academia in upheaval. origins, transfers, and transformations of the communist academic regime in

ACADEMIA IN UPHEAVAL

ACADEMIA IN UPHEAVAL

Origins, Transfers, and Transformations of the Communist Academic

Regime in Russia and East Central Europe

Library of Congress Cataloging~in-PubUcation Data

Academia in upheaval: origins, and transformations of communist academic regime in Russia and east central edited by Michael David-Fox and Gyorgy peteri.

l'utll1,.,or.l'lnlhll'l'Il rE~fel~ences and index.

1. Education, Higher-Soviet Union-History-Congresses. Communism and education-Soviet Union-History-Congresses. Education, Higher-Europe, Eastern-History-Congresses. 4. Communism and education-Europe, Eastern-History-Congresses. LA837.A6 2000 378.47-dc21

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data is available.

2000 by Michael David-Fox and

All rights reserved. No portion of this book may be reproduced, by any process or technique, without express written consent of the publisher.

Library of Congress Catalog Card Nurnl1.t:>, .. VV--V,"V'IO'T

First published in 2000

Printed in the United States of America

The paper used in this book with the Permanent Paper Standard issued by the NatlO.nal Information Standards Organization (Z39.48-1984).

10 9 8 7 6 4 2

Contents

Part I INTRODUCTION 1

3

Part II THE ORIGINS 2

39

73

vi

Part III THE TRANSFERS 5 The \O: ..... " ... "f., .. ""'~,,"~

6

Part IV THE TRANSFORMATIONS: CONTINUITIES AND DISCONTINUITIES AFTER 1989

8

~Cli~ntJlsts to

iJOC:IRl1lsm in .H.CCllUelnlR

Part V CONCLUSION 11 u\JJ.J.VJ.aL

Contents

141

255

303

319

III ustrations

TABLE

9.1

fiGURES

ganl.zaU«ln of ttesearc!n i:'€!rS011nel in ca. 1990

1 J!iCOlnOmllC

261

290

Preface

Preface xi

Acknowledgments

IlUI)l1s.ner ers.tetlult'l aCR~nmWlelr:Ule per-

minor revisions.

PART I INTRODUCTION

1 On the Origins and Demise of the Communist Academic Regime

Michael David-Fox and

4 Introduction

and Demise of the Communist Academic 5

6 Introduction


dIt:te]r'erlt contexts.

ACADEMIES OF SCIENCES, FROM PREREVOLUTIONARY TO POST-COMMUNIST

8 Introduction

10 Introduction

12 Introduction

14 Introduction

16 Introduction

and Demise of the Communist Academic

ELITES AND HIERARCHIES IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF SOVIET SCIENCE

17

18 Introduction

20 Introduction

22 Introduction


CYCLICAL PATTERNS AND CAMPAIGN MODES

24 Introduction

26 Introduction


WAS THERE A SOVIET MODEL IN SCIENCE!

28 Introduction

not as an to seen

to encourage open up new avenues for its COllltlnUea

NOTES

1.

HOlwe~ver. branch such as the research institutes and agE:mCles of the Commissariat were also , ...... "'''' ..... £1.''' .. SClen4~es in the as the work of Solomon on


has shown. See Susan Gross ::Solomon. sian Public Health: Continuities and vnanjges

" in The Health Porter lAlnsI;erclarn: r.;alt.JO[lS nV\.Ii.\.IJ.I".

era of

"The Establishment ......... ,,.r- ... ..,yo...,." Past and Present

141-164. this is not a cornpretlel1lSHre a:lSCllSSlon

features of the Soviet academic Obvious omissions include fluctu-ae'lre4~S of isolation international science and the of

scientists into a communist social order. Recent sCl'lOlflrSJl:'l.lp pnlaSl:~ea the between academic and pOJllt!,cal so11eres.

30 Introduction

1927-1932 in the broader

total war and revo· ,",u,n:a::::,o. of Our Work':

Milnor'" His-

pr()DleIl1IS of transition in the se~~mEmt has been contributed in sCll;mce. For see Renate

:l'r(';msrtor'mGtt,on mittel-


in the Souiet Union \"-''''',Uu.vuc.

16. On the Communist Acaaiem,y see Michael the Mind: among the J:Jo,tsnemns.

192-253. The most SlgIllllc:ant KUI~SUlln sis ofthe bolshevization remains F, F. Per'ChEmok. J\..Kaaelrnll.a pe]rel()m~e,'" Zuen 'ia: lst()nc~he~;ku atFnaJnai~n •• "" .... ". IT

lO.')-L.,'la: see also V. P. Leonovet Akademicheskoe delo 1929-vol. 1 Biblioteka Rossiiskoi akademii

The most no. 3

this Minuushee 7

18. On the antlSP(~Clal1st Kendall E. LlD..lU:;;O,

erIlaaSK()go synu,"

un •• ,y" ... « the Shakhtii trial of see Under Lenin and Stalin and "Cultural

115-142.

32 Introduction

on 1930s social and cultural l1ltZpt:ltrl.CK, "JjleC()fmlng Cultured: Socialist Realism and

est)eClallV "Cultural Or·

Victor '-AU" ... u .... "' ... ,

Science 24. 25. For an UHlmmattll1lg see Thane Uusta.tsOll1, Doesn't

~Cleo(~e Do Better Than It Does?" in The Social Context Linda Lubrano and Susan Gross Solomon


186-188. 30. An excellent

between the

strained coclpe:ratlon

on the role of scientific elites in the mediation (In,cludullg the and the scientific com-

MEli(1UltUlg Role the Scientific "

amlaZ]lng extent

decade between the pall."ty-spon:sorea. mOinUmE!nt,!lJ1~,t eJng:Jmeerlng nl"(111A~t~ of forced Inclustri;all:~atl0n

ies em.pnaSlZln.g

34

learnIng, see dU:l"er4ent treatment aefllUltg 'Soft' Line on Culture and Slavic Review no. 2

Introduction

and Demise of the Communist Academic 3S

pmlnn'li'l~m in the .... or"'''.''

Academia and ........ ,Ia'·o ... "on and Soviet science

in one crucial case, see K. O . .KossllarlOV kak redaktor LVI;;;enKO. no. 2 59-69.

the shift from international contacts of the 1920s to mcreSlSlrUl isolation of Soviet science in the 1930s as a function of both rellreSS1.on and the of the Soviet scientific see D. A. Ale:ksfmdrov ~(Pochemu sovetskie za rubezhom: stanovlenie samodostatochnosti i otechestvennoi n

Vfl,.n·flj~'\I istorii estestvozaniia i no. 3 3-24. 53. Michael "Present Events and the .KeprE,selntBltlon

Some Current Problems in Russian Historical \1\1 ....... ,"', ....

russe no. 4 847-848. 54. Elizabeth Polish What the

Soviet Archives 1)U;clc.se," East Politics 7. no. 1 114-1 128-131. The most recent treatment of the Institute of

Red Professors some new evidence of the visible traces" sichtbare of its in Soviet SCl1l0Ulrsltllp

.L.IU".c.-.IJU:~"CJ. He.nremat, "Die Institute der Roten Professur:

duction in Our LI'~.~_.~'~ 1)e:m()crac~{' latter discursive de,,,elc)pI1nerlt Socialist Economic ~.y~~te}'1Js:

first PUDl1li>ne~a

PART II -' -------THE ORIGINS

The Formation of the Soviet Academy of Sciences: Bolsheviks and Academicians in the 1920s and 1930s

2

Vera Tolz

40 The

The Formation of the Soviet i\CanenlV of Sciences 41

42

ACADEMICIANS' RESPONSE TO THE BOLSHEVIK REVOLUTION

The

The Formation of the Soviet AcaopnlV of Sciences

44 The

The Formation of the Soviet }\caoenw of Sciences 45

46 The

The Formation of the Soviet ACO:Ulemv of Sciences 41

48 The

The Formation of the Soviet Aca,oen:w of Sciences 49

50 The

n"'l'1.nn,,,,,,Li that a consensus be reached go'V'ernalen,q on the candidates who would be acc:epl;aD.le

shouted with " <;;1.J.Ia .... Oft.J.1. was offended and said that was un-

ac(!eptat)le. He should better control himself. Pavlov: "We should show our strenllZth to the there is no reason to be afraid of

not make deals with them behind closed doors!" "Ivan Petrovich can this he can afford to such one will touch IS In a n .. lutl.on.:l,Li P10Sl1tlOJ:l.

should black-ball them Borodin: but thank

No other human ol'lrn.nt'u

the very start, than a SC14~ntlllc cOElm4lpcllltan, more international from

scientific circles does

The Formation of the Soviet AcanpnlV of Sciences 51

there exist a real in which to their common interests in research rather than to the criteria of natlolnaJ1ty or class. . . . in connection with the introduction of new electoral rules in the . . . the press has to DUJOUSiD

reSierrmllmg POlitIcal a:r:tlt:atI~Jn. on how the aCl:llUemy function. But science has never needed that.31

