accelerando: belgrade journal of music and dance …€¦ · launched accelerando: belgrade journal...

ACCELERANDO:ACCELERANDO: BELGRADE JOURNAL OF MUSIC AND DANCEBELGRADE JOURNAL OF MUSIC AND DANCE

FEBRUARY 2019.FEBRUARY 2019.

ISSUE 4ISSUE 4

ISSN: 2466-3913 (ONLINE)ISSN: 2466-3913 (ONLINE)

Editor-in-ChiefEditor-in-ChiefMarijan Maja, M. Sc. (Serbia), President and Art Director of the Belgrade Center for Music and Dance. A member of CID-UNESCO 2016 ([email protected]).

Co-Editor-in-ChiefCo-Editor-in-ChiefPrnjat Aleksandar, PhD (Serbia), Professor of Philosophy of Arts, Ethics, Cultural Studies, Political Theory, Business Ethics, Ethics in Sport at Alfa BK University, Belgrade; Vice Rector for International Affairs, Alfa BK University, Belgrade ([email protected]; [email protected]).

Managing EditorsManaging EditorsLiang Deng, DMA (China), Art Faculty, Southwest University for Nationalities, Chengdu, Sichuan,China ([email protected])Peters Joseph, Dr. (Singapore), Integrated Music Education Specialist, Mahasarakham University; Consultant Musicologist, Sonic Asia Singapore; ICTM Singapore Liaison Officer; Founding Musical Director, Singapore Tremolo Strings and National University of Singapore Rondalla. ([email protected])

Editors:Editors:Dr. Abiodun Femi (Nigeria)Dr. Buksikova Olga B. (Russia)PhD D'Amico Leonardo (Italy) Dr. Delorko Ratko (Germany)PhD Galikowska Gajewska Anna (Poland)PhD Kosik Viktor Ivanovič (Russia)PhD Markovic Vedrana (Montenegro)Ph.D. Mosusova Nadezda (Serbia)Dra. Muntanyola-Saura Dafne (Spain)Dr. Palmer Fatimah M. (Nigeria)DMA Quick Matthew Glenn (China)Dr. Rana Sayeem (Bangladesh)Dr. Silkin Petr (Russia)PhD Sokovikova Natalia Viktorovna (Russia)PhD Talam Jasmina (Bosnia and Herzegovina)PhD Zajedova Iivi (Estonia)

EDITOR’S NOTE

Belgrade Centre for Music and Dance (BCMD) is a founder and publisher ofAccelerando: BelgradeJournal of Music and Dance. BCMD is founded to establish cooperation and communicationbetween local artistic and scholarly scene and the world’s. In order to achieve that goal BCMDlaunched Accelerando: Belgrade Journal of Music and Dance as an open access, double-peer-reviewed online journal. This journal allows Serbian scholars, artists, and educators to havepermanent scholarly communication and interchanging of knowledge and information with theworld’s renown artists, scholars, schools and universities.

Since knowledge is fluid and dynamic in nature, and transmitted through discourse, it isimportant for those who have a stake in advancing the knowledge base to participate in thediscourse. Writing, as a form of communication, and publishing are ways of participating in thediscourse. Research article is the end product of an investigation that has focused on a specific setof research questions. Research must be carefully planned, conceptually grounded, andmethodologically sound, and must provide answers or possible answers and implications for furtherinvestigations.

Accordingly, the effort of editorial board members and reviewers of Accelerando: BJMD isdedicated to help authors reach the goal and craft the articles in a way that successfully, effectivelyand persuasively communicates the importance of the study. Through this mutual effort, work, andcooperation we hope that our journal promote values, expanding the base of knowledge andcontribute to the discourse.

With best regards,Maja Marijan, Editor in Chief

CONTENTCONTENT

MUSIC AND SOCIETYMUSIC AND SOCIETY

#1 Maja Marijan#1 Maja MarijanSociokulturološki kontekst muzike (Musical Framework : A sociocultural approach) [in Serbian]Sociokulturološki kontekst muzike (Musical Framework : A sociocultural approach) [in Serbian]

#2 Snežana Cvijanović#2 Snežana CvijanovićPopularisanje muzike kroz filmski medij: Studija slučaja Popularisanje muzike kroz filmski medij: Studija slučaja MarliMarli (Case Study: Popularizing Music On (Case Study: Popularizing Music OnFilm - Marley Documentary) [in Serbian]Film - Marley Documentary) [in Serbian]

#3 Femi Abiodun#3 Femi AbiodunChoir Management in Nigerian Schools: Consequences of Pedagogical Methods Choir Management in Nigerian Schools: Consequences of Pedagogical Methods

MUSIC AND DANCE PEDAGOGYMUSIC AND DANCE PEDAGOGY

#4 Anna Galikowska-Gajewska#4 Anna Galikowska-GajewskaMovement Interpretation of Music in Eurhythmics: Approach to Movement Interpretation in Music Movement Interpretation of Music in Eurhythmics: Approach to Movement Interpretation in Music Education in PolandEducation in Poland

#5 Anna Galikowska-Gajewska#5 Anna Galikowska-GajewskaInterpretacje ruchowe muzyki w metodzie Rytmiki Emila Jaques-Dalcroze’a (Interpretation of Interpretacje ruchowe muzyki w metodzie Rytmiki Emila Jaques-Dalcroze’a (Interpretation of Motorial Music in the Rhythmic Method of Emil Jaques-Dalcroze) [in Polish]Motorial Music in the Rhythmic Method of Emil Jaques-Dalcroze) [in Polish]

MEDICAL ETHNOMUSICOLOGYMEDICAL ETHNOMUSICOLOGY

#6 Olusegun Stephen Titus and Olufemi Elijah Oyetola#6 Olusegun Stephen Titus and Olufemi Elijah OyetolaFunction and Structure of Yoruba Songs on Dental Health Among the Nursing Mothers in Function and Structure of Yoruba Songs on Dental Health Among the Nursing Mothers in Southwestern NigeriaSouthwestern Nigeria

Accelerando: Belgrade Journal of Music and Dance Issue 4, February 2019

ISSN: 2466-3913 (online)

Sociokulturološki kontekst muzikeSociokulturološki kontekst muzike

Musical Framework: A sociocultural approachMusical Framework: A sociocultural approach

Maja MarijanBCMD, Serbia

[email protected]

Citation: Marijan, M. 2019. "Sociokulturološki kontekst muzike." Accelerando: Belgrade Journal of Music andDance 4:1.

Abstract In this article music is regarded as one of the means of communication. The authorapproaches to music as a medium through which humans develop their skills, views, personalpreferences, physical and mental abilities, as well as social skills. In this context, the author istrying to define the sociocultural aspects of music and music education. Accordingly, thereare three sociocultural factors of music recognized as three ways how music is incorporatedand distributed through society, building a sociocultural framework. This framework includesmusical identity, music education, and public performance. Development of musical identity,as the first phenomenon, is the integral part of every person. It has been developed sinceearly childhood, and has influence on personal views, ways of clothing, vocabulary, circle offriends, musical tastes. It has been developed independently through musical knowledge andskills, where mass media have the important role in shaping the identity, and particularlymusical identity. In this sense, music identity is making up by the society and an environmentin which the subject lives. However, the true cultivation of musical tastes and identity ispossible only through music education and musical knowledge. Music schools and educativemethodologies, as the second sociocultural phenomena through which the music isintroduced into the society, have to train musical tastes, psycho-physiological skills andabilities, develop aesthetic theories, incorporate innovative methods in performing music, andintroduce the technology into curriculum as the supportive remedy in the learning processand performing music. Furthermore, the state and government have to take a more active rolein providing optimal and inspiring environment to schools, teachers and students in the fieldof music education. Finally, music performance, considered as sociocultural event, has to beintegral part of the music pedagogy. Since the performance of classical music encounteredthe new age of technology and mass media, it has been suggested that a creative approachand an exploration of audio-visual integration have to be introduced into the concept of musicperformance. Therefore, the concept of audio-visual experience must be considered as anintegrated part of music education and performance. In conclusion, musical experience andmusical training have many therapeutic benefits as well as influence on cognitive,psychological, and physical abilities. Music develops social skills and tastes, helping aperson’s integration with society, as well as building one’s identity. As music has enormousinfluence on the society, it has to be bared in mind that taming good musical tastes throughmedia, developing musical skills through structured and integrated music education, andpromotion of rich and inspiring public performances will eventually build healthy andbeneficial sociocultural framework. Keywords: music education, performance, music identity, sociocultural framework, audio-visual integration

1

UDC:78.01 78:316.7COBISS.SR-ID 274383372

Received:May 23, 2018Reviewed:Jun 8, 2018Accepted:July 03, 2018

https://accelerandobjmd.weebly.com/issue4/musical-framework-a-sociocultural-approach



Maja MarijanSociokulturološki kontekst muzike

_____________________________________________

Uvod

Šta je muzika? Definicija muzike varira, zavisno od kulture i socijalnog konteksta. Muzika se

klasifikuje i objašnjava u okviru socio-kulturološkog konteksta. Tako na primer, muzika u

određenim društvima kao što su primitivne zajednice, ima magijsko značenje i vezana je za

određene ciklusne celine u okviru zajednice. Nasuprot tome, muzika u zapadnom sistemu

vrednosti spada u kategoriju umetnosti što ima višestruko značenje. U prvom redu, ona je

definisana kao umetničko delo koje je odraz stavaralčke volje, intuicije i tehničke sposobnosti

stvaraoca, t.j. kompozitora. Ovako ona, kao delo ili umetnička struktura, postoji u vizuelnom

obliku: kao notni zapis. S druge strane, ona poseduje i auditivnu komponentu koja se

odražava kroz izvođenje ili auditivnu interpertaciju notnog zapisa koja omogućava doživljaj

muzike. Na posletku, muzika kao umetnost je teorijski i estetski definisana u socioliškom

okruženju, i kao takva dobija obrazovni karakter i ulazi u edukativni sistem.

