would be used as support in the EMP were produced using CAD/CAM. CNC guided

plasma cutters were used to cut

the curving structural members

with computer controlled rolling

machines used to bend the

flanges to the correct angle. This

allowed for mass customization

of pieces. The rib members

produced were “curves of the

11th

order meaning there is no

true radius…No two of the

buildings 239 ribs are alike” 13. These ribs are what gave the project its structural strength.

This knowledge was then applied to how the wooden roof (figure 9) of the Concert Hall

would be designed and manufactured. With the aid of CAD/CAM, the surface of the roof

was digitally modelled to complete the acoustical envelope that the symphony hall

required. CAD/CAM was then used to generate all the templates for the individual

wooden members. These could then be panelised with the inclusion of such fixtures as

light fittings and hang points for connections and adjustments once in place. By adopting

this method of fabrication, it allowed the roof members to be constructed with an accuracy

of equal to, or less than 1/16th

of an inch. The structure above the wooden members of the

roof was complicated as it had to accommodate the primary structural supports and the

mechanical service systems. To tackle this problem, the entire construction sequence and

Figure 9

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panel sequence was derived from control points that had been directly taken from the

CATIA model, the digital in service of the physical.

The cladding system employed was undertaken by a company that was confident in

fabrication from digital data. The system used would be a shotcrete shell that would have

panels placed directly on top of this. The system was developed digitally. This was done

by importing the structural steel system created in XSteel into the CATIA program.

Utilising these programs, they produced a stud frame system that was used to create ruling

lines for were the cladding would be fixed onto the structure. As the model had been used

to design and produce the entire cladding system, it allowed for the precision placement of

connection points for the cladding to attach to the structure. The horizontal lines of the

frame have back pan as infill which had all been pre-cut, numbered and coded in reference

to the digital model. The cladding panels themselves were attached to this line system

which formed the parameter of the back pan and the guttering. The numbering and coding

of each individual panel had proved so effective that during construction, building

schedules had to be adjusted as cladding was being fitted so quickly. Digital technology

had actually improved building efficiency to a point where it was too efficient for the rest

of the project.

Effect on construction after

The experimentation carried out by Gehry in the Disney Concert Hall project and the other

projects that helped develop its construction and fabrication changed how buildings were

constructed after. For the first time, computer technology that had been viewed as an aid to

design as opposed to a hindrance. The combination of both the physical and the digital had

created a new way of thinking that allowed for greater exploration into realms of design

that were beyond the capabilities of the hand and pencil, and construction techniques that

were much more time and cost effective. In architectural design today, it is the norm for

elements, if not entire buildings, to be produced using digital design software.

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Present Day

Buildings born of the digital

Of course, Gehry is not the only architect

that utilises digital techniques for design

and manufacture. Since technology has

started to play a much more prominent

role in architectural design, more and

more practices are producing buildings

that have been completely designed and

manufactured digitally. Practices such as Foreign Office Architects and Coop

Himmelb(l)au have produced some of the most prominent digital work to date, namely

Yokohama Ferry Terminal in Japan (figure 10) by Foreign Office and the BMW Welt in

Munich. Both buildings relied heavily on the digital technology for design, fabrication and

construction. The complex form of the Ferry Terminal is comprised of programmatic

order, structural and constructional concerns into a single form. Only through the use of

the digital could the complex mutating form be fully designed and developed through a

range of sections. These revealed the best way in which to manufacture and construct the

building. The Ferry Terminal is a project that design and manufacture was not only aided

by the digital, but in fact, born through the digital. As building design continues to develop

and push the boundaries of form, the need for digital software to aid in design,

construction and manufacture will be become more and more prominent.

Projects utilising the digital

Of course, it is not only full scale buildings that use digital design tools, but smaller scale

projects also. As technology has

been prominent for some time, it

has started to make its way into

mostly universities and in some

cases, even schools. On a recent trip

to Stuttgart, I visited the Stuttgart

University Institute for

Computational Design (figure 11).