BOLSHEVIK POLICY TOWARD THE ACADEMY Of SCIENCES

52 The

The formation of the Soviet AcaClen1" of Sciences 53

54 The

The Formation of the Soviet AG~(]emv of Sciences 55

56 The

The formation of the Soviet ACaaenr'IV of Sciences 57

1. Not scientific achievements but also pOJlIUCal cians be reassessed every ten years

2. Proletarian control over the f\caUlemy (lnlpJlemen1~ed in the form of

3, In elections to the aCl:taemy but also outside scientists

58 The

The Formation of the Soviet AGI{]pmV of Sciences 59

60 The

The Formation of the Soviet f\caaenw of Sciences 61

01J1:;o.".I.QiL.I..,i\lO most of us could be accused of either KnllQ;n,pUlll'Q' also we would have been

liberated from their

62 The

constitutes a criminal ot14:mse: in a to criticize his If the HolshAVl

those to most of the 1111.'~,111~~U"'~)1a, un-der the old in fact the whole educated would have to be

uneducated and the illiterate to rule and to be ruled over. 82

The Formation of the Soviet AGClOemV of Sciences 63

THE OUTCOMES

64 The

The formation of the Soviet /'\Ci:!uentv of Sciences 65

66 The

The formation of the Soviet Ac;u1pmv of Sciences 67

68 The

NOTES

TnT"rU.,TT"U'D members of the whom the

The Formation of the Soviet Aca.<1enw of Sciences 69

~Ylrltnesls: The Communist Acad-J\CI!Hle'my of 1918-

no. 2 220. ~CllentlSl~S to Reform Their Own

.t\CRUiem:y of Sciences f.

6. a SClenlLlS1~S and scholars who were mem-bers of the in see Vera Russian Academi-cians and the Revolution: lA)m01tm:ng t'rc)leiJ,su:;'naUSim and Politics \J.I,-,',oc"Y>vu.

uu,,"u,me.'I-I-J po istorii Akademii Nauk note 1.

in the aCl'lOem:y's pretsloenc:yin 1919 not

Russian Academicians and the 15-16. is from Vernadskii's letter to his son, pU,DW3nE~O

444-445. On Steklov's for 3, d. 1. 1. Ipat;leU.

lva:uc,nn'vl. r('botnl.j~. no. 5-6 26-35.

70 The

26. '''Nashe khuzhe katorz,hncJgo' nauk " Istochnik: Vestnik Arkhiva Prezidenta J:\.Vl:tlU,j~~I';IJ" /t,pnp'rn."RH

no. 3 135. 27. ARAN op. 2, d. 1. 5. 28. pUDllIme,(1 in Vestnik Akademii nauk

also "Government and the Tech-n01.og1cal Sciences in the Soviet Union: The Role of the of Sci·

no. 2 174-199. op. 1. d. L 2. op. 2, d. 1. 30 .

.N1';I;l.UeflH4,U nauk SSSR-shtab sovetskoi nauki

'l'l1,fYl:ll"'tnn,u "VARNITSO i Akademiia nauk SSSR Vn.~rn,,, .. , istorii estestvoznaniia i no. 4 48.

t'oJ:1~rO'\,sklLl."K Otchetu 0 deiatel'nosti Akademii nauk za 1926 g.," in Zven'ia: Istoricheskii vol. 2 592.

43.

:Sol)et":RaI:a nauha v

nabliudeniiu za rabotoi Akademii nauk SSSR v Politbiuro TsK no. 3 3.

47. Russian Academicians and 184-185.

The Formation of the Soviet AcaOflnlV of Sciences 71

48. Ibid. See also t'elt'cn.enOK, "Akademiia Nauk na 'velikom 1"\01"01""....,0

222.

lZ hvtr~hjPuo

Akademii 55. 56.

in V. P. Leonov et Akademicheskoe delo Pe1;er~,burg: Biblioteka Rossiiskoi Akademii

57. Lelrun.llr(ld8:ku,ta n,rn.llrln..

to elections. Leliungraid press, which remained

op. It d. 141. 2.

UCllnIlCn, Science in Russian 96-98.

2.

1867-1917

.C'"1UJ;:;UI' ... 1929.

nakanune aresta," Istochnikv sobraniiakh i

{Le:nU12-rad: Gosudarstvennaia Publichnaia J:Su>l1()teJlta.

72. Platonov's ouster was rer)Or1Cea vember 4; Orl1(1)(7,('1 6 November

72 The

Akademiche8koe xxix. 74. V. S. ~'Delo Akademika S. F. t'latonova

117-129. See also B. S. Ka.g8110VICn J£wrtenzi Viktorovich Tarle np,'prl'HH'O't:tfUlll.n 8hkola i8torikov Izdaterstvo Dmitrii

35-36. 19 4.

Lelrunllrlutl):k,a,ta nlrnnnn 17 June l\K:aa€:m11La Nauk na 'velikom nelre1<lmIB.m 209.

78. AU the documents related to Platonov's are pulblu;hed Akademiche8koe delo.

I"h&)hrr&)k'h aJ[{aclenllk()v " Pamiat': 18toriche8kii 1979 and 485.

nal~leltle. no. 26

1. 385. On see "Piat' nnl· ... "'.!.. ....

90. For eXfJlml)le, 91. \tUUL€!U

L P. ,. Ve8tnik rl.1~U;U;Ir;/n"" 92. ARAN 93. 94. For InstaI1lCe,

of the of Sciences was before the rev'olutloln. cc)mpalred worked in the 1930s. A. N. Moi vm')l1o'mlnanu,a U'VlOl,COW LeJl1lI1lgriaa: Izdatel'stvo Akademii nauk

95. For more RU88ian Academician8 and the Revolu-135-136.

96. Alex Inkeles in a Totalitarian 289-290.

97. ARAN 98. Paul R. JOSlepJlso:n. JJ,h'\Js;~Jf'!:

and Los rtUI~tm::!:::;. 99. E. A. neUlaev

cow: 100. On Vernadskii's articles of the

odnoi " Ve8tnik Akademii nauk 101. Leonovet Akademiche8koe 102. Academician A. UapOIlOV lzve8tj~l.a. 4 March 1990.

The Assault on the Universities and the Dynamics of Stalin's "Great Break," 1928-1932

M

74 The

The Assault on the Universities 75

76 The

ORIGINS OF ASSAULT: TACTICS, CYCLES, PRECEDENTS


movement."

78 The

80 The

The Assault on the Universities

a stuaellt

ESCALA nON: ON PROLETARIAN STUDENTS AND FEUDAL RELICS

81

82 The


QUALITY INTO QUANTITY: THE YEAR OF THE UNIVERSITIES' GREAT BREAk

84 The

86 The

88 The

90 The

The Assault on the Universities

THE IDEA OF A UNIVERSITY AND CULTURAL DIMENSIONS OF ASSAULT

91

92 The

94 The

CAROUSEL: THE 1932 SHIFT

96 The

98 The

NOTES

,Ll',U;;llV'!:u,~.<r and the

no earlier than 12 fn:~t\T'1J.AT'V for 15 Febru-


ary 1929 to Stalin on social ......... ·n~1".tT .... 'v.r ... ..., ... f. op. 1, d. 11.22-24.

13. Lunacharskii to 12 li'ptu'UJRrv f. op. I, d. 261. 1. 7.

14. NI0Jot()V "1:'odlllol~ovKa.

VSNKh

op.3,

r>cL.. ... I1l1. op. zasedaniia Prezidiuma koJJeg:ll

d. n. 27-28. flnlltSKll. Zav. APPO TsK TsK

1, d. 1. 2; ~'Postanovlenie Sekretariata TsK "'<;;U.'I1A"~UJ. N,ark~omJ)rosa,n L 3.

lln'lvArj;tlt.AtvT' Krasnoe sw~ae,nClle8j~VO.

~al:~KOml)rOsa. 12 fevralia .. t'~ostan!ovJ.enle Prezidiuma

100

NKP ot 20 marta 1.

new khr.21 L 42,

29. See vaJ"'."'c;~u", 21 \ .... "'a"' ... , ...

":st,en()gr:amma soveshchanii direktorov 11. 46.

op. 36. ":stlenograml11la s(Jlveshch.amla Q),reKtOr()V

1. 50. 37. "Prof. 1. Zhukov. Direktoru LGU. 27/IV·30

d. 1 1. 3; Bubnov to 2 June 38. Materials in f. op. 39. "V NKRKI RSFSR. Zam. NaI'kOl1llpr~::>s

f. d. 111, L

The

Prollet:studa," 5

reV'Ol111tslLl," and

d.

Assault on the Universities 101

" 21-22 June

"::ilCenogJrarnmla soveshchaniia direktorov "V pogone 'za sferami Krasnoe stu:aejnc"tesl~VOt

"Postanovlenie soveshchaniia Narkoma zamestitelei ot 31 Maia 1931 g., op. 141-142.

"::it;enoglraI1nm,a soveshchaniia direktorov " 1. to Kommunislicheskaia revou,juesua,

NekralSo,v uNuzhna korennaia pe)~es1Crollka Sls1teU1Y OIOU(:nenna, d. 1. 75.

VlII:i:U,Iii:t and uses of the "idea of a in the .. '_,_ .. r .....