Međutim, u postmoderni, multidisciplinarni i pluralistički pristup u teoriji i

istraživanjima je neophodan (Hargreaves and North 1997; MacDonald et al. 2002).

Muzikolog Žan Žak Natije je definisao relativistički, postmodernistički pristup. Po njemu,

granica između buke i muzike je kulturološki definisana, što znači da čak i u jednom istom

društvu ta granica ne stoji na istom mestu, jer retko da postoji opšta saglasnost, odnosno

konsenzus. Natije zaključuje da ne postoji jedinstveni, kulturološki univerzalni koncept kojim

bi se muzika definisala (Nattiez 1990, 48, 55). U postmodernističko doba, društveno

okruženje počinje muziku da koristi "poput odeće, kao simbol širokog spektra životnih

stilova, ili identiteta" (Martin 1995, 21). Muzikom se prenose značenja, poruke i iskustva koja

se ne mogu preneti rečima, a prenose se subjektu koji je politički entitet (zoon politikon

[subjekt jednog društva i njegovog sistema vrednosti]), i samosvojan entitet (ličnost,

pojedinac). Kakav će se subjekt oblikovati pod uticajem tih poruka i značenja od važnosti je

za društvo u celini (Danaher et al. 2000).

Međutim, iako je muzika prisutna u svim kategorijama vizuelnih elektronskih formi:

muzički spotovi, reklame, filmovi, TV kviz, TV show, mora se imati u vidu da u određenim

društvima može preovladati određeni tip formi, pa tako suziti krug muzičkog ukusa i na taj

način formirati određene ideološke predstave kod pojedinaca, što može poslužiti vladajućim

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grupama da nametnu određene ideološke poruke i sistem vrednosti. Da bi subjekti u jednom

društvu mogli da rasuđuju i kritički prilaze muzičkom ukusu koji se namaće putem medija, po

autorovom mišljenju, potrebno je imati kvalitetan i nepristrasno organizovan muzički

edukativni sistem koji će se zasnivati na racionalnim, klasičnim temeljima obrazovanja uz

korišćenje savremenih tehnoloških dostignuća. Međutim, ovde se javlja problematika odnosa

sociološkog okruženja, zajednice i muzičkog obrazovanja. U ovom radu autor će pokušati da

definiše kako se muzika ispoljava u kontekstu sociološko-kulturološkog okruženja, i kako

utiče na muzički i psihofizički razvoj pojedinca.

Formiranje muzičkog identiteta u socio-kulturološkom okruženju

Muzika, u društvenom okruženju, je je jedno od najznačajnijih sredstava komunikacije. Prvi

kontakt sa muzikom čovek stiče iz sopstvenog okruženja. Muzika utiče i formira emocije i

raspoloženje (Juslin and Sloboda 2001; Trevarthen 2002), ličnu identifikaciju, raspoznavanje i

shvatanje sveta oko nas, kao i na razvoj muzičkog identiteta. Muzički ukus, kao jedan od

aspekata muzičkog identiteta pojedinca, određuje izbor prijatelja, izbor odeće, određuje

njegovo političko opredeljenje, izbor jezika odnosno žanr kojim se služi u govoru, i drugo

(Yillman and Gan 1997; Tarrant et al. 2002; DeNora 2000).

Svaki pojedinac ima mnogo identiteta, budući da obavlja različite uloge tokom svog

života (dete, roditelj, prijatelj, kolega, profesor, muzičar, itd.). Antoni Gidens tvrdi da je

identitet u savremenom društvu, najvažnije pitanje na koje čovek mora da da odgovor

(Giddens 1991). U tradicionalnim društvima sa tradicionalnim vrednostima, izbor i odluke

koje je mlad čovek morao da donosi već su bile unapred utvrđene i bilo ih je lakše donositi,

odnosno one su već bile donete i utvrđene od strane društva. Sada se pred mladim čovekom

otvaraju nebrojene mogućnosti i on je taj koji mora da izvrši izbor i donese odluku, t.j.

formiranje identiteta je prepušteno odgovornosti pojedinca (Giddens 1991, 70).

Biti muzičar ne znači posedovati samo tehničke sposobnosti i muzičko znanje, već je

to sociološki i kulturološki definisan koncept. Profesionalni muzičari konstruišu svoj identitet

u odnosu na svoje muzičko angažovanje, i u odnosu na šire sociološko i kulturološko

okruženje (Green 1997, 2002; Lamont 2002; O'Neill 1997a, 2002; Dibben 2002; McClary

1991; Welch 2006). Mnogi nemuzički faktori utiču na to da li će neko sebe smatrati

muzikalnim ili ne. To pre svega zavisi od društvenog okruženja, poređenja sa drugim

pojedincima u tom okruženju, ličnog stava, kao i kritike sredine prema pojedincu. Kod

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adolescenata muzika ima fundamentalnu ulogu u stvaranju i razvijanju identiteta (Yillman and

Gan 1997; Roe 1999; Tarrant et al. 2002; MacDonald and Miell 2000; Applegate and Potter

2002; Carlton 2006).

Međutim, u kontekstu muzičkog obrazovanja, razvoj muzičkog identiteta teče pre

svega u okviru sociokulturološkog okruženja, odnosno škole. U nastavi muzike, kao i pri

planiranju pedagoške aktivnosti treba voditi računa o tome koliko je ta aktivnost u funkciji

konstruisanja i razvoja muzičkog identiteta učenika. Kod nemuzičara, muzički idenitet se

formira na osnovu toga koji muzički žanrovi su zastupljeni u njegovom okruženju, i koje

žanrove njegova sredina smatra privlačnom, pa time utiče na njegov izbor i ukus. Takav

muzički identitet se formira, po autorovom mišljenju, pod pritiskom sredine, dok kroz učenje

muzike, (pojedinac se kultiviše) kroz muzičko obrazovanje, pojedinac razvija kritički sud o

muzičkim ukusima sredine, i razvija sopstveni muzički identitet kroz interakciju sa školom,

učenjem muzike, nastavnim metodama, i javnim nastupima.

U tesnom odnosu sa muzičkim identitetom je problem motivacije. Muzički identitet

stoji u proporcionalnom odnosu prema motivaciji, odnosno, kako su istraživanja pokazala, u

tesnom odnosu sa samoprocenom i samopouzdanjem studenata muzike, te utiče značajno na

njihov nivo postignuća i uspeh. I obratno, viši nivo postignuća ima pozitivno dejstvo na

motivaciju i na razvoj muzičkog identiteta (MacDonald et al. 2002; Roe 1999). Takođe,

pozitivni feedback koji dete dobija od sebi bliskih osoba, pre svega roditelja (Borthwick and

Davidson 2002), ali i lica iz školskog okruženja, igraće važnu ulogu u razvoju njegovog

identiteta, a to će uticati pozitivno na uspeh i razvoj samopouzdanja i vice versa (Eccles et al.

1983).

Škola kao sociopsihološko okruženje

Pedagogija obuhvata odnos profesor-učenik-roditelj koji se odvija u sociopsihološkom

okruženju (škola) i šire u društvu/državi. Uspeh učenika ne zavisi samo od urođenih

sposobnosti i stečenih navika, već i od kvaliteta nastavnih metodologija, sposobnosti i

kvaliteta samog nastavnika, odnosa društva prema školi kao obrazovnoj ustanovi.

Problematika uloge države u muzičkom obrazovanju je od velikog značaja za razvoj

pojedinca, ali i za kvalitet muzičkog obrazovanja. Nastavni planovi i programi ne bi trebalo

da se organizuju iz vladajućih krugova, već to treba prepustiti eminentnim stručnjacima, i

profesorima sa ciljem razvoja metoda, praćenje razvoja muzičkog obrazovanja u zemlji i

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inostranstvu, kao i praćenje naučnih istraživanja vezanih za muziku i muzičko obrazovanje.

