academic skills unit tertiary essay writing · · 2011-07-14when dealing with personal or health...

AcAdemic skills unit

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TertiaryEssay Writing

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contents/TerTiary essay WriTing 3

Time managemenT 3

Choosing a TopiC 3

Whatinterestsyoumost? 3

Whatresourcesareavailable? 3

Whatdoyouknowalready? 3

analysing The quesTion 4

Whattolookfor? 4

Processordirectivewords 4

Contentwordsandphrases 4

Limitingwordsandphrases 4

BrainsTorming 7

Whyisbrainstorminganimportantstep? 8

planning 8

researChing The TopiC 9

Searchingadvice 9

Exploringencyclopaedia,bibliographies 9

Searchingjournalindexes,electronicjournals 9

Howmuchtoread? 10

Gettingstarted 10

Reservelist 11

Recordingareference 11

Note-taking 11

Readingcritically 12

Whentostopreading? 13

revising The plan 13

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contents/WriTing The firsT drafT 13

Essaystructureandargument 14

Introducingyouressay 14

Thebodyofyouressay 14

Paragraphs 15

Coherence 15

Concludingyouressay 16

Usingsources 16

Anoteonplagiarism 18

Academicstyle 18

Clarity 18

Formality 19

Objectivity 19

Useofpassivevoice 20

Makingtentativestatements(hedging) 20

Nominalisation 20

Discipline-specificvocabulary 21

ediTing 21

Editingforstructureandargument 21

Introduction 21

Body 21

Conclusion 22

Editingforexpression,grammarandspelling 22

Referencing 22

suBmiTTing 22

resourCes 23

Furtherreading 23

Usefulwebsites 23

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TerTiary essay WriTingEssaysareacommonformofassessmentinmanytertiary-leveldisciplines.Theabilitytoconstructgoodessaysinvolvesunderstandingtheprocessandtheconventionsofessaywriting.

Thisbookletlooksattencommonstepsinvolvedinessaywriting.Themoreexperienceyougetinwritingessays,themorecomfortableyouwillbecomewiththisgenre.However,evenanexperiencedessaywriterneedstobedeliberateandthoroughinordertowriteawell-constructedessay.

1. Time managemenTA2000–3000wordessayshouldbestartedthreetofourweeks(orearlier)beforetheduedate.Thisallowstimefortopicanalysis,planningandresearch,writingthefirstdraft,revisionandpresentation.Plantospendabout50%ofyourtimeonanalysis,researchandplanning,25%ondevelopingadraft,and25%onrevising,editing,referencingandproofreading.

Forexample,ifyouexpecttospend30hourspreparinga2000-wordessay,15hourswouldbespentanalysingthequestion,findingrelevantmaterial,readingandnote-taking.Thiswouldleave7.5hourstopreparethefirstdraftandanother7.5hourstorevise,editandproofreadyourwork.

Youmayneedtospendmore(orless)than30hourstopreparea2000-wordpaper–theexampleaboveisonlyaroughguide.Themainthingisthatyouallowyourselfenoughtimetobethoroughintheplanning,writingandeditingstages;otherwise,youwon’tbeabletoachieveyourbest!

Itisalsoagoodideatogetsomeoneelsetoreadoveryouressayforanylanguageorlogicalinconsistenciesofwhichyoumightnotbeaware.Youshouldallowsometimeforthis,aswellastimetoconsideranychangessuggestedbythepersonwhohasreadoveryourwork.

2. Choosing a TopiCAfterschedulingtimetoresearchandwriteyouressay,thenextstepistochooseanessaytopic.Alistofquestionsortopicsisoftenprovidedbythelecturer.Whenchoosingone,youshouldtakeintoaccount:

What interests you most? Thebestwaytostaymotivatedistodowhatmostinterestsyou.Chooseatopicyouwanttoexploreinmoredepth.Alsoconsiderwhetheradeeperunderstandingofatopicmightbenefityou.

What resources are available? Itisgoodtodoalittlepreliminaryresearchonthetopic(s).Seewhetherthereareenoughresources(booksandjournalarticles)onthetopicofyourchoice.Ifeveryoneisdoingthesamequestion,itmaybedifficulttoaccesslibraryholdingsforsometime!Youcan,however,borrowfromothertertiarylibrariesifyouneedto.Anddon’tforgetjournaldatabases!

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What do you knoW already? Itmakessensetochooseatopicaboutwhichyoualreadyhavesomeideas.Thiswayyoucanthinkaboutpotentialargumentsthatcangointothepaperevenbeforeyoustartyourresearchandyoucanalsobuildonknowledgeyoualreadyhave.Ontheotherhand,ifyouhavethetime,youmightwanttobroadenyourhorizonsandchooseatopicyouarenotfamiliarwith.

3. analysing The quesTionWhenpreparingtoansweranessayquestion,itisimportantthatyouunderstanditwell.Sometimesstudentsmisunderstandtheessayquestion,oraddressonlypartofwhatisbeingasked.Youareexpectedtowriteatightlystructuredargumentfocusedonthequestionortopic.Sobeforeyoustart,youneedtocarefullyanalysethequestion.

Firstmakesurethatyoufullyunderstandthequestion.Checkthemeaningofanywordyoudonotunderstandinageneralorspecialistsubjectdictionary.Youmightalsoneedtoconsiderthattherearemorespecificusesofthesewordsinyourlecturesandreadings.

Agoodtechniquecanbetocopytheessayquestionoutonablankpieceofpaperandtoseparateandnumber–orcolour-code–thepartsofthequestion.Underlinekeywordsandidentifytheirfunctionasdescribedbelow.Onceyouhavedonethat,youcanrephrasethequestioninyourownwords.

What to look for?Youshouldlookforthreekindsofwordswhenanalysingyouressayquestion:

• Processordirectivewords• Contentwordsandphrases• Limitingwordsandphrases

process or directive words

Directivewordstellyouwhatyouarerequiredtodo–forexample:discuss, critically analyse, compare.Itisimportanttounderstandthemeaningofthesewordssothatyouressaywillanswerthequestionandaddressthetopic.

Herearesomeexamplesofcommondirectivewords:

Directiveword Definition

accountfor Giveajustifiedexplanationofwhyandhowsomethingisthecase.

analyse Divideintopartsorelementstodiscoverthenatureofsomething.Describethefunctionandrelationshipsofthepartstoidentifypossibleproblemsorweaknesses.

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argue Makeacaseforacceptingorrejectingapositionbysystematicallygivingreasonsandevidencefororagainstit.Demonstratethatyouareawareofopposingviewpointsandprovidegroundsforrejectingthem.

assess Examinefromdifferentviewpoints,weighingupstrengthsandweaknesses.Makeaconsideredjudgement.

commenton Provideaninformedandsupportedviewpoint.

compare Identifycharacteristicsthataresimilar.Alsostressdifferenceswhererelevant.

contrast/differentiate/distinguish Identifycharacteristicsthataredifferent.Emphasisesimilaritieswhereappropriate.

critical(ly)/criticise/critique Analysesystematicallyfromdifferentperspectivesandidentifypositiveaspectsaswellaslimitations.Drawconclusionsfromtheanalysisandexpressaninformedjudgement.