OnEHoc.n ltottlbl'ltt. The Idea the Idea a ttl()Ufl001orll. Australia: Seminar on the Sod-

tov. Hultmolvu. 1.

102 The

55. soveshchaniia direktorov " 11. 136-138. 56. "Postanovlenie komissariata po pr()SVeslllctlenlllU

RSFSR ot op. d.

3.


72. "Postanovlenie ~"V'.""6". Universiteta. n. "Plenum universitetskoi sektsii

d. 21, 11. 56. 73. sobraniia udarnikov na'UCllnjrkh

d. n.89-110.

could not construct a official

of course, that actors within the Soviet ~vsu.p.lm model based on their own Inten>retatlOI1lS

4 Stalinism and Science: Physics and Philosophical Disputes in the USSR, 1930-1955

106 The

Science 107

108 The

Stalinism and Science 109

110 The

THE CRADLE OF SOVIET PHYSICS UNDER ASSAULT

112 The

114 The


AUTARKY IN SCIENCE: THE CASE Of PETR KAPITSA

116 The


MOSCOW STATE UNIVERSITY: CULTURAL REVOLUTION

118 The

120 The


THE PHYSICS INSTITUTE OF THE ACADEMY OF SCIENCES: IDEOLOGICAL CONTROLS

122 The

124 The

126

THE 1948-1949 CONFERENCE ON PHILOSOPHICAL PROBLEMS IN PHYSICS

The

128 The

130 The

PHYSICISTS REJECT IDEOLOGICAL CONTROL

132 The

NOTES


6. S. A. VoznesenSkll.

134 The

Ll1:5Lle,ffd'H nZtClrte8IU~!n nauk hostile tendencies included Machist ep]lstE~m()lolgy--natl1leC1 Ernst Mach-as manifested in

from which the elelctr'ons, '-I""U:;UAva.

not to mention the were no 16. A f. 3, op. 1, ed. khr. 75-77. 17. A. F. "K 0 filosofskikh oshibkakh moei

LlOJ.Ie,""H nUCI'1eS,fllRh nauk 589-598.

18. For a brief its role in Soviet nt'l'17"'''''''

op. 3, ed. khr. \Jv"',U,~"V 0 nauchnoi deiatel'nosti za

no. 12 1269-1276.

f.


, .. ,u.<i:UU;UU. "The Socio-Political Roots of Boris Hessen: Soviet H1C!tn'l"" of Social Studies Science noA

11. 1. ed.

op.4, op.4.no.l,1.

questlOI1led Timiria· OtIlOS:nenll A. Timiriazeva

marks1iz11na. no. 2-3 188-It Podzname.

was stunned Markov's essay, which prorebuke," It didn't involve "even the smallest at·

me:ansm of the theoreticians ... "SeeA

136 The

44. On L. I. see N. D. "Leonid Isaakovich Man· MflmO.efl,htam Polnoe sobranie vol. 1 (MiOSC10W:

Akademiia nauk S. M. et Akademik L. 1. Mandel'shtam. K lOO-letiiu so dnia rozhdeniia L. I. Lektsii po teorii otnositel'nosti i kvantovoi

on Maksimov and 3 1954 in

NewSnal:lerRed Fleet Versus Idealism in Vh1LT~lt"Q. no. 1 70-75. See R1.30

AC~:Ulemy of Sciences A and 12 June and f.

Telrlet;skJll. and N. F. {M4)SC~)W: Izdatel'·

director of letters to me, and assist·

54. See A. K. 1'imiriazev et Ocherki po istorii u Rossii cow, On the dev'elopment of the of science in the

Stalinism and Science

op. 2, no. future leader of the fusion Ivanenko. Said Tamm

137

see "Otdel teoreIlZl.cnE~SJ:[logo mStltlJta im. P. N. Lebedev

VY'OrlY'11"t 34

138 The

op. 2, no. 174, 1. 410-420. op. 2, no. 11. 427-428.

Fizicheskii idealizm: istoriia odnoi £aE~Ot()R£ICm~8RiO"

PART III ~~--THE TRANSFERS

The Sovietization of Higher Education in the Czech Lands, East Germany, and Poland during the Stalinist Period, 1948-1954

5

John Connelly

economic tior.Y11uotll'l""

terror uncontrolled even the local party; nl11-0u,i1'10' overambitious industrial investment

programs collectivization drives ecO'nOJnlcs"); '"'v'"'"" .... , ..... -........ ''' lor4:Ulll-trade aeIJten(len4[!e on the Soviet isolation from the non-Communist world and to some extent even from other a mindless cult of Stalin

anC)mle. intellectual SUilllllol-

142 The Transfers

The Sovietization of Education 143

144 The Transfers

SOVIET SPECIALISTS IN EAST CENTRAL EUROPE

146 The Transfers


and the in the MInistry sectarian behavior toward the old teC.hm.cal mt;eulgent~na.

SnC)WEtU us thanks to a proper and pa1~lerlt ment, that has moved to and intellectual transformation is a cornpJlex. cess. "Ideas are not old clothes that one can were the exact words of the minister

148 The Transfers

The Sovietization of Educafion 149

150

The comrade listened to my older than me, pelrnBlps than a Komsomol Our offices in t'1"$1011IA

The Transfers

interest. He was much school teacher

and COl1nplete mess, with tlJEI·loldetrs;

this SP()tl.~ss desk was for me a model To my not take notes. I to describe our situation and

wanted to hand over the files we had assembled in but he inter-n he said. of this sort

be. is too much our work." He wished me a

+"' .. " ..... " .. minutes.39


of defects in the most sense. Comrade Ochab his wish that Polish scholars Soviet scholars remove the rors and distortions in the first volume of the of

\ an board be created at the of'i"c:.u, ........... who could determine the desired Ochab and Berman directed the attention of the Polish scholars to the need to criticize this book in the Polish as well as the Soviet

was never

THE LOGIC OF SOVIET INVOLVEMENT IN EAST EUROPEAN HIGHER EDUCATION

152 The Transfers

154 The Transfers

156 The Transfers


CONDUITS Of INfORMATION

158 The Transfers

a number of educational and scientific institutions of the countries have turned to

160 The Transfers

162 The Transfers

164 The Transfers

CONCLUSION


NOTES

Research for this cnatpu~r was Q\\1(\",c.",t£~n the German Marshall the Committee on of the of California at the American Council of Learned ;:;O~(!le:tle~B,

Foundation at the Center for J:!iUrOI>ean Studies at Harvard Sheldon Foundation at Harvard

and the International Research and Board , ....... ' ....... 'It

",,,,rUTl/"1£Ul assistance with funds from the and the J~niArl'.nu:>nt which administers the Title VIII The author

to thank Michael Eduard Peteri

';or.rnnnv· A

OC(~aSlOrlall} made to "Czechoslovakia" when ov,,>,,,..",_

ence was identical in Slovakia the Czech lands. Within Czechoslovakia Qo. ... ,,,,,,,.oto. educational administrations in and Bratislava

"Die sO\rvJetls(~ne MllltliUStdl1ll1l1kls1:ratlOn uO>llssivs1;errts in Ostdeutschland no. 4 405-416.

5. The Czech Communist Rude that "Love of the Soviet Union does not rnlo.",<~ro Sllj~htest reservation. The road into the morass of treason on the inclined of reser-vations and doubts the correctness of the of the Soviet Union." Cited in The Soviet Bloc: and rev. ed. 67.

166

ter, invoke however.

7. Letter of 25 June 1949 in SIll 18. This

n't"<:)on'lnf" pressures from Warsaw to 8. John \";0l1mel1Y

The Transfers

:::Sclenc:e Train·

hmNQlimr of

ambition was to n't"<:l,n""~O over prCtgr:ams. and Vice Minister Krassowska cornpJ,aUled. that p"~Jf't .. o,u .• o of from the universities. At this 1J",,, .. o,f'tVf't,,,,,o,4 faculties were able to "sufficient use of Soviet programs.

11. Hu:ndE~Sa]rchJlv ..... ,..,,,""', ... u'uf't"', ... P()tsdlam (he:reajtter R3/150/332. 12. On i:jel)teJnDE~r

eco'noJnlcs.andph),losI0ptlY the recommendations of P. Arkhiv Rossiiskoi Federatsii I h"'l"AI:aft'll"

d. n. 92-93. 13. From 1953 to 1955 the Polish .t\Clluemy of Sciences invited 83 So-

viet scholars to while in the direction. KC PZPR 237/191152-55.

14. KC PZPR 237IXVII14/56-66. 15. der Parteien und Ml:lJjeifiorg~mlsat;lOrlen im Bundes·

archiv IV2/2/282/49-50. 16. 17.


18.

ti01ovemmenk!O. lecturer in op. 11. 56-58. One historian

t1'Pf1nl',nv. la't"unr.,,\ lectured to fun auditoriums in in and others

of 1951.

168 The Transfers

not and students had not been mobilized to attend their lec-tures. f. f. 975 f.191 7 302/2 151-152. See also the in 3134-

272/1 39-43. On failures to host Soviet MSW 20/76-86.