Uloga države, pre svega treba da se svede na materijalni stepen strukture muzičkog

obrazovanja, a to je obezbeđivanje stipendija, opremanje ustanova, vođenje računa o kvalitetu

i očuvanju instrumenata, obezbeđivanje dovoljnog broj prostorija za rad i vežbanje, kao i

sredstva za usavršavanje nastavnog osoblja. Takođe, država treba da ima ulogu i u

organizovanju nezavisnih komisija koje će kontrolisati odabir kvalitetnih nastavnih kadrova.

Nastavni planovi, po mišljenju autora, ne treba samo da budu usmereni na

tradicionalni pristup: učenik-nastavnik, već bi trebalo da prate trendove iz oblasti veštačke

inteligencije i tehnologije. Korišćenje muzičkih aplikacija za trening sluha i glasa, korišćenje

VR (virtual reality) aplikacija, gde muzika "prati" instrukcije korisnika, su od velikog značaja

u procesu vežbanja, pa tako i pozitivno utiču na muzičku inteligenciju i razvoj sposobnosti

(Röder 2018).

Sociološki radovi iz oblasti pedagogije postavili su osnovne smernice obrazovanja:

socijalizacija, socijalna intergracija, položaj u društvu i socijalna i kulturna inovacija, i kao

latentne funkcije uključili su, između ostalog, vaspitanje i uspostavljanje odnosa među

vršnjacima (Ballantine and Hammack 2012). Kada se škola promišlja kao sociopsihološko

okruženje, misli se na psihološke faktore koji nemaju direktne veze sa sposobnošću učenika, a

koji utiču na uspeh učenika. Obrazovne ustanove u kojima se podučava muzika, imaju

zadatak da učenike nauče normama, vrednostima i sposobnositma koje su im potrebne za

funkcionisanje u društvu. Problemi u obrazovnim institucijama koje ne ispunjavaju ove svoje

funkcije imaju dalekosežne negativne posledice po društvo u celini.

Škola, pre svega, utiče na razvoj međuljudskih odnosa, samovrednovanja i discipline.

Tako, ukoliko postoje predrasude prema nekim etničkim i rasnim socijalnim grupama,

ukoliko postoje namerne nepravilnosti pri ocenjivanju i nagrađivanju, ukoliko se neki učenici

favorizuju i slično, sve to ima za posledicu da grupe ili pojedinci koji se zapostavljaju ili

pojedinci prema kojima je odnos nekorektan odustanu od daljeg školovanja i razviju

poremećaje u ponašanju kao i u međuljudskim odnosima. To će se negativno odraziti i na

samovrednovanje i motivaciju.

Javni nastup kao sociopsihološko iskustvo

Izvođaštvo obuhvata odnos kompozitor/delo/izvođač/muzičar/publika, i odvija se u različitim

medijumima određenim za javno izvođenje (javna scena, televizija). Izvođaštvo kao

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kognitivno i emocionalno iskustvo, ali i kao psihomotorna aktivnost, treba da zauzme

značajno mesto u nastavnim planovima i programima. Tako na primer, Trolinger ukazuje na

značaj nastupa profesora i učenika (Trollinger 2006, 193-208). Uloga države u ovom

kontekstu jeste podrška javnog izvođenja kroz organizovanje javnih svečanosti, odabira

kvalitetnog sadržaja, medijske podrške kroz javni servis, organizovanja javnih takmičenja.

Time će i motivacija kod učenika biti na višem nivou, brže će se razviti u muzičkom, ali i

sociološkom smislu.

Međutim, problem klasičnog javnog nastupa profesionalnih klasičnih muzičara u

današnje vreme je u krizi. Treba imati u vidu da javni nastupi klasičnih muzičara ostaju u

senci popularne muzike i njene mašinerije, gde su udruženi auditivni i vizuelni elementi. Na

scenama pop pevača nailazimo na igrače, pevače, tehnološka rešenja za scenske i vizuelne

efekte, brilijantne kostime, svetlosne efekte, zvučne efekte. Ovakvi nastupi predstavljaju

ogromnu konkurenciju klasičnom načinu izvođenja, što je rezultat ideje muzike u mas-

medijima kao predmeta zabave i društvene robe. Prema tome, u muzičkom obrazovanju bi

trebalo da se uvedu novine u osmišljavanju javnih nastupa kroz uvođenje audio-vizuelnog

koncepta, saradnje među umetničkim školama, kreiranja multimedijskih projekata, ali s time

da se očuva umetnička ideja, ne zalazeći u banalnost i amaterizam.

Rezultati bavljenja muzikom na fizički, psihički i socijalni razvoj pojedinca

Izloženost muzici i bavljenje muzikom je od velikog značaja za fizički razvoj, zdravlje i

napredak ljudi. Istraživanja su potvrdila da muzika ima uticaj na fiziološke funkcije kao što je

kontrolisano funkcionisanje disajnih organa, pravilno držanje i korekciju skeletno-mišićnog

sistema (Clift and Hancox 2001, 121), kardiovaskularni sistem (Kreutz et al. 2012), imuni

sistem i neurohemijske promene (Chanda and Levitin 2013), fleksibilnost, strukturu i razvoj

mozga (Hyde et al. 2009, 182), razvoj kognitivnih sposobnosti (Schlaug et al. 2005; Norton et

al. 2005) i biohemijske promene u mozgu koje mogu imati terapeutsko dejstvo i uticati na

psihičke disfunkcije (Koelsch and Stegemann 2012). Takođe, slušanje muzike utiče na naše

iskustvo i trenutni doživljaj vremena i prostora (Schäfer et al. 2013, 508).

Neke studije smatraju za veoma značajno razvoj tomografskih metoda za ispitivanje

emocija kod profesionalnih muzičara tokom izvođenja ili kod kompozitora tokom procesa

stvaranja (Schaefer 2017). Ovakav pristup bi bio značajan u polju teorije o tipovima

emocijama koje pobuđuje muzika: od svakodnevnih emocija do estetskog doživljaja (Juslin

6



2013), a što bi dalje pomoglo razvoju nastavnih metoda u muzičkom obrazovanju, ali i

estetskog prosuđivanja.

Učenje muzike utiče na govor i verbalne funkcije (Henriksson-Macaulay 2014).

Takođe, dati su empirijski dokazi da učenje muzike utiče na intelektualni i sociološki razvoj,

motivaciju, samodisciplinu (Hallam 2010). Učestvovanje i rad u grupi, ansamblu, doprinosi

osećanju samopouzdanja, pripadanja, svrsishodnog delovanja, socijalnu integraciju (Clift and

Hancox 2001,121).

Međutim, važno je istaći, da pozitivni efekti aktivnog bavljenja muzikom na lični i

socijalni razvoj biće mogući jedino ako je to bavljenje muzikom prijatno iskustvo, podržano

od strane roditelja, nastavnika, pa do šireg interesovanja i podrške sredine i zajednice. Od

kvaliteta nastave, od stepena uspešnosti i postignuća percipiranog samoprocenom učenika, i

od dugoročnosti takvog pozitivnog iskustva, zavisi koliko će takvo iskustvo biti lično i

društveno vredno i korisno. Svaki pojedinac, naime, ima specifičnu "leaning biography" koja

je odraz svih promena koje se dešavaju u mozgu pri procesiranju podataka tokom učenja

muzike (Altenmüller 2003, 349). Tokom dužeg vremena bavljenja muzičkim aktivnostima te

promene se ustaljuju, i omogućavaju transfer usvojenih znanja i veština na druge, nemuzičke

zadatke – transfer zavisi od stepena sličnosti kognitivnih procesa koje rešavanje zadataka

zahteva (Hallam 2010). Muzičke sposobnosti, motorne sposobnosti, emocionalno reagovanje,

memorisanje velikog broja podataka olakšavaju savladavanje zadataka u drugim oblastima i

utiču na opštu inteligenciju i nivo IQ (Schellenberg 2003; Schellenberg 2004). Takođe,

postoje dokazi da učenje sviranja na instrumentu značajno poboljšava motorne sposobnosti,

što je važno da se primeni kod fizičkog vaspitanja u školama, i posebno u baletskim školama i

fakultetima (Schlaug et al. 2005).

Zaključak

Muzika je je jedno od najznačajnijih sredstava komunikacije. Ona igra veoma važnu ulogu u

stvaranju, razvijanju i održavanju identiteta. Bavljenje muzikom doprinosi razvoju

kognitivnih i psihomotornih sposobnosti, sposobnosti opažanja, mišljenja, pamćenja,

sposobnosti komunikacije sa društvenim okruženjem kroz javne nastupe. Međutim, da bi se

ispoljili pozitivni efekti bavljenja muzikom na lični i socijalni razvoj, odnosno da bi se

bavljenje muzikom doživljavalo kao prijatno iskustvo, važnu ulogu u tome ima škola kao

7


sociopsihološko okruženje. Ukoliko je to dugoročno pozitivno iskustvo, od toga će i

pojedinac i društvo imati koristi.