Thisdoesnotmeantocriticiseinonlynegativeterms!

define Determineessentialqualities.→Stateconciseandclearmeanings,butomitdetails.Markthelimitsofthedefinitionandemphasisedifferencestosimilaritemsorobjects.

describe Characterise,recountandrelatesystematically.

discuss Analyseandcriticallyexamineindetail.Considerprosandconsinordertocometoasupportedassessmentandconclusion.

evaluate Assess

examine Investigateclosely,payingattentiontodetailandconsideringimplications.

explain Makesomethingclearbyelaboratingonit.Givereasonsandtrytoanalysecauses.

illustrate Explainandclarifybytheuseofconcreteexamples,data,diagrams,etc.

interpret Explainsomethingandmakeitsmeaningexplicit.Giveyourownjudgment.

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justify Showadequategroundsfordecisionsorconclusions.

list Presentinanorderedway.

outline Presenttheprincipalfeaturesandhowtheyrelatetoeachotherinalogicalorder.Includeallmainpointsandomitdetails.

review Surveyandexaminecriticallyandcomprehensively.Commentoncontroversialaspects.

state Presentthemainpointsbrieflyandclearly.Omitdetailsandexamples.

summarise Giveashortandcleardescriptionofthemainpoints.

Content words and phrases

Contentwordsestablishthegeneralfocusofthequestionanddefinethefieldorsubjectareaofthetopic.Thecontentwordsorphrasesareunderlinedinthefollowingexamples:

• DiscussthedevelopmentofFrenchopera.• OutlinePiaget’stheoryofdevelopment.• ExplainGeorgeHerbertMead’stheoryonthedevelopmentoftheself.Howcan

sociologistsuseittounderstandtheselfandsociety?

limiting words and phrases

Lookforwordsthatlimitthescopeofthetopicandmakethequestionmoremanageable.Forexample:

• Discusstwoperspectiveson…• HowrelevantisthistoAustraliansociety?• Whatisthecrucialvariable?• Outlinethemajorcausesof...• Howcansociologistsusethisconcepttounderstandtheselfandsociety?

Itisoftennecessaryforyoutolimitthequestionyourself.Ifthequestionisverygenerallyworded,limitingitsscopewillenableyoutowriteinmoredepthaboutaparticularaspect.Forexample,thefollowingtopicisverybroadandcouldformthebasisofadoctoralthesisaseasilyasa2000-wordessay:

Discuss and analyse the roles of women in society in the period 1000-1350.Itwouldbeappropriatetolimitthisquestionbyindicatingyourfocus,forexample,onpeasantwomen,oraristocraticwomen,nuns,womenheadsofstate,womeninpaidwork,womeninservice,womeninEnglandorChinaorFrance,orwomenwhoseliveshavebeenextensivelydocumented.

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Ifyoudecidetolimityourdiscussioninthisway,alwayscheckwithyourtutor/lecturer.Inyourintroduction,statehowyouhavelimitedthequestionandyourjustificationfordoingso.Forexample:‘Thispaperfocusesonthelivesofpeasantwomensincetheywerethelargestgroupinsociety.’

Thisisagoodexampleofatopicthatdoesnotexplicitlydirectyoutoformanargument.Althoughyoumayfeelyoucanwritedescriptivelyaboutthewomen,youstillneedtodevelopanargumentrelatingtothequestion.Forinstance,howcouldyouaccountforchangesovertime,orbetweenwomenfromdifferentregionsorcountries?Canyouanalysetheroleswomenplayedinthecontextoftheprevailingsocialorder?Canyouformulateanargumentaboutthecontributionofthewomentotheeconomicwealthorreligiouslifeofthecommunity?

Onceyouhaveagoodideaofwhatthequestionrequiresyoutodo,ofitsscopeanditsfocus,youcanthenthinkabouthowyoumightanswerthisquestiongivenwhatyoualreadyknow.Thisstepiscalledbrainstorming.

4. BrainsTormingBrainstorminginvolvesthinkingaboutthetopicandgeneratingasmanyideasaboutitasyoucan.Atthisstageyoumaynotknowalotaboutthesubjectmatterofyouressay,butitisstillimportanttothinkaboutwhatyouneedtoaddressandjotdownyourpreliminarythoughtsandideas.

Youcandrawuponbothyourgeneralknowledgeandtheinformationfromyourlectures,tutorialsandsubjectreading.Throughthebrainstormingprocessyouwillbecomeawareofideasyouwanttopursueandinformationyouneedtolocateduringtheresearchandreadingstages.

Itisimportantnottonarrowyourthinkingatthisstage;youshouldexploreyourideasinanopenanduncriticalway.

Tobrainstorm,usealargepieceofpaper.Havethequestioninmindandwritedownalltherelatedissues,theories,argumentsandevidencethatyouareawareofatthisstage.

When brainstorming, include…

• anyideastriggeredbythequestion• questionsyouneedtoanswerinordertowritetheessay• possiblelinesofthought,researchorargument• anyevidenceyouareawareoftosupportpossiblearguments• wordsyoumustdefine.Atthisstageyoumayneedtothinkabouthowmuchbreadthordepthyouressaycanhave.Thewordlimitisafactorherebutyoushouldalsoaskyourselfhowmanymainideasyoucanaddressandhowmuchinformationyoucanpresent.

Youmightalsothinkaboutwhetheritwouldbeappropriatetoincludepersonalopinionorexperience.Thisismoreappropriateforsomesubjectsthanforothers.However,itisimportanttobeawareofanypreconceivedideasorbiasesyoumayhave.Allowyourselftobeopen-mindedtonewideasandpossibledirectionstheessay’sargumentmighttake.

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Why is brainstorming an important step?Brainstorminggivesyouthebeginningsofawritingplan–atatimewhenyouareclosetothequestionandthereforelesslikelytomisspartsofit.Youshouldnoticeacentralthemeorargumentemerging.Thisprocessalsohelpsyoutofocusyourresearchbyraisingmorespecificquestionstoanswer(thishelpstominimiseunfocusedmeanderingthroughthesetreading).Itfurtherhelpsbygivingyousomeideasaboutwhatyoumightwanttowriteabout.Keepinmindthat,asyoudiscovermoreaboutthetopic,yourideaswillshiftandchange.Thisispartoftheprocess.

5. planningAfterbrainstorming,developatentativeplantoguideyourresearch.Thedegreeofdetailintheplandependsonthequestionitselfandhowmuchknowledgeyouhaveatthisstage.Evenifyouhaveonlylimitedknowledge,youarestilllikelytobeabletocreateanoutlineofpossiblesections.Includesubheadingsandnotedownbackgroundinformationanddefinitionsyoumayneedtowritein.

Aplanhelpsyouformulatethecentralargumentorthemeofyouressay,aswellasgeneratesub-arguments.Italsomakesiteasiertostayontrackasyoustarttoresearchandwrite.

Ifyouhaveanargumentatthisstage,organiseyourpointstosupportit,andarrangeyourideasorsectionsintoalogicalorder.Youmayalsobeabletoidentifysomeoftheevidenceyoucouldusetosupportyourpoints.