B. D. Grekov of Polish histori-see op. d. II. 15-16.

hi","" ... ,.", .. ,,,, of the Polish historians' conference in ~el[)te:ml}er 1948 was in about the n? .... a?.~QQ

DlSltOlrICIU S(!leIICe, and criticized Marxists for prc,fes,sol'late." Iu. A. Zhdanov to M. A.

off the Soviets about this book :::5eD,terrlDel 1949 . ...., ......... ""

PP1r.1'11QP'Nl(,'~ a "'V'~"""''''''U''' but assumed Konorski

d. n.96-100.

sowska tended to see the issue as one Their .... v ........ ".,., .... '" lVUCllaJlrow the ~n'J"I£>lrQ

n,.,I"I,'''U der nie zu eines H'p"''''' Ilr~ .. · .. t" am Main: S. H·,a"h" ...

40. He was, made to submit a self*criticism at a blOI!O~~lClll conference in Kuznice in late 1950. Stanislaw'MflUE!rSloel'g

The Sovietization of 169

in 18-32.

:::Sl<llorC)v director of the Institute of Soviet f. 2, d. 11.112-113.

I:StaJmJlZUllg Polish What ...,n/ •• "", and Societies 7, no. 1

47. lowe much of this • nTav.-n-oTo T.", .... to Russian historian A. S . ...,,,.u,,,,uu.

48. A. S. "Nauchnaia stran Tsentral'noi i Vostochnoi otnoshenie k i sovestskoi

US.EOVUQRn obshchestvennoi ed. A. 1. Studenikin 92-104 .

.L1.VJ.Ul,a,U, the

... o .... " ... t-, .... ,cr u,'U .. ,"~}Jl"" r(~qulesl~s from functionaries in t;z,ecflOSIO'J'aKla, m)Jlro'veInelrlts in Czechoslovak-Soviet cul

ex.::nfm~~es was hammered out in meetbut also the Union of Soviet

paJrtl(~lp,atlng. The rea"work of

170 The Transfers

J!e()J)olltlcal and neo-Malthusian orien-genluule glBog:ralphlcal science," f.

<11S111tlSl(mI1nerlt were

the East German concluded that this was an use of resources and decided to send students

... .L'U'··Ln:1. ZPA IV2/9.04/620/100-106. 118--119. 1960 a total of 919 East German stu-

dents had been trained in the of whom 74 were UT'lIlnulltA

students 295-297. 59. PPR 295NII/3/60. 60. This was a formula used in a June communication

mllfllstry of education to Charles KU i.e. 718. MO 3149/33-35. Of the 1954 group, 35.4 Del'cerlt b!el011lJ!e!<1

and 15.7 were candidate members. ~Z'lflh~·~4· 191152-55.

SUJ~geste,<1 for studies in the Soviet Union from the r.nlrr.v.tOllr were in the humanities and ten in

art, and thirteen in economics. ZPA IV2/9.04/622/6-9. Two-thirds of the Poles selected for studies in the Soviet Union in 1951 were in technical and studies. KC PZPR 237/XVI11401 34-35. Of 302 students selected in

technical SUI)Jec~ts.

184 took up UnJLVeJt'sl1;v sllbJ1ects. dents to five were in the humanities. f.

63. invitations from the Polish to the Soviet AC~I<1emy em,DalBSY in Moscow and then

L .... .L"',"'::.U. Q1L.LQJ • .L"', but later contacts were direct. For eX~lmJ)!e. scientific of the Polish Acal<1emy

sent a to four to a session on construction materials. op. 1 dop., d. 1. 20.


f:'la.nn:mg for cultural COOlpe1ratlon with Poland in 1954 was coordinated the blurOI)ean d,eOEllrtrnellt of the of on matters

education that communicated with Minis-~d\lCa1~lon Stoletov. Opt d. ll.25-26.

CAClUUtU.C. in 1954 the Soviet sent ov .... o ... 'r'"

ge()gr;apl11C~U research" and in 1955 "'"Vy' ...... 'r'"

cases in order to serve the needs 1, d. n. 22-23.

65. See the cornpJlault of East German scholars on the difficulties f!et;tlI1lf! perrnlSSlOn to visit in f.

1. 86. Even for the chemist and laureate of GDR national Professor it was far easier to attend con-

gresses in the West than in the Soviet Union. For the ... u .... ,u ........... "'J'

scn,OlarlY eX4~tu:m~:e with Poland in see

nn'lvP'rs;ui:v p:reparlltlcln to twelve years, and the to twelve

premaratlOn untenable. f.

172 The Transfers

1. 56. eaUlcat:lon, RSFSR to M. A. 22

n. 1-3.

to pr01aUi(!ea a criticall'edew in

L 254. 72. A year or two after rela tives a

visitor from Moscow Lwow COllea2'W~S about Parnas. himself an this visitor .... ,,"',uu .. ," never to have heard of A or two before her death in the 1960s Parnas's who had been allowed to return to told the of former Wroclaw rector Stanislaw that her hus-band had been taken down the stairs one in the back of the neck. Jan Still Alive Haven: Yale

"r;::ijlJv"rHH,t::nl~U i ","UIJHf/'U. V . .4V.l""V,U.

Skar2~vnskl of the Pavlov ceremonies in Moscow in ::5e1otE!mller

"where is academician is he not at the sessions. claimed to know Parnas the was answered

is not recorded. f. d. 3, I. 155. 73, also informed and the Soviet of

this embarrassment. Dembowski was the first of the Polish Acad· emy of Sciences. f. 1 d. 26.

74. In 1949 the Committee sent a to its Soviet on behalf of universities and institutes thl'ouJCh()ut Poland textbooks and works. The Soviet COlnmlttE~e did its best to to f.

1. 150. In 1949-1950 the InC!lwctlIllJC literature on how to

and scores of Russian songs. 119. To a limited extent informa

dlrect:lons. The Slavonic Committee in Moscow Tl1"l'll"l1'r~d 'v,",,,,'' .. ,,, .. ,,,, for historian I. S. Miller at the Institute of Slavic Studies 1\.C~1Qemy of Sciences. Soviet historians were to receive in for-

1. 57. In 1949 the Committee cO\Jmt~erpart for information on the of

send a mission to Moscow to time "It does not seem that the to 17 d. 1950 VOKS was

ae'llel'OPIng cultural ties of the re(IUe~stEla information from the Soviet em.oalSSY

The Sovietization of Education

Committee in ..... ""', .. ..... J ...

the letter recommended -ot,lu!:ml('

173

em.DaISSY in Warsaw wrote enthusiasand art to

to Czechoslovakia lecturers in pnUOlliOIJlny for a of three to four Institute of Soviet Culture.

77. f. 78. f. 79. The mnnstlry

O[)lleCl[;lOlrl. and on ue'cern[)€~r re(ZU€lstElG p,errmSSlon of the council op. 11. 154-155.

82. This institute was subordinated to the mlJmstry tion. In 1947 a stitute to education for its work was eX1[;el1lae,a West Eastern ,,: .. '1''''''''0.

174 The Transfers

"International Book" as well as the Soviet mllntstry mllrlls'try of education. f.

sUJ;rge:stE~a (,l"~Atln,u a German-Soviet R3/21 1113-15.

muustlry of

.... "','" .. .., ... 'QYV"" in the humanistic ClIEICll)llIleS 30, d. L 163.

CO]mnllS~nOJler in Semenov told to reconstitute the East German aca-

gave Germans a list of fifteen to techni-were to be converted to technical schools.

ZPA IV/9.04/608/97-99. 87. f. d. 11. 88. Letter to 13 March 89. Iu. A. Zhdanov to M. A.

op. d. l. 100. 90. See the reminiscences ofWrociaw mathematician

YfI51'JUfI'f,""'f::fUU, 395.

1.87. f.

91. There were sufficient of that textbook in but other texts that had been eX(:tu<lea from the recommended literature in

Union had to Poland. tn11'of'h':.'rrnn'r"

the Poles were their own from selection was "not , some of these texts been

to serious criticism" the Soviet Union. The situation was unfortu-because in the view of the law S. S. "The

of influence of Soviet science on Polish <le)pcerl<lS "" ... ;h,..."lu

on the and literature sent to op.

f. 1.3.

The Sovietization of

93. This dele(!,ltlcifl

Education

d. 7, II. 1-5. :Sk:rzesze:wskJ papers, 4781121166.

to

175

and included the head e(Ulcatloin, Ernst Hoffmann.

f.

176 The Transfers

folder 75440. In December a meletul2 ad]lou:rnE!d with the recommendation that members

for an See comments of 24 December 6. 192/54-D/L

aeJlegatE!S to Poland were second or third secretaries in subordinated to the affairs.

ple~nll)otenj~lalry of VOKS in Warsaw in 1950 was the embaiSSY second secret:arv U\llZnetSovJ and the relJ're~)entatlve Warsaw third Se(:reltarv ll..JUltOV'nIJKOV

f.

reo Hr..T .. """''''" The overwork seems to

Hr .. TO"""'':'" received a re-

on your own. SUI)plE~m4~ntarv intl[)rn!'lation essential

pu1~tUllg t()gethE~r characterizations in whom have must do in a delicate way, and not in form of

cOI'res)pondtenc~e." f. op. d. 1. 16. The first sec-retaries of embassies sent evaluations of the scholars invited to the Pavlov celebrations in Moscow in 1949. f. op. 1 d. 3.