Školski sistem i uređenje sistema vrednosti zavisi pre svega od države i njenog uticaja

na obrazovanje. Država igra veliku ulogu u kreiranju sistema vrednosti i obrazovanja: od

medijskog sadržaja do školske opreme, nastavnog plana i programa. Naravno, nemoguće je

staviti pod kontrolu sve ove aspekte bitne za obrazovni sistem, ali je neophodno sastaviti jasan

program, postaviti jasne standarde i optimalne uslove za rad. Država je ta koja treba da

pomogne muzičkim obrazovnim institucijama, da obezbedi kvalitean ambijent, zdrave odnose

među profesorima i učenicima, metodologije utemeljene na naučnim osnovama, kao i da

pomogne učenike kroz projekte za stipendije, javna nadmetanja i javne nastupe. U školama

treba insistirati na zajedničkim nastupima učenika i profesora, ali je potrebno i uvesti novine u

pristupu prema javnom nastupu: posmatrati ga u kontekstu audio-vizuelnog doživljaja.

Takođe, modeli nastave treba da se modernizuju inkorporirajući najnovija tehnološka

dostignuća koja za muziku i obrazovanje.

Dakle, muzičko obrazovanje ima povoljan uticaj na mentalni, psihofizički i socijalni

razvoj pojedinca. Sociološko okruženje, škola, nastavne metode, javna izvođenja, moderna

nastava i korišćenje tehnologije u nastavi i učenju, izgrađuju muzički okvir (framework) koji,

kao sociokulturološka pojava, čini sastavni deo razvoja pojedinca kao društvene jedinke.

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17. Grodsky, E., R. Warren, and E. Felts. 2008. "Testing and social stratification in American education." Annual Review of Sociology 34 (1): 385-404.

18. Hallam, Susan. 2010. "The Power of Music: Its Impact on the Intellectual, Social and PersonalDevelopment of Children and Young People.” International Journal of Music Education 28 (3) (August 2010): 269–89. doi:10.1177/0255761410370658.

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21. Hargreaves, D. J. and A. C. North (eds.). 1997. The social psychology of music. 161-188. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

22. Juslin, P. N. and J. A. Sloboda (eds.). 2001. Music and emotion: theory and research. New York: Oxford University Press.

23. Juslin P. N. 2013. "From everyday emotions to aesthetic emotions: towards a unified theory ofmusical emotions." Phys Life Rev.10 (3): 235-66. doi: 10.1016/j.plrev.2013.05.008.

24. Kreutz, G., C. Q. Murcia, and S. Bongard. 2012. "Psychoneuroendocrine research on music and health: an overview." In Music, Health and Wellbeing. Edited by R. MacDonald, G. Kreutz and L. Mitchell. 457-476. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

9

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https://www.theguardian.com/education/2014/feb/27/musicians-better-language-learners


25. Koelsch, S., and T. Stegemann. 2012. "The brain and positive biological effects in healthy andclinical populations." In Music, Health and Wellbeing. Edited by R. MacDonald, G. Kreutz, and L. Mitchell. 436-456. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

26. Lamont, Alexandra. 2002. "Musical identities and the school environment". In Musical identities. Edited by R. A.R. MacDonald, D. J. Hargreaves, D. Miell. 49-55. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

27. MacDonald, Raymond, and D. Miell. 2000. "Creativity and Music Education: The Impact of Social Variables." International Journal of Music Education 36: 58-68.

28. Martin, P. 1995. Sounds and Society: Themes in the Sociology of Music. New York, NY: St. Martin's Press.

29. McClary, S. 1991. Feminine endings: music gender and sexuality. Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press.

30. Nattiez, Jean-Jacques.1990. Music and discourse: toward a semutural Brain Deveiology of music. Cardyn Abbate, translator. Princenton University Press. ISBN 0-691-02714-5

31. Norton A., E. Winner, K. Cronin, K. Overy, J. Lee D., and G. Schlaug. 2005. "Are there pre-existing neural, cognitive, or motoric markers for musical ability?" Brain Cogn. 59(2): 124–134. Published online 2005 Jul 28. doi: 10.1016/j.bandc.2005.05.009

32. O'Neill, S. 1997a. "Gender and Music." In The social psychology of music. Edited by D. J. Hargreaves and A. C. North. 46-60, Oxford: Oxford University Press.

33. O'Neill, S. 2002. "The self-identity of young musicians." In Musical identities. Edited by R. A. R. MacDonald, D. J. Hargreaves and D. Miell. 79-96. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

34. Roe, K. 1999. "Music and identity among European youth: music as communication soundscape info." Journal on Media Culture 2. URL: http://www.icce.rug.nl/~soundscapes/DATABASES/MIE/Part2_chapter03.html

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36. Sawyer, R. K. 2003. Group creativity: Music, theater, collaboration. Mahwah, NJ, US: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishers.

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38. Schäfer, T, J. Fachner, M. Smukalla. 2013. "Changes in the representation of space and time while listening to music." Front Psychol. 4: 508. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00508

39. Schellenberg, E. G. 2003. "Does exposusre to music have beneficial side effects?" In The Cognitive Neuroscience of Music. Edited by R .Peretz & R. J. Zatorre. 430-448. New York: Nova Science Press.

40. Schellenberg, Glenn E. 2004. "Music Lessons Enhance IQ." Psychological Science15(8): 511–514. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0956-7976.2004.00711.x

41. Schlaug, G., A. Norton, K. Overy, and E. Winner. 2005. "Effects of music training on the child's brain and cognitive development." Annals of New York academy of Science 1060: 219-230.

42. Röder, Matthias. 2018. "Artifical Intelligence and the Music of Herbert von Karajan (Keynote at Deutsche Telekom)." http://matthias.zeitschichten.com/deutsche-telekom

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43. Tarrant, M., A. C. North, and D. J. Hargreaves. 2002. "Youth identity and music." In Musical identiites. Edited by R. A. R. MacDonald, D. J. Hargreaves and D. Miell. 134-150. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

44. Thorne, B. 1993. Gender play: Girls and boys in school. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgess University Press.

45. Trevarthen, Colwin 2002. Origins of musical identites: evidence from infancy for musical social awareness. In Musical Identities. Edited by R. A. R. MacDonald , D. Miell, and D. J. Hargreaves. 22-46. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

46. Trollinger, Valerie L. 2006. "A Reconception of Performance Study in Music Education Philosophy." In Philosophy of Music Education Review 14 (2): 193-208.

47. Welch, G. 2006. "Singing and vocal development." In The child as musician: a handbook of music development. Edited by G. E. McPherson. 311-331. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

48. Wilson, G., B., and R. A. R. MacDonald. 2005. "The meaning of the blues: musical identities in talk about jazz". Qualitative Research in Psychology 2: 341-363.

49. Yillman, D., and S. Gan. 1997. "Musical taste in adolescence." In The social psychology of music. Edited by D. J. Hargreaves and A.C. North. 161-188. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Summary

Music is the mean of communication. An increasing number of academic researchesinterested in research the foundations of musical behavior asserted that we all respondemotionally to music (Juslin and Sloboda 2001; Trevarthen, 2002). There are many workswhich endeavor to develop our understanding of the psychology of music and manyresearches that utilized a predominantly quantitative empirical epistemology which focusedon isolating variables and was less concerned with the wider sociocultural aspects of music.However, a more multidisciplinary and pluralistic position is entirely in keeping withpostmodern research priorities. Definition of music is very ambiguous, depending of the culture and the social context. Insome societies, particularly indigenous ones, music is the integral part of every day life,performed on various occasions such as funerals, ceremonies, and religious rituals. In theWestern world, music is regarded as an art: the creation of the artistic intuition, which is theessence of the creative process. Music was regarded as a mirror of the heavenly word, and asmover of earthly passion which was meditated by church doctrine, and by developing ofmusical notation that enabled polyphonic music with its sonorous beauty to be seen asreflecting the mathematical complexity of divine order. Eventually, music considered as art istheoretically and aesthetically defined in the social environment, and as such it takes on itseducational features and becomes a part of an educational system. In the postmodern,pluralistic and multidisciplinary approach of Hargreaves and North (1997), MacDonald(MacDonald et al. 2002), and Nattiez (1990, 48, 55) the stand is that there is no consensusabout definition of music, even though there is no such a consensus in the same society. In thepostmodern period music is used as a clothing, like a symbol of somebody‘s life style oridentity (Martin 1995, 21).