The university, allowing with its

Figure 10

Figure 11

pg. 18

architecture students, produced a research pavilion utilising the digital for the design and

manufacture. The Pavilion explores the biological principles of a sea urchin through

computer aided simulation methods. The project aimed to explore the biological

morphology of the sea urchin (figure 12) and apply these principles to architectural design,

to allow for a high degree of adaptability and performance. The Echinoidea sea urchin

proved to be the main influence on the pavilions design. The shell of this particular urchin

is a modular system of polygonal plates which are linked by finger-like calcite protrusions.

The high load bearing capacity of this structure is achieved by the geometric arrangement

of the individual shell plates. Three plate’s edges always meet together at one point. This

allows the transfer of normal and sheer forces to be put onto the structure without any

bending moments between the joints. The individual elements of the pavilion were

designed using numerous computer simulation programs to recreate a structurally strong

form derived from the sea urchins shell and produced using CNC machines. The strength

of the individual members allowed the entire structure to be produced from 6.5mm

plywood. The structure itself was very light considering its overall size, and even needed

anchoring to the site to help it resist wind suction loads. The resulting structure itself is

quite impressive and takes pride of place between the two university buildings on the

campus (figure 13). These kinds of projects have only been made possible by the

advancement in the realms of digital design and manufacture. The digital has allowed the

students to explore biological processes, apply them to architectural design, and then

produce the project itself within the university workshops. The digital is indeed playing a

more and more prominent role in architecture, not only in practice, but in the learning

environment too.

Figure 12 Figure 13

pg. 19

Personal experience of the digital

My personal experience of digital technologies has

expanded recently. We recently acquired a RepRap

machine (figure 14) for the production of our project

models. It is in effect, a three-dimensional printer that

produces models from digital design software using

plastic cabling to create the forms. This basic form of

computer-aided design has allowed students such as

myself to experiment with producing mock-ups,

prototyping, and of course, to much more quickly

produce models (figure 15). The use of digital

technology and manufacture is clearly becoming

more and more prominent in each aspect of

architectural practice, even the study.

Conclusion

The development of digital technology has effected how buildings are designed and

manufactured. Before the digital age, architects could only draw what they could

construct, and they could only construct what they could draw. The digital age allowed the

boundaries of design to be pushed further than was ever considered before as traditional

methods and new age methods have begun to be used simultaneously. Pioneers such as

Frank Gehry used sketches to produce physical models that could then be translated to a

digital model through scanning, which would then allow it to be manipulated to produce

complex geometric forms that would be too difficult to successfully communicate through

just drawings, such as the Bilbao Guggenheim Museum. I believe the digital has expanded

architectural expression as buildings can now take on complex forms that were considered

unachievable before. Digital design programs have also allowed for forms to mimic

biological processes, evolving through a series of processes based upon numerous

possibilities. Of course, a common idea is that as technology evolves, it will gradually

become more and more like biological systems. This is because biological systems

respond directly to their environment, in both function and form, similar to successful

architecture.

Figure 14

Figure 15

pg. 20

The advancement of computer-aided manufacture has also effected how buildings are

constructed. Parts can now be coded and numbered so that construction teams can quickly

erect structures as each part is labelled to it specific location within the building. This

helps to improve construction times and can improve construction efficiency. The

construction of the cladding on the Disney Concert Hall caused the schedules of

construction to be adjusted as the numbering and coding of individual parts proved so

effective that it was being built too efficiently for the rest of the building be built at the

same rate.

I feel that digital technologies will only continue to play a more and more prominent role

in all aspects of architecture. Building efficiency has improved so greatly that it would be

almost a step backwards to shun it from modern design and construction. The café of the

EMP building was constructed in just four weeks as all components were manufactured

from the same digital model. Of course, human manufacture will always have its place

within the construction of building components; however it will not be able to match the

accuracy of computer generated components. The degree of accuracy has allowed

complex forms to be produced, with fully customized parts, with almost the same effort it

would require to produce identical pieces.

In my opinion I believe that the greatest achievement of the digital technologies is

allowing designs that were only achievable in the virtual world to be realised in the

material world. Digital technology in architecture has opened up new horizons and

potentials for design can now be pushed further than were considered possible.