110. See the 1949 of the VOKS pleltllP()terltlary

on Soviet-Polish cultural relations for A.;.IU.UJ"l:I"'.Y Second ::;ej::!retar

I. S. Kmmet:sov

117. This inlllor.<i'lt'IJ' The ~lnetitzal~wn

1945-1956

which included on n.l03-111.

me,etulgs with

students in first Soviet

de"el()oed in John '-IV"".U';;iUJ

and Polish nlV'Pl"!<tlt.V of North Carolina

6 Lysenkoism in Europe: Export-Import of the Soviet Model

Nikolai Krementsov

180 The Transfers

SOVIET SCIENCE IN 1948: THE lYSENKO CONTROVERSY

182 The Transfers

THE MICHURINIST CAMPAIGN ABROAD

1948

183

184 The Transfers

MICHURINIST BIOLOGY

186 The Transfers

EXPORT OF MICHURINIST BIOLOGY

188 The Transfers

190 The Transfers

IMPORT OF MICHURINIST BIOLOGY

192 The Transfers

194 The Transfers

195

wrote a to

sU(menlli called me back for ))rlnCll))lE~S of Michurin

of research on SUI)stl!lDc:es. as these investi*

IVlarXlist c~:>n(!e))tlOn of tnn,lnClfU

" ... 4LIUU .... algallnSt my scientific conscience j;lrl:lrVl!na abroad but in

I had to that

I have

196 The Transfers

CONCLUSION

August

30 17

24-26

26-27

APPENDIX: CHRONOLOGY OF MICHURINIST MEETINGS IN 1948 IN THE USSR

V ASKhNiL me~et1l1lg

the All.Union .... n"'of·u

and Scientific

1!iXI)anaeU me~etIrlg of the preSlU]lUm of the

197

Po-

.t\Cll<lemy of

educational institutions in Moscow

26-28 Joint meletIrU, h1£'1,lno,,, and divisions of the Armenian .t\Cli<lemy

IVIE!etl.ng of Ukrainian blOlOi'!:lCBll, ... :"' .... '" •. u,,, .... , ..... , medical scien-and institutions

September

2

3-4

4

6-7

aSSiem,DIY of the Latvian AC~iUemy of Sciences

~XlpaIlCled m,eetmg of the of the Belorussian Acad· emy of Sciences

presldl.um of the RSFSR AC~iaemy of

DlO,logllCa! science in LeJUngrOi<l

198

7-8

9-10

11

13-15 14-16

The Transfers

1:11'5:::;,t7IU,1J1,Y of the Latvian AC~l(lemy of Sci-ences

J!iXI)anl(1ea me4etlllLJ! of the preSUlllum the Medical Sciences

J!iXJ)an,aeG meletllllg' of the pre.SlQlUm Kazakhstan Branch

hln,lnorv teachers of the Ukraine

J!iX'pallG€!U rn,eetmlZ of the of the Uzbekistan Acad-emy of Sciences

16-20 Joint of the USSR AC~iGemy of Medical Sciences and

17 melBtllllJ! of the emy of Sciences

org'anization of the ........ '" .. .,., • .,. .... Acad·

18-19 20-22

24-25

NH~etlLng of workers of blO,(ogllcal

]!;XI)anlcted meletulJ! of the preSld],um emy of Sciences

26 Scientific conference of "unlnn, .. teachers of Estonia

28-29 of the of the Kazakhstan Acad· emy of Sciences

29 of the scientific councils of medical institutions of

29-0ct.2 aaIDUUSt,rat;lVe SClEmtJ.11C, and prelctlCal work·

October

4-6 J:!.iXlpaIlue'u mteetlnlZ of the prE~Sl(l1u]m of the Ukrainian Acad·

5-7 Scientific meletullZ of the Branch of the USSR ftC2luemy of Sciences

11-12 of i::)Clen(:es, the unrver!~ntv the

13-14 workers of Armenia

16-17 of members of the Union of the USSR Acad· Medical Sciences

18-19 General of the 18-23 of heads of hln,lno'v d,emlrtJDeltlts

tea,cn4~rs' institutes of

19-21 division of the of Sciences

20-21 Scientific melBtlllllZ of the Estonian AC~iGemy of Sciences

199

23 Scientific conference of the Moldavian Base of the USSR Acad-emy of Sciences

26-29 of the U::;~:H't"!\Ca!(tenlY Dl':SClenCIBS

November

5 iVlE~etltng of workers of the Armenian mllnlstrv of health

December

3-4

10

af{l:1c\Jtltulral OjJ\;''''J.ClLUO!LtO of the Far East in Vladivostok

26

NOTES

..... ;",,0,&1.0, see Avi The United States and the Berlin Block-Kplrlcp,lpv and Los .nUKt::J,t::~.

2. The Communist Information tsureau :Se1Ilte~ml)er 1947 to coordinate the 01',"'"'.-'''

and elsewhere. A blbllogJ~apllY

ary

was created in Communist in Eu-

728-745.

200 The T ransferc;

R'IIliPJ.tlf"ll W

rnE~or.atl(~kv Zaklad Mi(::urinske GeneJilniglls~n version of this article

Theor'etical of Michurinian Ge-277-278.

Ul1'nrlrOrJ'V Review

f.

text, see Ros-

ter, ..... 'V ... ;o."" ... 20.

See the Archive of the H.ulssllan AC~:ldemy 1, d. n. VOKS activities in the DOI!JtlArar

see A. S. "Stalinskaia kurtlJlrno-itde(.lo,~iclles'kaia e,Ksl>arlsula en~~rna,» in U istokov sm:s"U&~In.c'ne,SR()RO

and in contribution to this volume.

22. In 1949 VOKS sent the Central Committee a tnlrtV-SJ)(-mle'e about its in relation to the 41 ............. '~"

f.

op.3, uustatsson, "Marxist Genetics at the Stockholm Botanical

no. 1 55-59. the of Sciences sent a Russian translation of this to the Central Committee's science See f.

d. 1. 190.

201

27. See Julian Memories II arnl0nl[1SVlJrorth. U.K.: 151-152.

29. 4"'-.)1$"1"'74

30. 31. See the 1, d. 32. See Julian The :::;PE~cto~tor (::Se!DtE~m·

ber 326-327. 33.

of Chinese Law and Government no. 2 34. Aleksandra "How I Became a

Review no. 4 443. 35. This does not mean, of course, that such documents could not sur·

face in some East archives. For the Central Committee's decisions on the Soviet

i::n:;:;Un,V.H''','' 435-445. pelrmlttlng four Chinese

1951.

d.

to the Institute of Metal~

those scientists who came from the war, held this Iml0reiSSlOn.

;::)Cllence, American Review Soviet

429-431.

202 The Transfers

calnp,algns, see, Hrl1nl:lllU'1('1c N.J.: Transaction

51. See W. H. Leonard to Theodosius UOIt>Zham!!ky in L. C. Dunn's B/D917.

52. See C. C. 7 tJaI1IUalrV L. C. Dunn's papers, B/D917.

53. for a to the Central Committee aeleg~lt10In to the Pavlov COIltel;enc~e held in Poland from .ueiceIlnI)E~r

JarmaJry 3, 1952. f. op. d. 11. 1-20.

Science between Two Worlds: Foreign "Models" and Hungary's Academia, 1945-1949

7

Gyorgy Peteri

204 The Transfers

Science between Two Worlds 205

106 The Transfers

The fortification of the whole cultural front of on the fields arts, and science has at last come onto the We are behind what has been in this in the Soviet the end of war. This backwardness has a situa-tion in which the enemy has been its undisturbed on the cultural front. There are such on the cultural front that it is VV.c>"',,''''''''''' for the old reaction to exer·

their influence.6

The Communist of the Soviet Union increased control and cor· rection of theoretical work upon the on the whole line and cultural almost as soon as war came to an Politburo has in a series of concrete cases, the

... Their of Soviet

thE~ater, CUlelltla, and music to """II"""L"'" CrltlCISD1.