Ifyouhaveverylittleknowledgeaboutthetopicandnoargumentyet,generatesomeheadingsandsub-questionsusingtheessayquestionasyourstartingpoint.Forexample,ifyourquestionis:

DiscussandevaluatethelegalapproachtoeuthanasiaandcriminalresponsibilityinVictoria.(2000words)

Youmighttentativelybreakthistopicdownintothefollowingparts:

1.Introduction(150words).2.Discussionofthecurrentstateofthelawoneuthanasiaand

criminalresponsibilityinVictoria(400words).3.Evaluationofthecurrentsituation:A.Whataretheproblemswiththecurrentlaw?What/whoarethe

driversofreform?Includedetaileddiscussionofthemostrecent/influentialcase(600words).

B.Whatreformproposalsarethere?Aretheyviable?Howhavetheseproblemsbeenaddressedelsewhere?Whatconclusions/recommendationscanImakeaboutthecurrentstateoflaw(700words)?

4.Conclusion(150words).

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Breakingthetaskdownintosmallersections–eachwithitsownfocusandpurpose–makesthetaskmoremanageable.Andgeneratingsub-questionswithineachofthesectionshelpsyoustayfocusedasyoureadforyouressay.Ifyouestimatehowmanywordsyoumightspendoneachpart,itwillalsogiveyouanindicationofhowmuchreadingyouneedtodoforeachsection.

Asinthepreviousexample,universityessaysoftenaskyoutodescribeoroutlineatheory,orthecurrentpracticeinafield,andthentocriticallyanalyseorevaluateit.Rememberthatthelatterpart–thecriticalanalysis–isthemoreimportantpartofyouressay.Itsrelativeimportanceshouldbereflectedinthenumberofwordsyouallocatetoit.

Whiletheprocessforwritingatertiaryessayisfundamentallythesameforanessayinanydiscipline,youshouldbeawareofdisciplinespecificexpectationsaswell.Theseareprovidedinanyguidelinestoessaywritinggivenbyyourdepartmentorfaculty.Thisisthestageatwhichyouwanttochecktheseguides.Eachdepartmenthasslightlydifferentexpectationsandrequirements.

Becauseyouarepreparingyouressayforaparticularsubject,youneedtoengagewithandtoaddressthatsubject’skeyconceptsandobjectives.Itisthereforeusefulatthispoint–andcertainlybeforeyoubeginwriting–tore-readthecoursedescriptionandcourseobjectives.

6. researChing The TopiCWhileyouwilloftenreceivedetailedreadinglistsasastartingpointforresearch,theonusisonyoutodevelopskillsasanindependentresearcher.Thisrequiresbecomingfamiliarwiththevariousuniversitylibraries,journaldatabasesandsearchengines,withperiodicals,newspapercollectionsandotherreferencematerials.

searching adviceWorkingoutwheretofindinformationandwhotocontactforadviceisoneofthemostimportantskillstolearnatuniversity.Takingthetimetobecomefamiliarwiththeuniversity’sinformationservicesandlibrarybrancheswillserveyouwellthroughoutyourtertiaryeducation.Youwillbeseveralstepsaheadifyoulearnearlyandwellhowtoaccesstheinformationyoumayneedtocarryoutyourliteratureresearch.

exploring encyclopaedia, bibliographies

Theuniversitylibrarieshavebrilliantreferencecollections.Whileinternetsearchingisincreasinglyeffective,notallsourceshavebeenputonline.Browsingalongthereferenceshelvesisanimportantcomponentoffindingandsiftinginformation.Subjectencyclopaedia,dictionariesandbibliographieswillhelpyougainagrasponresearchandconceptsusedinyourfield.

searching journal indexes, electronic journals

Publicationpatternsarechangingrapidly.Suchchangesareworkinginyourfavour!Moreandmorefull-textjournalsareavailableindigitalformat.Manypublishersevenofferpersonalisedpagesthatregisteryourresearchstrategiesandemailthetablesofcontentsofyourfavouritejournals.

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seeking the expertise of specialist staff to help you…

• withyoursearchstrategies• withgettingthemostoutofdatabases• trackdowninformationheldinotherlibraries• accessrareandarchivedmaterial• organiseinformation• withadviceoncitingsources.Librarystaffofferclassesonmakingthebestuseofthecatalogues,searchingdatabaseseffectivelyandmanagingyourreferenceinformationusingthesoftwareprogramEndNote.Thefollowingsuggestedlinkswillhelpyougetstarted:

UniversityLibraryhomepage

http://www.lib.unimelb.edu.au/

UniversityLibrarycatalogue

http://cat.lib.unimelb.edu.au/

SuperSearch

http://search.lib.unimelb.edu.au

Informationskillsclasses(catalogues,databasesearching,EndNote)

http://library.unimelb.edu.au/services/classes

LibGuides(subject-specificguidesandresources)

http://unimelb.libguides.com/index.php

Specialistlibrarians(individualconsultationsforgraduatestudents)

http://www.lib.unimelb.edu.au/learn/consult/

hoW much to read?Somestudentsoverestimatetheexpectationsofacademicstaffregardingthequantityofresearchrequired;someunderestimate.Attertiarylevel,youwilloftenfindthatthereismorereadingthanyoucanpossiblygetthrough.Askyourtutororlecturerforguidanceastothenumberofreferencestheyexpectyoutoconsultanduseinpreparingyouressay.Evenwhenthefocusofaquestionisonacoretext,itisassumedthatyouwillreadmorewidelyinpreparationforwritinganessay.

getting startedBeginwithgeneralreading;anytext-booksonyourreadinglistwillhelpyouunderstandyourtopicinthecontextofabiggerpicture.Thenmoveontojournalarticlesonspecificaspectsofyourtopic.Recentjournalarticlesaregenerallyconsideredofmorevalue

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inacademicwritingbecause1)theycontainmorecurrentinformation,researchanddiscussiononthetopicthandomanybookspublishedyearsearlier,and2)theyareoftenpeer-reviewedandcitedbyotheracademicswhichmakesthemamorereliableandrecognisedsourceofinformationandideas.

Reliabilityandaccuracyofinformationisanimportantaspectoftertiaryresearch;thisisonereasonwhymostwebsitesareoflimiteduseandhavelessrespectabilityinacademicwriting:howcanyouverifythattheauthorofthewebpageispresentingaccurateinformation?

reserve listYourlecturermayhaveplacedaselectionofmaterialonthelibraryReserveList.Tofindoutwhichbooksareonthislist,gotothefollowingwebpage,accessiblefromthelibrarycataloguepage:

http://cat.lib.unimelb.edu.au/search/r

Entereitherthecoursenameornumber,orthenameofyourlecturer.Youwillthenfindalistofanybooks,photocopiedarticlesorothermediaonreserveforyoursubject.

Youonlyhaveaccesstoreserveitemsfortwohours(orsometimes24hrs)souseyourtimewisely.Turntothetableofcontentsandtheindexandidentifythepartsofthebookspecificallyrelevanttoyourquestion.Asyoucannotborrowthebook,itisnecessarytotakenotesasyougo.Makesurethatyoureadthebibliographycloselyasitmaycontainusefulreferencestojournalarticlesandotherbooksyoumaywanttoread.