Of course, this kind of digital technology has found its way into other professions, one of

the most notable being medicine. One of the most exciting developments in recent years

has been the work carried out by Dr. Anthony Atala at the Wake Forest Institute for

Regenerative Medicine. Utilising digital technologies, he has carried out early experiments

to solve the organ donor crisis. Using technologies such as ray-tracing and 3D modelling

similar to those used in architecture, he uses living cells to manufacture organs that can be

used in human bodies. Laser scans of the patient’s organ are taken which are then

converted into a digital model. This is then used to ‘print’ an organ layer by layer using

the patient’s own cells. One of the first cases of this was Luke Massella. He received an

engineered bladder from Dr. Atala and his team when he was ten years old. This bladder

has allowed him a better quality of life than he would have experienced had he not

pg. 21

undertaken the transplant. This technology however is still in its experimental stages and

is some years from global distribution.

In conclusion, the development of digital design and manufacture has made a great impact

on not only the way in which buildings are now designed and manufactured, but also is

now beginning to have an impact on the quality of human life as well. It has made the

transition from the aerospace industry, to architecture, and now to medicine. It will be

interesting to see where it leads to in the future.

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pg. 23

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4) Milne, M (1975). Computer Aids to Design. London: Mason/Charter Publishers. P31.

5) Weibal, P (2003). Algorithm and Creativity. Vienna: Bohlau Verlag. p96.

6) Terzidis, K (2006). Algorithmic Architecture. p59.

7) Iwamoto, L (2009). Digital Fabrications: Architectural and Material techniques. New

York: Princeton Architectural Press. p5.

8) Lindsey, B (2001). Digital Gehry. Switzerland: Birkhauser. p21.

9) Kolaveric, B (2003). Architecture in the Digital Age: Design and Manufacturing. New

York: Spoon Press. p104.

10) Iwamoto, L (2009). Digital Fabrications: Architectural and Material techniques. New

York: Princeton Architectural Press. p5.

11) Kolaveric, B (2003). Architecture in the Digital Age: Design and Manufacturing. New

York: Spoon Press. p104.

12) Lindsey, B (2001). Digital Gehry. Switzerland: Birkhauser. p72.

13) Gragg, R (1999). Museum Design Tests Hoffman’s learning Curve. The Oregonian

pg. 24

Image Index

1) Mashima, S (2004). Yokohama Ferry Terminal. [photograph] (Foreign Office

Architects).

2) (1963). Sketchpad computer design programme. [photograph] (MIT Museum archive).

3) (1963). Sketchpad being used to create geometries. [photograph] (mirage.studio.7).

4) (2009). Algorithms producing numerous variations on form. [image] (nz Architecture).

5) (2011). Disney Concert Hall exterior. [photograph] (Encyclopaedia Britannica).

6) White, J (1989). Digitizing one of the physical models. [photograph] (Architecture in

the digital age).

7) (2007). Guggenheim Museum in Bilbao. [photograph] (www.guggenheim-bilbao.es).

8) Matthews, K (2000). EMP Building by Frank Gehry. [photograph]

(www.greatbuildings.com).

9) (2010). Disney Concert Hall symphony hall ceiling. [photograph]

(jasoninhollywood.blogspot.com).

10) Mashima, S (2004). Yokohama Ferry Terminal. [photograph] (Foreign Office

Architects).

11) McArdle, B (2011). Stuttgart University building from the courtyard. [photograph]

(Personal photograph collection).

12) (2009). Echinoidea sea urchin shell structure. [photograph]

(www.flickr.com/photos/haruspex).

13) McArdle, B (2011). Stuttgart University pavilion structure in the courtyard.

[photograph] (Personal photograph collection).

14) Whelan, D (2012). RepRap machine and computer with the software set-up.

[photograph] (Personal photograph collection).

pg. 25

15) Whelan, D (2012). RepRap machine on the test run. [photograph] (Personal

photograph collection).

Cover page

White, J (1989). Digitizing one of the physical models. [photograph] (Architecture in

the digital age).

pg. 26

pg. 27