UU,>IIQJ"'''''' and pOllnt]lng out the directions demanded of cuI· ture of socialist It is time for us Hn,nt'J'Q'r.

ian Communists too to embark upon ... leveL1

208 The Transfers

THE PEOPLE'S DEMOCRATIC ILLUSION

Science between Two Worlds

he relied on the ""lD.ClltSl<)flC'lry tation of the 1934-44

Rnl'ln'trnA causes as land ,-..,.. •. ,,-, .. . . . In the realm of international relatl.ons.

entailed a measure of continued £'fll'.no'rarlflJ'l-

209

Front oden-nO-"!"'l:>'" to n .. rvrn,nto such r-al)cu;m, and

210 The Transfers

Saxon allies. ma.KlIltg the necessary and Stalin to time indeed to await a favorable turn in the interna~

tional balance of forces.

oe<!ooa, Stalin I"'ntll"'l1;J"J"'~ntlu Front orientation as

time went on elsewhere as ine coalitions into USli:!U(loc:oaUtllons. a'tte:mutmg mations those

Orlen1~at]IOnS, Stalin intended to offer non-POlltlC:lal1lS a difficult choice. had to decide

." .... "'_ •. .,. .. , ..... nAJ"t'ntl,'I"'Qt'ln with Moscow and with several Euro-If it was-if

Science between Two Worlds

THE ROCkEFELLER FOUNDATION AND HUNGARY BEFORE THE COMMUNIST TAkEOVERS

211

212

de~;De~ralGe over the destruction Dn}U'~nt nastEmE~a to to what his n01 .. 0..."n

I think the influences and Im]Jre;SS1()ns a deal to see the sure of their issue. I feller fellows there was an UnSp()Ke:n could be considered as a basis

The Transfers

InW'!:lhlln.'t1lt::on'l"!:l contributed ideas and to be

Hung~lrulm Rocke.,p ...... " ........ corme:ctl1on. that

the ruins and on which the future of can be re()rg.aflllzeicl. work the tOllmdatl!onj was and will not be in vain. is

THE ROCKEFELLER FOUNDATION AND THE POSTWAR UPHEAVAL IN HUNGARIAN SCIENCE

214 The Transfers

216 The Transfers


or~~alltlZE!d in the Soviet in a most generous manner. Their that have the mandates of ma.nagelneJlt of science from bureaucratic offices to the trade union of which is called the of glg.antlc Each academician self. Most ChSlra(!teJ'lstJLCaJll}1

ister and

218 The Transfers


NOTES

\A)lnnEHiY'S contributions in this book. on the Politi-

ap]par'atl.lS of the council under G. Alexits and T. Erdos invested in the and detailed statistical obser-

re£l[lstratlon of R&D and infrastructure. ne(~eSsal'V p:recon1::tltJtOn to the macrocoordi

other docu-

the

220 The Transfprs

L

I njve)~8it;eb,foJrlaget and H umani

N.C.: Duke

Record


18. P.

1VlOSCOW 26

Record

18 November

222 The Transfers

:Sclen4:!e), in A harminceves ~Z()V1E~tuin'() 164-167.

detallEld dleSCrllJ1tlO,n of the celebration to the 220th anni-versary of the of Sciences of the USSR with an extensive na'lT.r,r\.

account of the event, see Eric Scientist in Russia 126-145. Some information may be

Allen & York:

r011nclat:lon was :SZEmt·U,/Ore-Vl.'S SI~conQ"Ja]~e est source of financial in the West.

while after the war it made an appro-,LV.vv'v. This information is taken from the relevant minutes

of the executive board and of the board of directors of the for of which the author is indebted to Dr. Thomas H . .lYU:::1Al~.

dent of the Josiah Jr. Foundation. 40. Alan 1

41. For more on this on ~zfmt·U,/or2'Vi7s r~~Deate~d J:1UngElrlBlU authorities to to

Academia and State ~o(~,a;:'8n~. t;.har.ter 2.

PART IV--------THE TRANSFORMATIONS:

CONTINUITIES AND DISCONTINUITIES AFTER 1989

8 The Academy versus the Rest

Stephen Fortescue

226 The Transformations

THE ACADEMY'S VIEW OF ITSELF

The Aca:CI@nrw versus the Rest 221

UNIVERSITIES

Myth and Model


Research Capacity

The I\ccmemv versus the Rest 229

Income


Administrative and Organizational Changes urn ... IT"nfT to OT,.."""'.rTT

The At'::lrlt:>n"l\l versus the Rest

new administrative agency

231


MINISTRY OF SCIENCE

The Ac<~t1em\l versus the Rest 233

Prioritization

234

in aC~ulemy Insitltlutes:

The Transformations

shift in the dispute with

Here there has been eXt)rel:;se1ti, idea: to the of the 1\CIUlemy of elite the tive sense of the research collectives. It is no less tant to preserve the academic em/ircmnlent, After the elite groups

The AC.:lOemv versus the Rest 235

su(!ce~:JStl,Hl) coJ.1at)Oratllng with the best laboratories and firms in this environment and feed from it. I consider that the preserva-

elite is an but insufficient condition for the ACaQ,eml¥ of Sciences .... Once we a of the

n1"'~H:lA1"'VS;lhi1ln of the academic it fonows that there can be no mass redundancies in the Acao1emy

Funding

The AcaaenlV versus the Rest 237

238 The T ransformation~

turlctlomlry of Soviet science I considered that the acad* emy than anyone else how to use the money allocated for the of fundamental and how to dis· tribute it among the institutes. I considered that any of dis-tribution of resources would the aC~l(tE~my' and our scientific schools. The the aCSlEtemy ae:~unln sv~~telm of "',,1'''''\ ... .,.,.

The Acaidenrw versus the Rest 239


THE ACADEMY AND ITS STAkEHOLDERS

The Academy and Its Institutes

The AG~aemV versus the Rest 241

The Acaaenw versus the Rest 243

to C!11''t''Ull'UQ

The Academy and Its Researchers

The Acaoenw versus the Rest 245

WHAT'S THE SCOREl

The Araltfln1v versus the Rest 247

The AGlOpmV versus the Rest 249

NOTES


CleltenClelrs of the Soviet ... "''''.Le.'H aCflLaemy and its best

elite under-

4.

4; 10-16 Febru-

item art. 6.2.

17-

3; 17-

7.

5.

23. It is a somewhat controversial process. See 18-24 H'ot-,,.n,o.,.,,

7. This does not to be the controversial issue that it has been in Central and Eastern The has not proltesteCl agfum,t the of the a

nDln.11'"'' chair of the state committee for 7.

,··;rd'lrnn.l.p za~~01i',()dlatel8tva. no. 46 item 4450.

Dyf~"DlmDllv al~2'reSS:lve minister who made many enemies among In''lV01rQlf'v 27 June-lO July 4.

29. 5. 30. 5; 10-16 11; 25-31 Oc-

tober 698. 31. no. 7

The I'\caoenw versus the Rest

ences Since Research Scho01

33.

251

690. For other the

no. 38

of which 420 involved acataemy had the lead role.

no. 1 4. 1.

alsPu1~e nlrpl"ll~pliv in terms of a over

5.

ovtert1teaa deductions were "Some went on new tech

nUlrcnase of a new telieptlOI1le the staff of various insti-

494-495, 3,

item 4780.


3.

contractor for of 3.

item 5572. eSl;aous,mrlg the see Sobranie

centers. some institutes were forced to turn to the ml:nlstry

them. no. 6 62. Delovoi 29 .t\UllZUSt;-'! :Sel)telnbE~r 63. The fund was set

aCflaemy uses to

tUI1ldlrlg is to consist lnf111vlflUA I J)lroJE~cts and

art. 15.6. de~

4-

The J\caaenw versus the Rest

went to the aCfldemy arrears crisis of late money to payoff

"ml~nelst gllvernrnerlt level.

1; Sobranie ZaJ~0l1tOaatE~I'81~va 15-21 1i·"'tU·l1R .... V

item 2291. 78. Sobranie zaJ~ol1~oaatE~1'81~va 79. 3-9 October 3. 80. One notes the lack of total cnr\ntyrt

ber 1993 resolution. 81. See the case of the aCBtaelmy

in this case the aCllldemy director of the mstlttlte,

253

item 1425.

»

para. 6.5. See 1; no.

254

86. Sobranie zal~on~oaatE~I'SiWa

87. 88. 89. 90. }i~XlrlrelBse~d.

9l. 92. 93. 94. 95. 96. U. ::::iChlmBmk,

Soviet when hack mana,~er's' rnlOn()J}OJIY aC(:onlmC)QSltlOID with them a matter of "' .... ·unH.

the Vladimir Tractor

The Transformations

item 1549. For the pre-

215-210.

SVj~tpmj;t in Central and "" .. "' ......... "' ... Social Stud·

.... '"1'"""' ... .7 the case in the resources made

In£'tus:try \ ..... vu ... ""u and UaSmgSl~O.ke: IVlacmluall,

the pal~tlclPants were

104. 105. Sobranie no. 35

statute has been amended to lnl'~Ol'tlOl'Atp no. 3 204.

106. Sobranie zaJmnoct(lte,:'stIJa 107. no. 3 108. On the COllmClU.

27

art. 6.1 and 6.2.

no. 8 703. This formulation does not ap-pear to include the to na,,,'''Jr',r .. ,.ro in the process it-self he does not appear to have a

110. no. 8 691. 111. 14-20 June 28 March-3 4. 112. no. 2 113. no. 6 701.

How Willing Are Scientists to Reform Their Own Institutions?

9

Loren R. Graham


OQ1'OY"ru:u .. a as as to citi·

How Are Scientists to Reform? 257

How Are Scientists to Reform?