Ifyouneedtousephotocopies,onlyphotocopythosepagesthatareabsolutelyessentialforyoutoreferbackto.Makesurethatinsteadofjustunderlininglargesections,youannotatethephotocopiedmarginswithyourowncommentsaboutwhatyouhavereadandhowitfitsintoyouressay.Note,forexample,howaparticularpoint,ausefuldefinition,andevidenceorexampleswillfitintoyouressay.

recording a referenceItismostimportanttoremembertotakefullbibliographicdetailsofeverythingyouread.Recordthepagenumberofeachpassagethatyouparaphraseandeachquotationyoutranscribe.EndNote,abibliographicsoftwarepackage,isavailablefreetoallUniversityofMelbournestudents.Itisinvaluableforkeepingrecordsofreferencesandyoucanenteryournotesintotheprogramaswellmakingthem‘searchable’.YoucandownloadEndNotefromthelibrarywebsite.Forfurtherdetailsaboutavailabilityandinstallation,checkthefollowingwebsite:http://www.lib.unimelb.edu.au/endnote

note-takingTakeyournotesinanorganisedway,eitherinanotebookordirectlyontoyourcomputer.Don’teverwriteinalibrarybook:youknowhowannoyingitistocomeacrossamarked-upbookinthelibrary–andhowdifficultitistoread!Nottomentionthefactthatthebookislibraryproperty!

Ifyouarereadingabook,itcanbemoreeffectivetosimplybookmarktherelevantpartofthetextandkeepgoingthantotakenotesasyouread.Attheendofeachchapterassesstherelativedegreeofimportanceofeachmarkedsection,andthentakenotes.Beselective.Excessivenote-takingcanbeasubstituteforthinkingcriticallyaboutwhatyouarereading.Lookforthemainpointsofanarticle.Whatisthewriter’smain


contentionoridea?Whatevidenceorexamplesareusedtosupportthatidea?Whatconclusiondoesthewriterreach?Wheredoyoustandinrelationtothatcontentionorconclusion?

Itisgoodtotakepoint-formnotesinyourownwords.Thisisthebestwayofensuringthatyouunderstandthematerialyouareusing.Italsomeansthatyouhavealreadydonetheworkofparaphrasingtheideasfromtheoriginalsource.

Themoreyouread,themorefocusedyourideaswillbecome.Howdoesyourreadingreinforce,contradict,orsuggestalterationstoyouroriginalbrainstormedideasandplan?Continuetoevaluatethereadingintermsofitsrelevancetoyouressayquestion.Ithelpstostayfocusedbykeepingacopyofthetopicandyourtentativeplanwithyouwhileyouarereading.Asyoudomorereading,youmayneedtochangeordevelopyourplan.

reading criticallyYouneedtoevaluateyourreadingcontinuously.Itisnotsufficientsimplytoreproduce,summarise,reportordescribewhatothershavefound.Justbecausesomethingispublished,ortheauthoriswell-knownorrespected,doesn’tmeanthatitistrue,valid,orunchallengeable.Youneedtotesttheopinionsandfindingsofanauthoragainsttheevidenceprovided,againsttheopinionsandjudgementsofotherwriters,andagainstyourownpointofview.

questions to ask when you read critically:

• Whyhastheauthorcometothisconclusion?• Howconclusiveorvalidistheproposition?• Howsoundisthemethodology?• Howpracticalaretheauthor’sideas?• Whatarethestrengthsandweaknessesoftheauthor’sargument?• Whatculturalorintellectualpreconceptionsandbiasesdoestheauthorseem

tobringtothewriting?Criticallyengagingwiththereadinginvolvesthinkingaboutwhatanauthorissaying,andnotjustlookingatwhatheorsheiswritingasasourceofinformationthatyoucanuseinyouressay.Whileyouwillfrequentlyuseinformationotherauthorsprovideasevidencetosupportapointyouaremaking,youshouldfirstevaluatetheirargumentsandevidenceforyourself.

Whenassessinganauthor’sargumentandsupportingevidence,youdonotneedtorelysolelyonyourownthinking.Authorswhoholdcontrastingpointsofviewonatopicareanexcellentresource.Theyhelpyouevaluateargumentsandevidenceputforwardinaparticulartext.

how to use related texts in your essay:

• Canyoucontrastdifferentpointsofview?• Canyousupportwhatoneauthorsaysbyreferencetoanotherauthor?• Canyourecognisetheassumptionsbeingmadebyanauthor?• Canyouextendwhattheauthorissayingtoitslogicalconclusion?Doesthe

propositionstillmakesense?• Canyouidentifytheimplicationsofanauthor’sproposal?


When to stop reading?Finally,youneedtodevelopasenseforwhenyouhavereadenough.Partofthisisdeterminedsimplybytimeconstraints:organiseyourselfandstartwritingsothatyouhaveacompletedessaybytheduedate(orbefore)!Butyoualsoneedtodeterminewhenyouhaveenoughmaterialtoworkwithinordertodevelopawell-thought-out,well-researchedessay.Youdon’twanttohavesomuchinformationandsomanyreadingstointegratethattheessaybecomesconfusedanddense.Andyoudon’twanttheessaytosimplybeastringofothersourcespatchedtogether!Otherreadingsmerelysupportandhelpsubstantiateyourownideas.Yourideasandthedevelopmentofyouroriginalargumentarestillgoingtobethebulkoftheessay.

Youhavedoneenoughreadingwhenyouhaveformulatedaclearargument,supportedbyrelevantandup-to-dateresearchinyourfield.

7. revising The planOnceyouhavereadseveraltextsrelatedtoyourchosenquestion,it’stimetoreviewyourinitialplan.Whileyoucarriedoutyourresearch,newideasandevidencecontrarytoyourplannedargumentmayhaveemerged.Youneedtoelaborateuponyourplanormodifyyourargumentinthelightofsuchdevelopments.

Mostessayquestionsrequireyoutotakeaposition.Thisisthetimetobeclearaboutwhatyouwanttosay,inlightofwhatyouhavediscoveredsinceyoufirstreadthequestion.

Atthispointyourdirectionandtentativeconclusionsshouldbegettingclearer.Youshouldtrytoclarifyyourthesis(argument),andthepointsyouwishtomaketosupportthisthesis,togetherwithsupportingevidenceandexamples.

Thinkabouttheorderinwhichyouwishtopresentthesepoints.Thiscouldbeinorderofimportance,oryoumayfollowachronology,oryoumightgroupargumentsintocomparisonsandcontrasts.Therearemanypossiblestructuresbutyoudoneedalogical,orderedframework.

Thereisnosinglecorrectanswertoanessayquestion.Thelecturerisinterestedinwhatyouthink,andwhetheryoupresentyourideasinastructuredwaythroughareasonedargument,focusedonthequestion.Yourargumentshouldbewell-supportedbyevidence:includeexamplesorpointsfromyourreading.Plotoutyourrevisedplanascarefullyandcompletelyaspossible–eitheronpaperoroncomputer.Ifyouindicateonyourplanwhereyourdirectquotes,paraphrasesandexamplesfromreadingsfitintoyouroverallscheme(notingthepagenumbersfromtheoriginalsource),thiswillfacilitatetheactualwritingprocess.Youcanworkcloselyfromyourdetailedplantoconstructyouressay;it’susefultokeepyourplanbyyourcomputerforreferencewhileyouwritethefirstdraft.