11


In the theories of musical meaning, where meaning is considered to be an immanentresponse that depends on the quality of the music as the object of listening and on the culturalcapacities of its audience, the main factors that motivate the meaning are found to lay in itsexpressive or in its structural properties, particularly in the harmonic domain, analysed interms of patterns of tension and resolution (Lerdahl 2003). On the other hand, theories thatemerged from sociological and ethnomusicological explorations aim to understand music andits meaning in the social context in which it arises. Music is the path for transferringmeanings, ideas and notions which are hardly been transferred by other means, such as words,and it aims to be understood by the individual who is either the political identity, zoonpoliticon, the part of the particular society, and as such the part of its system of values andnorms, and the entity, individual, personality. Accordingly, how this personality will beshaped depends on those influences, which puts music on the pedestal of great importance tothe society as a whole (Danaher et al. 2000). However, in spite that music is affordable in various electronic forms, like musical videos,advertisements, movies/films, TV quizzes and TV shows, in some societies only some formsmay be prevalent and therefore the span of musical events and styles may be very narrowwhich leads to the creation of the certain ideology and value system, i. e., accepted andrewarded social conduct and behavior. In those societies the way people are reasoning andthinking is suppressed by mass media. According to the author, the only way to avoid thisdamaging effects on individuals is through quality and open educational system set up onrational, classical foundations, and modern technology. Although, in this aspect, theresearcher have to answer some questions regarding interconnection between society andmusic education. From such perspective, meaning in music cannot be understood solely as aconsequence of music‘s aesthetic dimension. Taking into account that music can fulfill a multiplicity of the functions in the society, itsmeaning can be best interpreting as adverting to emic conceptions of social facts andcircumstances: it could be understood in the contexts of the belief systems and culturalpractices within which it has a role, but also may be interpreted as oriented towards moremundane ends. In this paper music is conceived as a mode of interaction rather than as theobject of auditory perception, and there are indicated the possible methods whereby this mightbe achieved, i. e. methods of addressing the study of the musical meanings that are inherent inprocesses of musical interaction, as well as implications of this approach. Thus, this worksynthesize indicative research findings and considers the implications for music pedagogy andperformance.

12

Accelerando: Belgrade Journal of Music and Dance

Issue 4, February 2019


Popularizacija muzike kroz filmski medij: Popularizacija muzike kroz filmski medij: Studija slučaja Studija slučaja MarliMarli

Case Study: Popularizing Music On Film -Case Study: Popularizing Music On Film - Marley Marley Documentary Documentary

Snežana CvijanovićFMU Belgrade, Serbia

[email protected]

Citation: Cvijanović, S. 2019. "Popularizacija muzike kroz filmski medij: Studija slučaja Marli."Accelerando:Belgrade Journal of Music and Dance 4:2 .

Abstract

Examples of bringing music into vogue through a variety of media can be traced back intothe 18th century, although, not before 20th century the first attempts of systematization ofvarious forms of making music fashionable were made. The literature review is mainlyrepresented by the printed media and music promotion through them. However, with thedevelopment of the media, which enabled a better insight into the musical creativity, as wellas new opportunities for the creation and presentation of music, there has been a growinginterest in other forms of popularization, especially through certain "popular" mass mediasuch as television and/or film. The new media, computer software and the Internet, had amajor influence on mass media and, consequently, contributed to novelties in the creation,distribution and interpretation thereof. Thus their impact upon the user becomes higher andmuch more direct. Having in mind that film, as one of the most interesting media of masscommunication, enjoys a lot of attention around the world, the author is focusing on it in thepaper. Throughout the short history of the media and understanding the characteristics of thedocumentary, the oldest and still very popular film genre, the author will point out thepresence of music as propagated art within it. Therefore, in this paper, the author examines away of popularizing music throughout a documentary film, and, by using documentaryMarley as an example, she is drawing attention to the elements of musicological work presentin the actions of the director.Keywords: music popularization, documentary film, mass media, Bob Marley

_____________________________________________

Uvod

U današnje vreme, popularizacija muzike je postala, kako Snežana Nikolajević zapaža,

"posebna muzička disciplina" (Nikolajević 1994, 5). Naravno, primere popularisanja muzike

kroz različite medije možemo pratiti još od XVIII veka. "Medij" se u ovom kontekstu shvata

1

UDC:78:316.774 791.229.2:78COBISS.SR-ID 274390284

Received:Dec 20, 2018Reviewed:Jan 23, 2019Accepted:Feb 02, 2019

https://accelerandobjmd.weebly.com/issue4/case-study-popularizing-music-on-film-marley-documentary



Snežana CvijanovićPopularizacija muzike kroz filmski medij: Studija slučaja Marli.

kao "tehničko sredstvo pomoću koga se nešto ostvaruje, prenosi informacija, izražava subjekt,

prikazuje svet, tj. medij je tehničko sredstvo realizacije umetničkog dela" (Šuvaković 2011,

439). Međutim, tek se u XX veku javljaju prvi pokušaji sistematizacije raznovrsnih vidova

popularisanja muzike. Nikolajević (1994, 5) navodi da je krajem osamdesetih godina XX

veka grupa čeških muzikologa u opsežan pregled muzičkih disciplina, teorijskih i praktičnih,

uvrstila i popularisanje muzike, odredivši mu jasne koordinate, odnos prema drugim

disciplinama i vezu sa njima. U literaturi je uglavnom zastupljeno razmatranje pisanih medija

i popularisanje muzike kroz njih. Ipak, razvojem medija, koji je omogućio bolji uvid u

muzičko stvaralaštvo, kao i nove mogućnosti za stvaranje i prezentovanje muzike, sve je veće

interesovanje i za druge oblike popularisanja, posebno kroz pojedine "popularne" masovne

medije (Šuvaković 2011, 439) poput televizije i filma.

Interesovanje za masovne medije se javlja tokom dvadesetih godina XX veka sa

pojavom radija, štampe, televizije i filma. Ulaskom u doba "novih medija", među masovne

medije se "uključuju" i kompjuterski softver i internet. To doprinosi i značajnoj promeni

medija koji se počinju javljatii u elektronskoj formi i distibuirati putem interneta. Time i

njihov uticaj na konzumente biva veći i direktniji, što se može videti iz definicije masovnih

medija koju je ponudio Denis Mekvejl (Denis McQuail), gde su mediji "učesnici u političkoj,

ekonomskoj, socijalnoj i kulturnoj dinamici društvene moći." (McQuail 2010, 4).

S obzirom da film, kao jedan od najinteresantnijih medija masovnog komuniciranja,

uživa veliku pažnju širom sveta, u radu će akcenat biti upravo na njemu. Naime, kroz kratak

istorijat ovog medija i sagledavanje karakteristika dokumentarnog filma, kao najstarijeg i još

uvek vrlo popularnog filmskog žanra, autor je u radu pokušao da ukaže na prisutnost muzike

kao propagirane umetnosti unutar njega. Drugim rečima, cilj rada je da se sagleda način

popularisanja muzike kroz muzički dokumentarni film, i istovremeno da se istaknu oni

elementi muzikološkog rada koji su prisutni u radu i delanju režisera. Autor je u radu koristio

dokumentarni film Kevina Mekdonalda (Kevin Macdonald) Marli (Marley) kao primer.

I

Istorija filma kao masovnog medija

Kao produkt težnje za predstavljanjem pokreta i razvoja industrijske tehnologije i optičke

iluzije, film je od prvog prikazivanja 1895. godine u Parizu predstavljao kuriozitet. Tvorcima

prvog filma smatraju se braća Limijer kojima se pripisuju zasluge za stvaranje prve projekcije

2




28. decembra 1895. godine, La Sortie des usines Lumieré (Radnici napuštaju Limijer fabriku).

Međutim, pojedini autori napominju da oni nisu bili pioniri u polju filma. Dikson (Wheeler

Winston Dixon) i Foster (Gwendolyn Audrey Foster) navode Friš-Grina (William Friese-

Greene), Le Prinsa (Louis Aimé Augustin Le Prince) i druge (Dixon & Foster 2018), dok

Meri Belis (Mary Bellis) ističe Edisona (Thomas Edison) i njegovu mašinu koja je

omogućavala po jednoj osobi da vidi pokretne slike (Bellis 2018).

Za nastanak filma veliku važnost imali su kinematoskop i unapređenje fotografske kamere

1877. godine koji su doprineli otkriću kinematografa i time učinili mogućim film kao medij

masovnog komuniciranja.

Film je najpre postojao samo kao vizuelni medij, nemi film. Tek 1927. godine je

prikazan prvi zvučni film, Džez pevač (The Jazz Singer) Alana Kroslanda (Alan Crosland).

Dalji razvoj doveo je do otkrića filma u boji 1935. godine što je značajno povećalo njegove

ekspresivne mogućnosti kao i raznih sistema za projekciju koji su formatom velikog ekrana

stvorili iluziju treće dimenzije. Time je i poruka koju film šalje publici, promenljiva u

zavisnosti od sadržaja filma, bivala sve uverljivija.