Table 9.1 Organization of Research Personnel in the Soviet Union, ca.1990

State Committee and Education of USSR

institutions uclzebinye zavedeniia); universities and .. ",." .... "'e~.

universities (Moscow, Len.ingrad): 770

Ac.ilaemv of Sciences

AC;ilaemv of Sciences of USSR

Siberian division of the Ac,aaemv in Novosibirsk; other branches and filials

Academies of sciences of union republics: 14 Academies

Aglicultural Sciences; Medical Sciences~ Pedlagc.gical Sciences; En~~ineerirlg (new)

600,000 researchers 125,000 (includes members as well as researchers)

7% of R&D budect 6%

Industrial & Defense

Industrial ministries; Defense

Industrial research

institutes

800,000

87%

261

L Piskunov, "Soviet Fundamental Science: and J:'elrsPlecl~lv~es of Center for Problems of ~~~lo·~c()nomyand~Clen(:e·'jl'OClhn()JO~~UeVelopmelnt

1991).


CONCLUSIONS

'"'h"'h ........ LJ ..... 1" of J.\,fJlI::S1::S1U, .......... 1",,"" ••

re~)lSltarlt to ""4"' .... 4 .. ~, .....

1. for the old <:>y<>.".::,. ..

the senior ones, who oelleIlLtte~a A:n01rm,mJl~fv

2. OfLY"YQ,ll1~;U~'~L IJY'..l"'~", Fun·

3. A

so far no 1"'t'r"lUQ t'o founda tions

except,lon of from

scientists and government leaders in of Soviet science-science and sci-

the features of the So-to the

4. ::::iurpl'lslngJly scientists for some aSlJec1t;s laE~Ol()gy 1;:ii:)!JI;:\,.;UU1.Y its on science as the most

even, to some still undetermined

thl'ough()ut the world-

reform them.


6. An economic crisis such that there was no money to finance major reforms in Russian such as a substantial beE~nI1tg reseal'cn. a reform that almost everyone agrees would

1. How should a itself and how should it choose its pa1mSlmEmt:ary rel)re:serlta'tlvles'(

2. How academic research institutions in a democratic be

3. How should elitist h/U'lrn"',IlP"

and govern themselves in a delrnOlcratlc


NOTES

1. The "dramatic 1)OJlIUCal from the announcement und Macht" forum held in earlier version this Chl:1l1)tE~r

where an 1)rE,selltect. I would like to express my

Manfred Heinemann for arl'anl!lnll! a1)lpre:C18ltlon to

,,:>cj~ences and the Communist tjXlpecllellt ljatl:1lst]~Opne: A Reconsideration of the 1929

~c1lence," Slavic Review no. 2

,t Vnl1J"nJ"'V istorii estestvoznaniia i

J:7I.L.la.t:'1, .w.lan~allien4~e Power and Soviet Politics ljamDrloge: 29-30. see

l1a.roE~m:an. VVI'HltifJl( to Terms with the Soviet The t;nan,guitR ::>1,1l''tD(Jt8t~t'' Movement the Russian ET'llUllrat.wn

1920s Northern Illinois 10. Alexandra Kollontai and V. Pletnev were very critical scientists

and See the discussion "The Great Debate over Technical

\ How Are Scientists to Reform? 273

Union: A 88-90.

We Learned About

Doesn't Soviet Science Do Better Than It i::jc,enc~e. ed. Linda Lubrano and Susan

and F. M. Borodkin et pOj~"nRa. ekonomicheskaia

he ec()mme1naea. as a

in the GencorreS1PonidUltf;! mlember's. V. GirlzbllUf;!

Graham/Sloan

274

26. V.

The Transformations

AcaaemlV or a Bastion?" Graham/Sloan

uppmntlon," from Nauka u

ntH!t:l'l"'Jt:l11 "In the lists w .. "",,,,,,, ... Humanities one can

institutes but also all mem-advisors to these " Irina issledovanii i razrabotok v pervom

were pOfntlon. and

" If a ballot if a ballot was

10 On the Legacy of State Socialism in Academia

Gyorgy Peter;


CHANGING RELATIONS BETWEEN SCIENCE AND SOCIETY

On the of State Socialism in Academia 277

the Round Table talks initiated "the " the oV",J.Q~,"'OJ.J'., the reconstruction of a market economy and

l1aJmenulry deJmOCr19lCV The of scientists has nO'I"1'£I,n1' role in this process. Professors other scientific uro't"Il":l't"a

involved in the reEJ;trllcturl.ng POJtltl<cal lnEltltut]lOns. l(leOlO~:Ies and cal doctrines. ... .... " .. "' ..... alrlaIVS~~S of the state its po,tltlcal

about freedom of rePUIOll(~atllons. It was also to

force of social eXI>ected that under new science would

ish. . . . that science would have a real chance to be a cre-ative factor in the life of three years the scientific cornmlUD,lty feels institutions are limited in their ac-

SC1,entlttC workers have become UDieDlpJ,oyea, i:UA,l.lU,AJ.!,lS, and the head of the new governt>O'lnJt't"u to overcome the crisis seems not to


A SHORTCUT TO MODERNITY VIA STATE COERCION


we ti01JO I,('\r,,:.ti coun tries

280

50-100 we suc:ceE~<1

We have to eliminate this ell1mulat:mg the gap or

The Transformations

in ten years time. Either "'" o.,LUI.1.l'C us down.

LtOnSlLUerlIllg the fact that scientific research has hitherto been DurSULed cOlnpletely <11sor~~an.lze;d manner, that it has been peJ:'fec:tly is(Jllat;ed

tnetretore SCl~ence. in accordance it is the JUa;l;bel!)t PJriOl7ity of

The 'Ln.'".!":;". gioVE!rn.mEmt was an active SU1DD()rbar of science .... These men science would more in Russia than any~


where else in the world .... The Soviet U1eOlOInS1~S a "socialist science" which would


RESTRUCTURING AN OVERSTRETCHED SYSTEM: PRESSURES Of ADJUSTMENT AfTER 1989

oelrcent.13


THE INFLUENCE OF EXTERNAL PRESSURES ON RETRENCHMENT

286 The Transformation!<-


CHANGES IN THE ACADEMIC ESTABLISHMENT

ftcaQ1emy was ruled and how its me:mt>ershl.J) of the had to be COIIIU'mEI(l

f'lll"nlllr"At'llln is a rather conservative aC~l(lE!m),ClllmS is now about 70. of them were eleC~eiQ

sClen1tls1ts--ef;peclBlUvintheso-


cial and human sciences-would have no chance were elected. The this sltlLlatlon

never The way behaved crises underwent over the last four decades was

conformism. In recent years, it was an criticism OU1;Sldle as well as it unable to reform itself. It

does not want to the status of an scientific COI,])Olratton and wants to preserve its as a gm,ernmlentaJ QlY<:.nr'u rE~sponanbJle

for scientific research on a national science 34

Sciences controls SCl.~ntUlc for research ~U:Ul"l:').

rate "academic" and wants to continue to ... There are.. demands that the aCfllcte.my cratic control over the universities tn]~OUJln tific which are for tenure and

be able to switch to 111.llngarl.an Acaaiemy of Sciences also switches to the Western

over the universities is abolished.S?


to their to relax its I"nllnh"u'g res:ealt'ch institutions .... Three years after

vef~tH1eR of the sden-

were to

ILLUSION OF DEVELOPMENT: CENTRALIZATION AND STAGNATION


Figure 10.1 Economic Development and Number of Research and Development Personnel in State Socialist and Capitalist 1985

100

80

60 c: .9 'I C "5 D. , 0 0 S I

D.

'0 «J

20

o .., « O~----T-----T-----r-----r---~r---~~--~~--~~--~

o 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000 14000 16000 18000

GOP/capita (USS)

Sources: Data for GDP Crom United of Economic and Social Information and Statistical Yearbook 1990-91 (New York: data from United Nations, De-oat'tment of Economic and Statistical Division.

York: United Nations, 1992). The 1985 data on the nUilIlbE~r enjgmeelrs elng~lgea in research and are from

Yonrhflf"lh 1987 Table 5·5, S. From top: German Democratic

l:SUjl~a:rla. CZE~chc)sl(.vaJltia, YUI;msl.avia. and


Central plann:mg of freedom due to which of

on pr()QU,ctllon. or

In the mid-70s the United States ..,rH'T"n<.u tunamg, which reflected a radical ch~ml2~e potent~lal. Its

ImpolE;sllllle to ensure eUIClEmt UU:lL~ni:1,l. informational and service of scientific

eXllendlturE!S on R&D cause a dls~pr!op()rt]lOn,at'~ly distract vast numbers of science workers

n1"£1,UD1"t 1I1tens:lllc:at:lon of work in SCllance.


JjefnaE~s the in terms of the level economic rt~'il~llt)n. ment, the power of attraction that socialism can exercise is COJ1Sliael~abil~

eX1PeI'lerlce necessary of our comic mllLga,zules

the assessments sta.naarClS are made. These are the ph4enCImEma

quaslt·a~eVEHOlpmlental structure and not of a low level of de'l1eJoplment.

CONCLUSION


EPILOGUE: THE LEGACY REVISITED

.... JC,u ....... ,,' ... JC was drafted in December mF!Ati:na of


10.2 R&D Capacity and level of Economic Development, 1985 and 1995

It .

a Q

a

o

a

a

O~~~~r-~~~~~---T~-r---r--~--~--~~ o 4000 12000 16000 24000

2000 10000 14000 18000 22000

GOP/capita (USS)

a contiruous: capit.

countries, 1995

o broken: post-soc.