8. WriTing The firsT drafTManystudentsfindthetransitionfromresearchingtowritingdifficult.Youneedtoresistthetemptationtocontinueresearching,andtobeawareofthevariousmeansofprocrastination(e.g.tidyingyourdesk,orfinger-paintingwithpeanutbutterandhoney,orknittingatamforyourFrenchpoodle).Ifyouhavealreadypreparedadetailedplanandare


awarethatafirstdraftisonlyeveraroughattemptthatrequiresfurtherediting,thenyouwillfinditeasiertobegin.Yourfirstdraftisforyourself.Writefreelyandgetthecontentdown.Don’taimforperfection;youcanimprovethestyle,clarity,expressionandspellinglater.

Studentswhohavedifficultywritingessaysoftenbelievethatitisbecausetheycan’twrite.Itisoftenthecase,though,thatwhatmightseemorfeellike‘grammar’problemsresultsfromnothavingclearideasaboutyourtopic.Whilewritingskillsare,ofcourse,important,thinkingisatthecore.Inotherwords,manyessay-writingproblemsarisebecauseastudent’sthinkingisnotfullyworkedoutinrelationtothequestionortopic.Ifyouarestrugglingatthefirstdraftstage,gobacktoyourplan–doyouneedtoreviseit?Wherearethegaps?Isyourargumentclearandsupported?Areyouclearaboutwhatyouwanttosay?

Thetaskofessaywritingbecomeseasierasyourfamiliarityandexperiencewiththistypeofwritingincreases.Understandingthebasicstructureandelementsofanessay,howtousesourceseffectively,andknowingtheconventionsofacademictoneandstylecertainlyhelpsmakewritingeasier.

essay structure and argumentAllessaysrequireanintroduction,abodyandaconclusion.Theintroductionorientsthereadertoyourtopicandapproach.Itsfunctionistotellthereadertwomainthings:whattheessaywillbeaboutandwhatyouwillbearguing.Thebodydevelopsyourargumentandanalysis.Theconclusionoftheessaybringseverythingtogether,makingtheconclusionsofyourdiscussionclearforthereader.

Youwillhaveplannedyourargumentandideasduringandafterthereadingphase.Ifyouhavedonethiscarefully,youshouldhaveafairlygoodideahowtheessay’sargumentwillbestructured.Itmayhappen,however,thatintheprocessofwritingthefirstdraftyouwillchangeyourmindabouttheorderofpresentationofideas,orevenaboutsomeaspectsofyourargument.Thereforeitmaybenecessarytoreturnlatertotheintroductionandrewriteittoreflectyourchangestothestructureoftheessay.Oryoumayfindthatyouwanttostartwithwritingthebodyoftheessay,orasectionofthebodythatyoufeelmostcertainabout,comfortablewith,orinterestedin.Ifyoutakethisapproach,makesurethattheessayendsupwithalogicaldevelopmentofideas,andagainthattheintroductionreflectsthisoverallstructure.

introducing your essay

Theintroductionservestosetthefocusoftheessayandprovideamapforyourreader.Whetheryouwriteitfirstorlater,youshouldreviewitandmakechangesafteryouhavecompletedthemainbodyandconclusionoftheessay.Theintroductionshouldfocusareader’sattentiononthecentralthemeofanessay.Itshouldclarifyhowyouintendtointerpretorlimitthequestionandgiveaclear,butbrief,overviewofyourargumentandthemainpointssupportingit.Youmayalsoneedtomakeitclearhowyouaredefiningkeytermsinthequestion.

The body of your essay

Asyouwritethebodyofyouressay,youwillprobablyhaveseveralopenbooks,photocopiedarticles,pagesofnotes(ortheirelectronicequivalent,inEndNoteforexample),andyouressayquestionandplaninfrontofyou.Asyoudevelopeachpoint,


referbacktotheessayquestionandthinkabouthowthepointyouaremakingbothrelatestothequestionanddevelopsyourargument.Ifitsrelationisnotclear,explaintherelevanceofyourpoint.

Paragraphs

Paragraphsareanimportantstructuralelementofgoodwriting.Eachparagraphshoulddevelopapointortopic–forthisreasontheyarethefoundationsuponwhichyourargumentisbuilt.Aparagraphshouldincludeatopicsentence,whichstatesthemainideaofthatparagraph.Itisoftenthefirstsentenceintheparagraph.Thetopicsentenceisunderlinedinthefollowingexample:

Hurricanes, which are also called cyclones, exert tremendous power. These violent storms are often a hundred miles in diameter, and their winds can reach velocities of seventy-five miles an hour or more. The strong winds and heavy rainfall that accompany them can completely destroy a small town in a couple of hours. The energy that is released by a hurricane in one day exceeds the total energy consumed by humankind throughout the world in one year.

Atopicsentenceintroducestheparagraph’smainidea.Intheensuingparagraphsyouthenelaborateandprovidesupportingevidenceforthatidea.However,whenyouhaveonlyindicatedtheissuethatistobeaddressedandcanonlydrawthemainpointoutafteryourdiscussionandexamples,thetopicsentencewillbethelastsentenceofaparagraph.Forexample:

Albert Einstein, one of the world’s geniuses, failed his university entrance examinations on his first attempt. William Faulkner, one of America’s noted writers, never finished college because he could not pass his English courses. Sir Winston Churchill, who is considered one of the masters of the English language, had to have special tutoring in English during elementary school. These few examples show that failure in school does not always predict failure in life.

Whetheritcomesfirstorlast,agoodtopicsentencecontainsonlyoneideaandsumsupwhattheparagraphisabout.

Othersentenceselaboratethetopicofyourparagraphbygivingsupportingdetails,facts,examplesandquotations.Everysentenceinaparagraphmustbeclearlyrelatedtothemainidea.Thesentencesinaparagraphshouldalsobelogicallyordered.

Thelengthofaparagraphisdeterminedbyitscomplexityandsignificancetotheoverallargument.Themainfunctionoftheconcludingsentenceofaparagraphistodrawtheinformationtoalogicalconclusionandlinkittothenextparagraph.Eachparagraphshouldbethenextlogicalstepinthedevelopmentofyourargument.Tomakesurethisoccursyouneedtohavethoughtaboutthebestorderforyourideas,andhowyouwilldevelopyourargument.

Coherence Coherencerelatestothesmoothandlogicaldevelopmentofboththemainpointsandtherelateddetailsinapieceofwriting.Coherencecanbeenhancedthroughcarefuluseoftransitionsignals.Transitionsarewordsorphrasesthatshowtheconnectionsbetweenideasorbetweensentences.Thetablebelowgivesexamplesofdifferenttypesoftransitionsandthewordsandphrasesyoucanuseforthem:


Typeoftransition Transitionwordorphrase

Addition additionally,and,also,aswellas,furthermore,inaddition,moreover

Comparison correspondingly,equally,identically,incomparison,inthesameway,likewise,similarly

Exemplifyingandillustrating e.g.,forexample,forinstance,including,markedly,specifically,suchas,toillustrate

Contrast alternatively,but,contrarily,conversely,however,incontrast,instead,ontheonehand…ontheotherhand,yet

Emphasis aboveall,again,certainly,especially,infact,indeed,mostimportantly,ofcourse,particularly

Concession although,eventhough,despite,nevertheless,notwithstanding,whereas,while

Causeoreffect asaresult,because,consequently,dueto,hence,since,subsequently,therefore,thus

Concludingorsummarising allinall,inconclusion,inshort,finally,insummary,toreview,tosumup,onthewhole

Clarificationorrestatement i.e.,inessence,inotherwords,namely,thatis

Concluding your essay

Theconclusionbringstogetherthedifferentstrandsofyourargument.Theclaimsyoumadeinyourintroductoryparagraphhavenowbeenfullydevelopedandsubstantiated,soyoucanreiteratethemmoreassertively.