Zaslužnost za ogromno interesovanje za film u velikoj meri pripada činjenici da u

svim fazama oblikovanja filma učestvuju gotovo sve umetnosti (muzika, slikarstvo, vajarstvo,

arhitektura, pozorište, književnost, fotografija), što ga čini integrišućim medijem. Na taj način

film je mnogo bliskiji, a prirodom samog medija kao masovnog, i mnogo pristupačniji

ljudima, nego klasične umetnosti. Takođe, pomenuti medij izražava i sve osobine modernog

sveta, odnosno "[…] pojavu i potom dominaciju tehnički reprodukovane slike, brzinu,

komercijalni karakter masovne komunikacije, [...] okrenutost umetničkim tradicijama i

žanrovima ranijeg doba". (Kronja 2007, 107). Sve to je doprinelo da filmski medij polovinom

XX veka dostigne svoj vrhunac. Međutim, popularisanjem televizije i razvojem novih audio-

vizuelnih medija, film je polako počeo da nestaje. To možemo uvideti i na domaćoj kulturnoj

sceni koju karakteriše zatvaranje sve većeg broja bioskopa i davanje projekcija filmova u

polupraznim salama. Takođe, pojedini žanrovi, poput dokumentarnog filma, postali su

proizvodi namenjni (skoro) isključivo festivalima.

Ipak, mediji koji su ugrozili film, istovremeno su ga i "sačuvali". Naime, putem

kablovske mreže, što je brojne kanale učinilo dostupnim u gotovo celom svetu, televizija je

popularisala dokumentarne filmove, bilo prikazivanjem istih na raznim kanalima ili

3


osnivanjem kanala namenjenih isključivo dokumentarnom programu. Zanimljiva je činjenica

da dosta ljudi upravo te programe navodi kao najomiljenije, što govori o još uvek prisutnom

interesovanju za ovaj tip filma. Uz to i brojni festivali dokumentarnog filma osiguravaju

njegov opstanak. Neki od najpoznatijih festivala dokumentarnog filma jesu: DOXA

Documentary Film Festival (Kanada), Chicago International Documentary Festival

(Sjedinjene Američke Države), Cinéma du Réel (Francuska), IDFA – International

Documentary Film Festival Amsterdam (Holandija), Sheffield Doc/Fest (Ujedinjeno

Kraljevstvo), Copenhagen International Documentary Festival – CPH:DOX (Danska),

ZagrebDox (Hrvatska), Beldocs (Srbija). Imajući sve ove činjenice na umu, u nastavku rada

ćemo se okrenuti pomenutom žanru.

Karakteristike dokumentarnog filma

Osnovna karakteristika dokumentarnog filma sadržana je u samom nazivu žanra. Reč je,

dakle, o dokumentovanju nekog aspekta realnosti. Interesantna je, međutim, definicija Džona

Grirsona (John Grierson) po kojoj je dokumentarac "kreativan tretman stvarnosti" (Grierson

1966, 13), što ukazuje na postojanje razlika u tumačenju ovog termina. S ozbirom na gore

navedeno, naime na to da postoji više definicija dokumentarnog filma, autor će navesti neke

od njih za koje nalazi da su najčešće korišćene u skorijim istraživanjima.

Tomas Ostin (Thomas Austin) i Vilma De Jong (Wilma De Jong) ističu da većina ljudi

prepoznaje dokumentarni film kada ga vidi, ali ne ume da ga definiše, te stoga zaključuju da

upravo način na koji se film percipira od strane publike određuje isti kao dokumentarni

(Austin & De Jong 2008, 1–3). Njihovo mišljenje deli i Nikols (Bill Nichols), navodeći da

kontekst nudi naznaku o žanrovskoj pripadnosti (Nichols 2010, 16).

Dalje, autori Elis (Jack C. Ellis) i Meklejn (Betsy A. McLane) uzimaju u obzir i

produkciju dokumenatrnog filma kao važan element. Oni dokumentarni film, uz narativnu

fikciju i eksperimentalni avangradni film, svrstavaju u jedan tri osnovna modaliteta filma

(Ellis and McLane 2006, 1). Dokumentarni film se od njih izdvaja prema 1) svojoj svrsi,

gledištu i pristupu, u službi je povećanja razumevanja i interesovanja za određenu temu koja

se obrađuje, 2) prikazivanju realnih situacija i materijala koji već postoje, 3) angažovanju

običnih ljudi (ne glumaca) i 4) glavnom cilju, a to je prenošenje informacija (Ellis and

McLane 2006, 13). Informacije koje se ovim putem prenose mogu biti raznovrsne, što nas

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dovodi do podžanra dokumentarnog filma koji je u fokusu ove studijie: muzičkog

dokumentarnog filma.

Muzički dokumentarni film

Iako je jednostavno pretpostaviti šta muzički dokumentarni film predstavlja, do sada nema

jasne definicije u muzičkim enciklopedijama poput Grova (The New Grove Dictionary of

Music and Musicians) i Oksfordskog muzičkog rečnika (The Oxford Dictionary of Music).

Reč je o formi dokumentarnog filma čija je tema muzika, međutim većina muzičkih

dokumentaraca podrazumeva i svet oko stvaranja muzike. Oni za temu često imaju

kompozitore, instrumente ili izvođače, a ponekad se mogu ticati i efekta koji je muzika

proizvela, Primer za to jeste Benetov (Michael Rossato-Bennett) film Živi iznutra iz 2014.

godine koji govori o efektima muzike na ljude koji pate od Alchajmerove bolesti. Drugim

rečima, muzika sama po sebi nije jedina tema, te prethodno spomenuta definicija ne može biti

prihvaćena kao najbolje rešenje. Takođe, definisanje otežava i preplitanje tema unutar istog

filma. Ako za primer uzmemo dokumentarac o izvođaču, uvidećemo da on istovremeno

predstavlja film o muzici, ali i o osobi i određenim delovima njenog života.

Muzički dokumentarni film, dakle, predstavlja film koji se tiče muzike i sveta koji se

stvara oko nje, njenog nastanka, konzumacije i posledica koje iz toga proizilaze. Navedeni

primeri različitih tema doveli su do podele muzičkog dokumentarca na nekoliko tipova. Prvi

je dokumentarac o muzici (muzičkom delu, žanru ili stilu), zatim o instrumentu/ima, o

umetniku (kompozitoru, izvođaču) i društvu (efektima muzike na društvo, festivalima,

supkulturama koje nastaju oko pojedinih muzičkih stilova). Jedan film ne mora nužno

pripadati samo jednom tipu, o čemu je već bilo reči, a to nam potvrđuje i film Marli. Naime,

ako ga detaljnije pogledamo, videćemo da on istovremeno predstavlja film o muzičaru, Bobu

Marliju (Robert Nesta Marley) i njegovom životu, ali i o rege (reggae) muzici i efektima koje

je imala na društvo i istoriju muzike. Analizirani film, dakle, sadrži elemente tri različita tipa

muzičkog dokumentarca.

Osim podele na različite tipove, važno je osvrnuti se i na podelu prema obliku. Nikols

(Nichols 2010, 31–32) je dokumentarce podelio na poetski, odnosno izlagački (usmeno

izlaganje praćeno slikama), posmatrački ("nenametljiva" kamera, princip neprimetnog

snimanja), participatorni (intervjui), refleksivni (zasnovan na samorefleksiji subjekta) i

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izvođački (stvaralac je istovremeno i "glumac" u filmu). Kao i u prethodnoj podeli, treba

primetiti da muzički dokumentarni film može sadržati nekoliko oblika istovremeno.

Analizirajući film Marli, uočavamo govoto sve navedene oblike, o čemu će nešto kasnije biti

više reči.

II

Popularisanje muzike kroz muzički dokumentarni film o umetnicima

U prethodnom delu rada je skrenuta pažnja na različite tipove muzičkog dokumentarca, što

nam objašnjava zašto se veliki broj ljudi okrenuo upravo ovom filmskom žanru kao "brzom"

izvoru najrazličitijih informacija. Ta obrazovna uloga koju je dokumentarni film doneo sa

sobom, otvorila je prostor i propagandi. Autori dela The Music Documentary zapažaju da su

se dokumentarci o popularnoj muzici najviše udaljili od ideja objektivnosti i reportaže i

postali čisto promotivni (Edgar, Fairclough-Isaacs, and Halligan 2013). Upravo tu zalazimo u

polje popularisanja muzike putem dokumentarnog filma, kao jednog od novih medija. Ovde

treba spomenuti i specifičan tip dokumentarca, koncertni film, kao još jedan vid promovisanja

muzike. Iz samog naziva kategorije se može zaključiti da je reč o filmovima u kojima su

zabeleženi koncertni nastupi na festivalima i turnejama. Među koncertnim filmovima, ističu

se Vudstok (Woodstock, 1970), Pesma ostaje ista (The Song Remains the Same, 1976) i

Poslednji valcer (The Last Waltz, 1978).