COl.l'ltries.1995

Q doled: sodal't

count:l'ies. 1985

Sources: Data for GOP and IJUliJUllUJlUU of Economic and Social United L'IHLIUHIS. Statistical Issue, 1995

York: United The source of data on workers in research and de,,relc)pI1nerlt Statistical Yearbook 1998 and UQJllUCUU.

Md.: t'ullhshullg and Berman Press, 1998).


NOTES

1. tral ]!;urOI)ea.n

"The New Threat to H't,~tn· .. uN

J:Su.aapet)tJ. New York ..... "'" .. "''''' 62.

2. On the fate of the see Renate 4 ...... ' ... ...,.

Crisis: A Case of a Fruitless StY'naalA

Trouble: How Science Reacts to POj~tUcal ed. Uwe Schimank and Andreas Stucke

Camous and St. 163-188. 3. On the and identities of the Polish

ap)[>ll(:aD.le to the whole Int,eUlgent~;la: ... "'"',, .... , ....... from the

i:jO(~'Ol.ogl,cal JjUtlel~'n. no. 2 :.sz(!zepalrlSlia. ":"\O('tAt:V Science and Government in " in So·

A. Science and Government Se· State Committee for Scientific of

viii.


11. This is what tant talent in his,... T''''''''''UV'

N.J.: Kutlgers 12. K,utat(issA~ertleZe'8t 'li'lJef,Wztato u,uaapestJ 13.

iPl'mAn e:KP.~r14enc:e has been rather similar

Former no. 4

23. Janis Erika in the Latvian Research :Svstelm.

~alneJ:n bloc. As ... .LU"LO-· .... "'U.I. "'"


;::'cl,ence. Tectmolog:y and VU,C::lUI5C, Jj~udaPE~st. 28-31

rina "Some TnOU2'nlts Control to the Market"

Te4i!nrlOl()gy and vuaul5~. HUaa):>est.

··tlE~aetlnmg the Role of Science 20 670.

Centre of the of Sciences of rise from 1989 to 1992-1993 in the

mt,en!aml2' to leave the but also that "Hede-

VU,I:J,Uj::,o;;; of Generations of Scientists in PostprE~SeJnte!a at the EASST Conference on ::iCl!ence,

VUi:lUI5~. LlU. ... ''''V't'o .. , 28-31 3. ViciSSJltmies of the Polska Akademia

AC~laemyin Cracow 1873-and in East Cen-

tral at the American Association for Advancement of Slavic Studies 25th National 19 November

34. Stefan Amsterdamski and Julita Education and Research in Poland: The Inherited Situation and the Transfor-mation of the National Education and Research of Cen-tral vol. 1 Institute for Human 31-32.


no. 2 ences and the Soviet Acaolemy Minerva 30 474-478.

37. Miklos "Science Reforms in l1unglUY 23 Janu-291.

More ·.· .... ~r.~ VJ..u:.u,J.~'1:4

"Na-

PART V---------CONCLUSION

11 Scholars Steer Their Ships through the Turbulent Seas of History

Linda Lucia Lubrano

INSTITUTIONALIZATION, SOCIAL VALUES, AND TECHNIQUE

304 Conclusion

Scholars Steer Their the Turbulent Seas 105

306 Conclusion

308 Conclusion


THE SOVIET MODEL AND ITS TRANSFERABILITY

310 Conclusion

Scholars Steer Their the Turbulent Seas

me1etlIlgs in the Soviet Union were IOY'<Yol'u lrl1tllite~C1, the lea(iers.hlp

"',.""14«0,""'''''''" rhetorical OD4EHS;an(!e the content of in fact zure of control and to reassert their own hel~enflorlY

For many scientists in socialist countries the Mlchlurlnu,t ClimpalLgn sented not so much a nQ,I"\t"t£.,..

example of suc~cesiSlu own ends and nrC)V1t1Ai1

and to

311

312 Conclusion


PRAXIS AND POLITICAL ENGAGEMENT

314 Conclusion

316 Conclusion


NOTES

aplpretC1BltlOn to Mark B. Adams for his com-

mh,t'uj,I7A: Harvard Uni-

Name Index

131

247

83,

63

320

278 1'l1EIOaC)SUS, 115

'ov:zn€!nKO, A.1eksarldr, 189

128

206

238

291 75

Name Index

211

on interna-

Name Index 321

tional character of SC11;:mce. 50- ACI:Ulemy of i::)Clenc:es. on theoretical 48

129 B.

on

63

86

63

322 Name lnde)'

IVle!nQ~e!eEW Dmitrii IVSJnOVlCn.

161

KrU~lCU"'l11l'·h 8,

270-271

237 124

....... "CU" 4. lCU:utrWICn. 146

Name Index

125

162

122-123

45

159 259

323

324

152 160

,. .... 6' .. ,u""~ 185

267

Name Index

Subject Index

wars over SCljenCe, 266-268. See also ACaQ,emila, Soviet and East

326

of the 67

All-National Union of Sh'uuulA

the Revival of a Free .I.\I\.400L'I1,

62

Index

AcadenlY of 286 180

Bolsheviks: and the J\C~laemy and nh'V'SU:lstS.

:::;O(~let;v See

Brezhnev years, 26-27 Michurinist

189-190

Central Bureau of Proletarian 81

Central Committee munist

Central Executive Committee 94

163 183

Cold War: in Eastern and East Central.l!lUlt'One.

and Mlchlunnult hltlllr\tru

Index

and cultural Eastern t.;UJrope.

and 1.111 'nUI.;,li:H .. I).

111, 1 126 paDDJ.Ul

Council of lVnlllst~ers 159

Council of 54

.8C~iaemy of :::>Clenc:es, Czech Communist

162

R&D after East Central r.iurotte

Czechoslovak Mlnlstry of Educa· 153

Doctor's Doctor L.;n£lJttJ;!(J

East East r.iUrOI>ean

Eastern ~UJrope~ East Central t.;urOlJle

131

189-190

327

East German AcaO!emy of Sci· ences,163

East Uelt"mflny

variations VOKS and transfer of informa-

161-163

278-280

328

215 First Five-Year Five-Year Formal ..... " ... ,"' ... ,"'" Fourteenth

House of Soviet Culture 160

210

Index

R&D sector, 290-291 \

128

l:jC1en<~es. 39.

Industrial case, 63 Institute of Eastern Studies

ostIOK(Jlve<lenla}. 159

TheOl'etlcal ""h'lTC!l/'>l:! in

International Science Fund 237-238

Iron 195

Kaiser-Wilhelm -Gesellschaft \4"" ..... .;,,~ .. Wilhelm 9, 11, 45

Kazan" Kazan' KEPS

of Productive 62

Kharkiv 112

1\OI[)lS()mCll. Central Committee 150

Lamarckian bin.lno'v

Law on Science Technical

287

Index

Mc;magel',al Power and Soviet P£H'l'U"'R \"' ......... U. .... ,h 258

nIn,. ""--"'''1''''''''''' lllstltute. 47

and art, Materialism and It:WI nrrrl'l,f"rljflI"1Rm,

118 Memorandum of 342 45 Michurin 189 Michurinist hln,lnClru (J\.groblOlOgy)

329

181

214

tee ~lelt1UI1t1.

330

Nuclear 'Ph~'SlC:S. See Vh"T"'''~''' Soviet

October Ke'volutlon. also Russian

96

43. See

October 1958 conference on science and 131-

1948-1949 conference on, 129

Index

saved by 129-

Tamm's defense 128 decline in R&D

and

ACalClemy of Science and Letters 287

Polish Communist 183-184

Polish United Workers' 149

Quantum mechanics. See Vh,.,o'll".o

new

Index

81 Rockefeller Foundation in

War II,

Soviet leatUJ7es. ZZtl-ZZ'

Russian Fund-for Fundamental Research survival

Russian Fund for Fundamental Research 269

331

f\caUlemy See Communist

58

94 Twentieth

131

212

L;Omtl[ut1tee on

Union Bureau of the MEmsheVlk:s 62

332

87-90

V ARNITSO Association Workers of Science and

eCllnc'lO~~Y for the Assistance of

reaction to the 1948 session in the

197 Vesenkha

Index

Council of National ,t;c<:m()m~V') Scientific Te~(!lllnC~il1

Administration ClrY"1tO' ..... tQ with

87

150

209

About the Editors and Contributors

Michael David-Fox is aSSOCl,ate pro1tessor n ... "" ... ,...rt and coeolt()r

Stephen r·OJ~tef;cue. Q' .. >:1V,,,,uA',v p]rOIE~ss()r

cal at

334 About the Editors and Contributors

4.0;4 .... '''<;4'.'''' sector

Linda Lucia Lubrano is prc.tes,sor ltejg'lonaI ~ttlalE~S at

Gyorgy Peteri is orC.les,sor in the nplns:llr'tn"lPl'lt

11111111111111111111111111 9 781593 112950

academia in upheaval. origins, transfers, and transformations of the communist academic regime in

Documents