Aconclusioncanalsoexplore:

• thesignificanceofyourfindings• theimplicationsofyourconclusion• anylimitationsoftheapproachyou’vetaken.Youcanalsomentionfactorsbeyondthescopeofyouressaythatwouldbeofinteresttoinvestigate.Theconclusionshouldnot,however,containanynewmaterial.

Finally,yourconclusionshouldreferbacktothetopicandendonawell-reasonednote.

using sourcesYouressay’sargumentemergesfromanddemonstratesyourcriticalreadingofrelevanttexts.Thepointsyoumaketosupportyourargumentneedtobesupportedwithevidencefromyourreading,andyoursourcesmustbeproperlyreferenced.


Inacademicwritingitisnotenoughtomakeavalidpoint;youmustbackitupwithevidence.Thissupportingevidencecancomefromtheideasofotherauthors,factualinformation,statistics,logicalargumentationandsoon.Thekindofevidenceyouemploydependsonthedisciplineinwhichyouarewriting.

Belowaretwoexamplesfromstudentessaysthatdemonstratehowyoucanusesourcesandreferencedmaterialfromotherauthorstodevelopyourownpoints.

Thefirstexampleexploresthedifferencebetweenfantasyandfairytalesbyofferingacritiqueofoneauthor’sinterpretation.Notethatitdrawsontheworkofasecondauthortodevelopanalternativedefinition.Bothdirectquotationandparaphrasingareused;thisoffersdetailwithoutundulyslowingthepaceoftheessay.

When Cooper describes fantasy as ‘a metaphor through which we discover ourselves’ (1999, p.23), she implicitly identifies her work within the field of fairy tales where ‘internal processes are externalized and become comprehensible as represented by the figures of the story and its events’ (Roberts, 2000, p. 34). Indeed Cooper views fantasy as an expression of both dreams and the unconscious, especially when using medieval artefacts as the cipher through which these processes can be understood (1999, p. 44). Cooper appears to see fairy tales and fantasy as synonymous, and yet other authors suggest that fairy tales are very different in origin and evolution from works of fantasy. According to Roberts, fairy tales and folk tales are the product of oral cultures and their psychology is unconsciously imbedded in the story as it has been transmitted and shaped over numerous retellings (2000, p. 16). Fantasy writing, on the other hand, is more often than not a conscious construction of psychological motifs—a conscious reproduction of unconscious impulses that evolve naturally in the fairy tale (Roberts, 2000, p. 18).

ThesecondexampleincludesmaterialfromvarioussourcestoexplainanEducationDepartmentstrategy.Theauthorhereincorporatesintoherownsentencesdefinitionsdevelopedbyotherwriters:

Acknowledging that a ‘whole-school approach’ (Hill & Crevola, 1997) is required if middle years reform is to succeed, the Education Department is not instructing schools to adopt middle years reform. Instead, the strategy’s aims are: ‘To assist individual schools and clusters of schools to review their current practices and develop a strategic approach to effective change that leads to improved learning outcomes and increased opportunities for students in Years 5-9’ (1999, p. 9).In other words, if we employ Owen’s definition of policy as ‘a strategy undertaken to solve or ameliorate some problem’ (2001, p. 66), the state government policy response to the middle years problem has been primarily to support and entice individual schools to reform themselves.

Notehowtheinterpretationofferedinthelastsentenceofthisparagraphissupportedbytheprecedingdiscussionthatsetslimitsonthetopic(‘theEducationDepartmentisnot…’)anddefineskeyterms(‘ifweemployOwen’sdefinitionofpolicyas…’).Notetoothatthecitationsforboththedirectquotesandparaphrases


(basedontheAPA5threferencestyle)includethepagenumberfromtheoriginaltext.Thisgivesreaderstheinformationtheyneedtolocateandconsultthereferencedsourcedirectlyiftheywish.

Usequotationsthatdirectlysupportyourargumentandhavesomethingcriticaltosay.Itisbesttoavoidlongquotations(say,overfourlinesoftext).Itisbettertodemonstratethatyouunderstandwhattheauthorissayingthroughparaphrasingandsummarising.Yourreaderisinterestedinreadingyourargument,yourinterpretationandyouranalysis.

quotations should be used…

• whenyoucan’tfindappropriatesynonymstoparaphrasetheoriginalandareconcernedthatusingotherwordsmaydistortthemeaningoftheoriginal

• whentheoriginalwordingisparticularlymemorable,witty,succinctorappropriate

• whenyouareusingevidencefromaprimarysourceassupportingevidenceforthepointyouaremaking.

Lecturenotesarenotnormallyconsideredappropriatereferencematerial.Yournotesareyourrecordofwhatyouthinkyouheard.Contactyourlecturerifyouwanttolocateaparticularreference.

Usingotherauthors’writingstoprovidesupportingevidenceortorefutepointsofviewasyoudevelopyourargumentisacrucialacademicskill.Itdoes,however,taketimeandpracticetodevelop.Oneofthebestwaystodevelopyourownabilityinthisareaistopayattentiontohowthewritersyouarereadingforresearchusetheirsources.

a note on plagiarism

Plagiarismoccurswhenyouusesomeoneelse’swords or ideasinyourworkwithoutacknowledgingthesource.Evenifyoudonotquotedirectly,alwaysreferencethesourceofideasyouuseinyourwork.Ifyouhaveonlygenerallyreferredtoanotherwriter’sideasorconcepts,youshouldstillacknowledgethis.Whenyouuseadirectquote,copyitexactly(thatmightincludetypographicalerrorsorothermistakes!),acknowledgeitfullywithanin-textcitationandincludethepagenumberthequotecomesfrom.

academic styleAcademicwritingusesadistinctstyleandtone.Itisformal,preciseand–owingtothenatureofthetopicsbeingdiscussed–oftentechnicalandcomplex.Thecomplexityofacademicinquirydoesnotmeanthatacademicwritingneedstosoundpompousorbedifficulttoread.Itdoes,however,needtobeasobjective,precise,andconciseaspossible.

Clarity

Anecessaryfeatureofacademiclanguageisclarity.Whenwritinguniversityessays,avoidusingslang–forexample‘kids’insteadof‘children’–andemotionally-chargedwords–forexample‘outrageous’,‘ridiculous’,‘hideous’.Whileyoumayknowwhatyoumeanbythesewords,yourreadermaynot.Impreciselanguageisunlikelytoaddtoyourreader’sunderstandingofthetopicwhichshouldbeyourprimarygoal.


formality

Afamiliarorchattytoneshouldbeavoidedaswell.Comparethetwopassagesbelow.Thefirstiswritteninaninformalstylewhilethesecondismoreacademic.Theunderlinedphrasesarecommentedonbelow.