Načini za ovaj vid popularisanja su mnogobrojni, o čemu svedoči i činjenica da se u

muzičkim dokumentarcima o ličnostima mogu napraviti dodatne podele. Pojedini reditelji se

opredeljuju za filmove o kompozitorima i izvođačima klasične muzike, te nastaju

dokumentarci kao što su: Artur Rubinštajn – ljubav života (L'Amour de la vie – Artur

Rubinstein, 1969), Toskanini: maestro (Toscanini: The Maestro, 1985), Poslednji romantičar

(The Last Romantic, 1985), Dve ruke: priča o Leonu Flejšeru (Two Hands: The Leon Fleisher

Story, 2006), Četiri (4, 2007), Vagnerov san (Wagner's dream, 2012)... Drugi se, pak,

odlučuju za autore i izvođače popularne muzike, te nailazimo i na filmove poput: Sting: neka

noć počne (Sting: Bring on the Night, 1985), Madona: istina ili izazov (Madonna: Truth or

Dare, 1991), Bigi i Tupak (Biggie & Tupac, 2002), Majkl Džekson – to je to (Michael

Jackson – This is it, 2009), Marli (Marley 2012), Keti Peri: deo mene (Katy Perry: Part of

Me, 2012). Dakle, izbor je veliki, raznovrsan i obuhvata široko polje muzike, pružajući

mogućnost svakome da odabere nešto po svom ukusu.

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Praveći selekciju podataka koji će biti prikazani u filmu, reditelji dokumentaraca

"pričaju priču" o određenom muzičaru, poput istoričara muzike. Služeći se pokretnim

slikama, kao što se istoričari služe rečima, oni predstavljaju publici određenog umetnika iz

sveta muzike kroz odabir njegovih najznačajnijih ostvarenja/izvođenja i izbor segmenata

njegovog života koji će se naći u fokusu. Pojedini reditelji se opredeljuju za pregled (celog)

života određenog muzičara o kome se govori u filmu, dok se drugi fokusiraju samo na neki

određeni segment, na primer, najuspešniji period u karijeri, period vezan za boravak u jednoj

zemlji i drugo.

Uz to, mogućnosti koje je pružio film, kao integrišući medij, učinile su ga još

vrednijim i praktičnijim u domenu popularisanja muzike, jer je data prilika da se suvoparan

tekst zameni (ili dopuni) snimcima nastupa određenog muzičara, njegovim intervjuima,

privatnim snimcima. Drugim rečima, prezentovanje znanja o određenoj ličnosti je učinjeno

zanimljivijim i time popularnijim širokim narodnim masama.

Studija slučaja Marli

U svetu umetnosti, Bob Marli zauzima posebno mesto, na šta ukazuju brojne studije i članci o

ovom vrsnom umetniku, kao i razne filmske adaptacije njegovog života i dela: Muzika

pobune – priča Boba Marlija (Rebel Music – The Bob Marley Story) iz 2001. godine, Bob

Marli: legenda živi (Bob Marley: The Legend Live) iz 2003. godine, Ujedinjena Afrika

(Africa Unite) iz 2008. godine, Bob Marli: stvaranje legende (Bob Marley: The Making of

Legend) iz 2011. godine i Marli iz 2012. godine.

Svi ovi filmovi nam prikazuju najpopularnijeg jamajčanskog rege muzičara koji je

evoluirao u globalni simbol borbe protiv sistema. Baveći se muzikom – kao pevač, gitarista i

tekstopisac – on je razvio specifičan tip pesama i vokalni stil koji su naišli na odličan odaziv

publike širom sveta. Opšte je poznata i Marlijeva posvećenost Rastafari pokretu što je

rezultiralo unošenjem dubokog osećanja duhovnosti u muziku. Sve je to doprinelo, uz uticaj

koji je imao na istoriju muzike i njegovu ulogu u društvenom i političkom životu, da Marli

postane univerzalni fenomen, a dredovi, muzika i oblak dima od marihuane, postepeno su

obrazovali prepoznatljivu sliku o ovom čuvenom muzičaru.

Dokumentarni film Marli je jedan od najnovijih filmova o poznatom Jamajčaninu i

ujedno prvi autorizovani film o njegovom životu (Reuters 2012) stoga autor u ovom radu u

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fokus svoga razmatranja stavlja upravo ovaj dokumentarac. Ideja za njegovu realizaciju javila

se mnogo godina ranije, 2008. godine, kada je Martin Skorseze (Martin Scorsese) objavio

svoju nameru da snimi dokumentarac o Bobu Marliju, međutim, ubrzo je odustao od toga. Na

mestu reditelja, Skorsezea je zamenio Džonatan Dem (Jonathan Demme), a zatim je umesto

Dema postavljen britanski oskarovac Kevin Mekdonald. Film je u Mekdonaldovoj režiji

konačno snimljen i premijerno prikazan tek 2012. godine na 62. Filmskom festivalu u

Berlinu. Film Marli je u Beogradu premijerno prikazan 2012. godine u okviru filmskog

festivala Slobodna zona.

Vešto osmišljen i vođen, pomenuti film predstavlja "konačnu biografiju rege legende"

(Mintzer 2012). Napravljen je u saradnji sa porodicom Boba Marlija i obiluje fotografijama i

snimcima iz porodične arhive, razgovorima sa prijateljima ovog muzičara i njegovom

porodicom, snimcima intervjua koje je čuveni Marli nekada dao, kao i nekim, do tada

neobjavljenim arhivskim snimcima sa njegovih koncertnih nastupa. Kao posledica ove

saradnje, proistekle pre svega iz potreba reditelja da osigura verodostojnost, intervjue,

autorska prava i druge potrebne forme saradnje, javio se uslov da pojedini članovi porodice i

nekolicina Marlijevih poslovnih saradnika dobiju zasluge kao producenti filma. Neki od njih

jesu Marlijev sin Zigi (Ziggy Marley) i britanski impresarij Kris Blekvel (Chris Blackwell).

Prema Nikolsovoj podeli dokumentarnog filma na oblike, ovaj film se definiše

izlagačkim, participatornim, samorefleksivnim i izvođačkim oblikom muzičkog

dokumentarca u isti vreme. Centralno mesto pripada komentarima pevačeve porodice i

prijatelja koji film čine participatornim oblikom, kao i intervjuima samog Marlija. Oni se

"provlače" kroz ceo film u dva vida: (1) kao audio snimci praćeni crnom pozadinom sa

ispisanim rečima koje on u tom trenutku izgovara i (2) kao video snimci u kojima možemo i

videti i čuti Boba Marlija, ali istovremeno pružaju samorefleksiju ovog muzičara na sopstveno

stvaralaštvo i dešavanja koja su ga tokom karijere pratila, što film definiše i kao refleksivni. U

velikom broju kadrova vidimo Marlija kako svira, a tu su i zabeleženi nastupi u raznim

zemljama, što rege legendu na neki način čini i "glumcem" u filmu, dodajući i elemente

izvođačkog oblika dokumentarca u ostvarenje Marli.

Film počinje kratkim uvodom, praćenim ambijentalnim zvucima i naracijom o ropstvu

u Gani (Republic of Ghana) i mestu iz koga su robovi odvođeni u različite krajeve sveta.

Zatim, simboličnim prolaskom kroz “Vrata bez povratka” dolazimo na koncert Boba Marlija

koji izvodi pesmu Exodus. Ovim potezom Mekdonald već u prvim minutima filma pravi

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paralele između života Boba Marlija i afričkog naroda služeći se muzikom. Ukoliko imamo

na umu činjenicu da je Marli jedan od najpoznatijih rasta, sledbenika Rastafari pokreta, i da

pesma Exodus govori o povratku u domovinu i napuštanju "Vavilona" (u Rastafari pokretu

"Vavilon" predstavlja belačku civilizaciju i sistem) jasno je da nas ova rediteljeva smernica

nedvosmisleno upućuje na "korene" Marlijeve doktrine.

Pre detaljnije analize rediteljevog rada i propagiranja muzike kroz upotrebu iste kao

"alata" za usmeravanje toka i razumevanje priče, autor ukazuje na dve osnovne vrste muzike

prisutne u dokumentarcu, a to su (1) dijegetska muzika koja dolazi iz nekog zvučnog izvora

prisutnog u sceni, i (2) nedijegetska, prateća muzika, koja je dodata filmu tokom obrade

(Uzelac 2015, 21).

Mekdonald hronološki "vodi" priču od ranog perioda života Boba Marlija, iako je

dokumentacija vezana za detinjstvo ovog umetnika vrlo siromašna (French 2012), uspevajući

da "naslika" živopisno svedočanstvo o životu legende regea. Film obiluje dijegetskom

muzikom, datom pre svega kroz snimke Marlijevih nastupa, a vredna pažnje je i nedijegetska

muzika poput lokalne jamajčanske muzike koja prati kadrove regije Sent En (Saint Ann),

Marlijevog rodnog mesta. Mekdonald je koristi kako bi publiku približio sredini u kojoj je

Bob Marli proveo detinjstvo, stvarajući na taj način jasnu sliku Marlijeve domovine.