When you look at the Australian economy between 1929 and 1985, you find lots of differences. Before 1939, many workers didn’t have jobs between 1930 and 1939. After 1945, about 2 in 100 male workers weren’t in jobs. Getting a job was very easy for every healthy worker, even for women. But it’s all different now in the 1990s and it’s very hard to get a job if you’re young and have no job experience, and especially if you’re a girl.

• ‘youlook’:arewe‘looking’attheAustralianeconomyoranalysingit?Also,whoisthe‘you’doingthe‘looking’?

• ‘lots’:thisisnotaprecisemodifier• ‘didn’t’:contractionsarenotgenerallyusedinacademicwriting• ‘about2in100’:thisisambiguous:werethereonly100maleworkers?Ordoesthe

authormeantwoinevery100workers?Also,writeoutnumbersfromonetonine.• ‘ajob’:thistermisverybroadandcanincludepaidemploymentaswellasleisure

occupations.Itisnotclearwhatmeaningtheauthorherehadinmind.• ‘veryeasy’:again,thiscouldbeinterpretedinarangeofways• ‘it’salldifferentnow’:whatisdifferent?Inwhatways?Thisneedstobemoreprecise.• ‘it’sveryhard’:again,whatdoesthismeanexactly?• ‘nojobexperience’:seenoteon‘job’,above• thelastsentence,startingwith‘But…”isacompoundsentencewhichusesthe

conjunction‘and’topiecetogethermorethanonecompletesentence:itshouldbebrokenintotwosentencesat‘It’sveryhard…’

Notehowmanyofthesedifficultiesofinterpretationareresolvedwhenamoreformalandprecisestyleofwritingisadopted:

When reviewing the Australian economy in the period 1929–1985, several differences become apparent. In the pre-War period a considerable proportion of the workforce experienced unemployment. It is claimed that up to 30% of male trade union members were unemployed between 1930 and 1939. In the post-War period the male unemployment rate was approximately 2%. Full employment was virtually the case, even for female members of the workforce. However, the situation in the 1980s has changed and unemployment rates have increased. It is extremely difficult for young inexperienced workers in general, and for young inexperienced female workers in particular, to obtain work.

(Adaptedfrom:McEvedy,M.R.,Packham,G.&Smith,P.(1985).WritingAssignments.Melbourne:Nelson).

Inshort,academicwritingaimstobeclear,concise,unambiguousandaccurate.Itscharacteristicsinclude:objectivity,nominalisationandtechnicalterminology.

objectivity

Sincetheemphasisofacademicwritingisonintellectualideasandfactualinformationratherthanonemotionsorindividualexperiences,youshouldavoidexpressingpersonal


opinionsarisingoutofintuition,feeling,prejudiceoryourownexperience.Ifyouareaskedtowriteareflectiveessay,however,thiswillincludeyourpersonalexperience.

Use of passive voice

Academicwritingtraditionallyusesthepassivevoicesothattheuseofpronounsisminimised.Forexample:

Research was conducted into the breeding habits of marsupials in the north-west region of Victoria.

Thepassiveconstructionofthissentence(‘wasconducted’)workstofocusthereader’sattentiononthetopicratherthantheresearcher.(Itistakenforgrantedthattheauthorwastheonedoingthisresearch.)Ifthissentenceisre-writteninanactivevoice,notehowthe‘I’,ratherthantheresearchtopic,becomesthesubjectofthesentence:

I conducted research into the breeding habits of marsupials in the north-west region of Victoria.

Thereis,however,nohard-and-fastrulethatsaysyoucanneverusetheactivevoiceinacademicwriting.Instead,yourchoiceofactiveorpassivevoiceshouldbedeterminedbythefocusofyoursentence,andbytheconventionsofyourdiscipline.Ifindoubt,takeyourcuefromyourresearchreadingsoraskyourtutororlecturerwhattheconventionsareforyourdiscipline.

Making tentative statements (hedging)

Inacademicwritingitiscommontomaketentativeorqualifiedstatementsratherthanstrongclaims.Thereareanumberofreasonswhyyoumightwanttobecautiousaboutbeingtoodirectoroverlyconfidentinyouropinions.Forone,youdon’twanttosounddogmatic.Sinceacademicwritingaimstobeobjectiveandrational,lettheevidencespeakforitself,andleaveituptothereadertodecidewhetheryourargumentisconclusive.Anotherreasonforhedgingyourclaimscouldbethat–evenifyouhavealotofevidenceinsupportofyourargument–youwanttodemonstrateyourawarenessthatotherinterpretationsorconclusionsareplausibleorthatfutureresearchmightrefuteyourthesis.

Youcanmaketentativestatementsusingmodals(suchascan/could, may/might),verbs(appear to, indicate that, seem to, suggest that),adverbs(almost, apparently, frequently, maybe, mostly, perhaps, possibly, probably)andadjectives(certain, likely, main, most, possible, probable, unlikely).

Althoughdouble-negatives(e.g.The results are not inconclusive)canhaveasimilarfunction,theyareusuallyavoidedinacademicwriting.

Howassertiveyouwanttosoundwillrelatetotheevidenceyouprovideandmightdependonyourdiscipline.Payattentiontotheuseofqualifierswhenyoudoyourresearchandthinkabouthowstrongyouwantyourclaimstobewhilewriting.

nominalisation

Anothercommonfeatureofacademicwritingisnominalisation,wherebyactions/processes(verbs)becomethings(nouns).Thispracticeenablesmoreinformationtobecompactedintoasinglesentence.Take,forexample,thefollowingsentences:

Germany invaded Poland in 1939. This was the immediate cause of the outbreak of the Second World War.


Thesesentencescanbecondensedintoasinglesentencebynominalisingtheaction(‘invaded’)describedinthefirstsentence:

Germany’s 1939 invasion of Poland was the immediate cause of the outbreak of the Second World War.

Notethattheentirefirstsentencebecomesasinglenoungroup–‘Germany’s1939invasionofPoland’.Notonlydoesthisnominalisationenabletheideatobecondensedtoasinglesentence,italsohelpstofocusthereader’sattentiononthemainclaimorissue:thecontentionthattheinvasionwastheimmediatecauseofthewar.

discipline-specific vocabulary

Anotherfeatureofacademiclanguageistheuseofabstractandtechnicalterms.Itisimportantthatyoubecomeawareofthecommontermsandspecificlanguagepracticesofyourdiscipline.Compileaglossaryoftermsanddefinitionsthatyoucomeacrossinthecourseofyourstudy:Observethelanguageusedbyyourlecturersandtutors.Makenoteofnewvocabularyyouencounterinyourreadings,andmakesureyouunderstandit!Aspecialistdictionaryinyoursubjectcanalsobeuseful.Inyouressaysyouwillbeexpectedtodemonstrateyourunderstandingofdiscipline-specificlanguageandtechnicalterms.

9. ediTingOnceyouhavewrittenafirstdraft,itisgoodtohaveabreaksothatyoucandistanceyourselffromwhatyouhavewritten.Ifyoucan,leaveitforadayortwobeforereturningtoit.Afterabreakyouwillbeabletore-readwhatyouhavewrittenwithafreshandmoreobjectiveperspective.Thiswayyouwillbebetterabletodiscoveranyinconsistenciesinlogicorargument,weakvocabularyorgrammaticalmistakes.Youmayevenfindthatyouhavethoughtofsomenewideatoincorporate.

Itisimportanttoallowtimeforediting.Youneedtoeditforstructureandargument;expression,grammarandspelling;andcorrectreferencing.

editing for structure and argumentWhenreadingthroughyourfirstdraftconsiderthefollowing:

introduction

• Doesyourintroductiontellthereaderhowyouunderstandthetopic,e.g.doesitgivebackgroundorcontextualinformation?

• Arekeytermsdefinedifnecessary?• Doesitclearlypreviewyourargument?• Doesitprovidethereaderwithamapofyouressay?

Body

• Doeseachparagraphhaveoneandonlyonemainidea?• Doallthesentencesineachparagraphcontributetothatmainidea?• Dothepointsyouaremakingfollowlogically?• Istheconnectionbetweenoneparagraphandanotherclear?• Isyourargumentconsistent?• Isanyonesectiontoolongorrepetitious?


Conclusion

• Doestheconclusionbringthestrandsoftheargumenttogether?• Doesitleavethereaderinnodoubtaboutyourpositioninrelationtothequestion?

Asyouedit,imaginesomeoneelsereadingyouressay.Ateverystep,youneedtotellthereaderexactlywhatyouaredoing.Iftheyhavetostopandthink,‘Howdoesthispointrelatetothequestion?’or‘Whatisthepointbeingmadehere?’thenyouhavenotdoneyourjobofcommunicatingclearlytothereader.

Aftereditingforstructure,youshouldbehappywithyourargumentandthewayyouhavedevelopedandsupporteditintheessay.Younowneedtoeditforexpressionandspelling.

editing for expression, grammar and spellingYouneedtomakesurethatyourgrammar,punctuationandspellingarecorrect.Areyoursentencescomplete,clearandconcise?Doyoursentencesreadeasilyandaretheywithoutambiguities?Reviewyourworkatthispointforunnecessaryrepetitionandoveruseofanywordsorphrases.

It’salsoimportantatthisstagetocheckallofyourpronouns:he, she, it, they, them, this, that, these, those, who, whichetc.Isitclearwhatyourpronounsarereferringto?Itcansometimeshelptoreadyourworkaloudoraskafriendtoreaditforyou.

referencingMostdepartmentsrequireaspecificreferencingstyle(APAandHarvardaretwocommonstyles).Ifyourdepartmentdoesnothaveastyleguideforreferencingandyoursubjectreaderortheassignmentsheetdoesn’tnominateareferencingstyle,findoutthenameofthestylegenerallypreferredbythedepartmentoraskyourlecturerwhichstyleyoushoulduse.Findaprintedorelectronicstyleguideandtakesometimetostudyit.Makesureyouhaveappliedthestyleconsistentlyandaccurately(downtothesmallestdetail!)toeachreferenceinyouressay.Rememberalsotocreateareferencelistorbibliographywhichconformstoyourdepartment’sreferencingstylerequirements.IfyouuseEndNotetogenerateyourcitationsandreferencelist,thistaskwillbegreatlysimplified.

Onceyouhaveeditedforstructure,argument,expression,grammar,spelling,andcheckedreferencing,youressayisreadyforsubmission.

10. suBmiTTingYouwillneedtofindoutfromyourdepartmentorfacultyhowtosubmittheessay.Somedepartmentsrequireonlinesubmission,eitherthroughtheLMSorothermeans;othersmayrequireyoutodownloadandprintanofficialcoversheet,whichyouwouldthenattachtothefrontofahardcopyofyouressaybeforesubmittingittothenominatedplace.Normallyyouareaskedtopresentahardcopy(withoutafolder)stapledintheleft-handcorner.CheckyourfacultyorsubjectessaywritingguideorLMSsiteonthecorrectprocedureforsubmissions.

Itisessentialthatyoumakeahard-and/orsoft-copybackupofyouressaybeforesubmittingit!

Whenyougetyouressayback,lookoverthefeedbackfromtheassessor.Usethistoimproveanddevelopyouressaywritingskills.Ifyouhavefurtherquestionsaboutessaywriting,considermakingtimetotakeoneoftheASU’swritingworkshops,enrolinan


onlinemoderatedacademicwritingcourseinAIRport(https://airport.unimelb.edu.au/),ormakeanappointmentwiththeASUorequivalentlearningsupportserviceinyourfacultytodiscussthedraftofyournextessay.

Masteringtheskillsofwritingagoodacademicessaytakestime,butfollowingthestepsintheprocessoutlinedhereshouldsetyouontheway!

11. resourCesfurther readingBailey,S.(2006).Academic writing: a handbook for international students(2nded.).NewYork:Routledge.

Behrens,L.,Beedles,B.,&Rosen,L.J.(2005).A sequence for academic writing(2nded.).NewYork:Pearson/Longman.

Behrens,L.,&Rosen,L.J.(2005).Writing and reading across the curriculum(9thed.).NewYork:Pearson/Longman.

Davis,J.,&Liss,R.(2006).Effective academic writing 3, The essay.Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress.

Johnson,A.P.(2003).A short guide to academic writing.Lanham,MD:UniversityPressofAmerica.

McMeniman,L.(1999).From inquiry to argument.NeedhamHeights,Mass:AllynandBacon.

Savage,A.,&Shafiei,M.(2006).Effective academic writing.1,Theparagraph.NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress.

Shiach,D.(2007).How to write essays: a step-by-step guide for all levels, with sample essays.Oxford:HowToBooks.

Williams,J.M.(2000).Style: ten lessons in clarity and grace(6thed.).NewYork:Longman.

useful Websites

AcademicSkillsUnitinformationandpublicationson

• writing:http://www.services.unimelb.edu.au/asu/writing

• readingandresearch:http://www.services.unimelb.edu.au/asu/reading

• style:http://www.services.unimelb.edu.au/asu/language/style

Papers:Expectations,Guidelines,Advice,andGrading

bytwoEnglishprofessorsfromtheUniversityofToronto,Canada

http://www.utm.utoronto.ca/~dwhite/papers.htm

WritingLab

fromPurdueUniversity

http://owl.english.purdue.edu/writinglab/


TheElementsofStyle

byWilliamStrunk

http://www.bartleby.com/141/

Writer’sHandbook

fromTheWritingCenterattheUniversityofWisconsin-Madison,USA

http://www.wisc.edu/writing/Handbook/index.html

WritingaResearchPaper

http://larae.net/write/paper.html

WritingResources

fromtheWritingCenterattheUniversityofMichigan,USA

http://www.lsa.umich.edu/sweetland/studentservices/writingresourcesreferences

TenCommandmentsofWriting

byhistorianHughTrevor-Roper

http://blogs.ubc.ca/rmst221/files/2010/01/10comms-dacre.pdf

AcAdemic skills unit

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For further information refer to: www.unimelb.edu.au/Statutes/

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TertiaryEssay Writing

academic skills unit tertiary essay writing · · 2011-07-14when dealing with personal or health...

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