Film dalje prati Marlijevo preseljenje u Trenčtaun (Trench Town), i dok priča o

teškom životu u ovom siromašnom naselju, ponovo nailazimo na povezivanje perioda

umetnikovog života, koji se opisuje, i njegovog stvaralaštva, jer naraciju prati pesma Natty

Dread. Na taj način Mekdonald nas podseća na postojanje snažnih poruka unutar Marlijevih

pesama i povećava želju za njihovim ponovnim slušanjem.

Poput istoričara muzike koji osvetljava društveno-političku situaciju vremena u kome

umetnik stvara kako bi objasnio njegov položaj i razloge koji su doveli do određenih poteza,

Mekdonald nas upućuje u tadašnje stanje na javnoj sceni Jamajke i razloge koji su doveli do

toga da Bob Marli, primećen kao kvalitetan muzičar sa veoma upečatljivim porukama

sadržanim u pesmama, karijeru razvija kao član grupe. U pitanju je grupa Vejlers (The

Wailers) koju su, pored Marlija činili Nevil Livingston (Neville Livingston) poznatiji publici

pod imenom Bani Vejler (Bunny Wailer) i Hubert Vinstona Mekintoš (Hubert Winston

McIntosh) poznatiji kao Piter Toš (Peter Tosh). U filmu saznajemo da se period osnivanja

grupe (1963. godina) poklapa sa sticanjem državne nezavisnosti, što je dovelo do potrage za

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novim oblikom jamajčanske muzike, karakterističnim za tada oslobođenu zemlju, te je nastao

novi vid regea.

Ovde vidimo da je Mekdonald, upoznajući nas sa Marlijevim životom, karijerom i

ličnošću, u isto vreme govori o temi važnoj za opštu istoriju muzike, a to je razvoj nove vrste

muzike koja je spojila lokalne (Mento, Kalipsa, Kumina) i internacionalne oblike (pre svega

Američku muziku). Navodeći da je rege muzika u početku podrazumevala obrade američkih

pesama, on daje zvučne primere originala i rege obrada, olakšavajući njihovo poređenje.

Istovremeno, u želji da učini jednostavnijim razumevanje Marlijeve muzike, reditelj u film

uključuje komentare muzičara i producenata o karakteristikama rege muzike, pružajući na taj

način i obrazloženje situacije koja je doprinela da Bob Marli i Vejlersi steknu veliku

popularnost u svojoj zemlji.

Od tog trenutka film postaje neka vrsta "biografije karijere", kako ga naziva Holden

(Stephen Holden), gde Marli, "šireći svoju globalnu poruku [...] ističe sebe u mesijanskom

smislu" (Holden 2012). Ovo je potcrtano snimkom Selasijeve (Haile Selassie) posete Jamajci

1966. godine , kada su ga poštovaoci i sledbenici Rastafari pokreta dočekali na samoj pisti u

ogromnom broju, i kasnije, u drugom delu filma, snimkom Marlijevog povratka na Jamajku,

nakon atentata i emigriranja 1977. godine. Marli je tada dočekan na gotovo isti način kao

Hajle Selasije, što govori o značaju i uticaju koji već tada uživao. To potvrđuje i segment

filma koji sadrži prizore izrazito loše situacije u Kingstonu sedamdesetih godina XX veka,

praćene pesmom War. Navedena pesma je napisana po rečima iz govora Hajla Selasija, što

Mekdonald koristi da još jednom, putem muzike, ali bez jasno izrečene tvrdnje, napravi

paralelu između mesijanskog uticaja Hajla Selasija i Boba Marlija. Strašni prizori oružanih

sukoba naglašavaju potrebu i želju naroda za Marlijevim povratkom na Jamajku, zbog

njegovog zalaganja za mir, a opravdanost takve želje pokazuje se već u narednim kadrovima

snimcima koncerta za mir "Jedna ljubav" ("One Love Peace Concert") iz 1978. godine. Na

tom koncertu Marli (neplanirano) izvodi dvojicu vođa, tada sukobljenih političkih stranaka, i

podstče ih da se rukuju u znak uspostavljanja mira. (Tokom četrdesetih godina dve političke

partije, Narodna nacionalna partija [People’s National Party] i Radnička partija Jamajke

[Jamaica Labour Party], uzdigle su se kao vodeće partije u ovoj zemlji. Nakon izbora 1944.

godine političko nasilje među spomenutim rivalima je postalo deo svakodnevnice i često je

eskaliralo u velike oružane sukobe. Takvo stanje se zadržalo i tokom narednih decenija. Do

izbora 1976. godine, veliki broj ljudi je ubijen, a došlo je i do oformljavanja parlamentarnih

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divizija.) Ovim gestom Marli dobija još jednu zaslugu za širenje mira i jedinstva, a

komentarima da je samo on u stanju da tako nešto učini, reditelj "dopunjuje" sliku Boba

Marlija kao jedne od najuticajnijih ličnosti.

U ovom svetlu treba istaći i zvučno upućivanje na pesmu Zimbabwe tokom naracije o

koncertu povodom proslave oslobođenja istoimene zemlje, pesmu koja je postala neka vrsta

himne vojske Zimbabvea (Republic of Zimbabwe).

Iz dosadašnje analize filma Marli, možemo videti da Mekdonald koristi svaku priliku

da biografiju ovog izvanrednog muzičara potkrepi muzičkim primerima i na taj način je učini

interesantnijom. U isto vreme, ovakvim tretmanom muzike, reditelj konstantno podseća

publiku na najveće hitove rege legende. Segment koji govori o Marlijevom životu u Denveru

podržan je pesmom It’s Alright, venčanje sa Ritom (Alpharita Constantia Marley) i njena

prisećanja na to vreme data su uz njihov duet Hold on to this Feeling, veza sa Sindi Brejksper

(Cynthia Jean Cameron Breakspear) praćena je pesmom Is This Love, dok je tokom intervjua

sa njegovim polubratom i polusestrom reditelj otišao i korak dalje, puštajući im da čuju

Cornerstone, pesmu inspirisanu osećanjem odbačenosti, i da zatim daju svoj komentar.

U dugoj i temeljnoj filmskoj biografiji Mekdonald dosta vremena posvećuje čuvenom

koncertu "Nasmeši se Jamajko" (Smile Jamaica Concert) iz 1976. godine i dešavanjima uoči

istog. Naime, koncert je održan u veoma teškom periodu za narod Jamajke, u vreme žestokih

sukoba na političkoj sceni, i prethodio je opštim izborima na kojima su se nadmetale dve

vodeće političke partije. Marlijeva popularnost, politička neutralnost, kao i prijateljstvo sa

članovima obe zaraćene partije, učinila ga je idealnim izvođačem. Međutim, rivalitet partija je

toliko eskalirao da je dva dana uoči koncerta izvršen atentat na pevača.

Nesumnjivo važan događaj iz života Boba Marlija, Mekdonadu je poslužio i za

predstavljanje pevačevog karaktera. U kadrovima koji slede u filmu, on prikazuje snimak

koncerta u kome Marli govori o pokušaju atentata i pokazuje ožiljke koje je tom prilikom

zadobio, čime naglašava njegov nesalomivi duh i budi još više poštovanja kod publike. Isto

čini i sa poslednjim koncertom održanim u Pitsburgu (Pittsburgh) 23. septembra 1980. godine.

Marliju je par dana pre koncerta pozlilo prilikom trčanja i tada mu je saopšteno da se tumor

proširio i da mu je zdravlje ozbiljno ugroženo. Mekdonald ovaj trenutak prikazuje

smenjivanjem komentara prijatelja koji su bili sa njim kada mu je pozlilo i kada mu je

izrečena dijagnoza i slikama Marlija u krupnom planu sa ozbiljnim izrazom lica, čime

11


naglašava težinu situacije i budi saosećanje kod publike. Zatim slede informacije o tome

koliko je prevač teško primio ovu vest, a onda i opis koncerta, uz naglašenu činjenicu da nije

odustao od istog i da se nekoliko puta vraćao na scenu, praćen slikama sa nastupa. Time je

njegova posvećenost muzici i poštovanje publike duboko urezano u svest gledalaca, a stvoren

je i utisak poznavanja "pravog" Marlija, ne kao muzičke zvezde, već kao običnog čoveka, ali

visokih moralnih i ljudskih kvaliteta. Navedenim potezima, Mekdonald je istovremeno

demistifikovao i uzdigao Boba Marlija.

Put muzičke zvezde, pun uspona i padova, završen je u Americi 1981. godine, smrću

ovog velikana. Reditelj spomenuti segment osvetljava Marlijevim poslednjim danima u

bolnici, praćenim numerom Redemption song. Na kraju, ovaj pažljiv i detaljan portret

zaokružuje snimcima sahrane Boba Marlija, koga je na večni počinak ispratilo na hiljade

vernih fanova i poštovalaca njegovog lika i dela, uz pesmu Sellasie is the chapel. Koristeći

ovu pesmu, prisutnu u vidu nedijegetske muzike, što jasno sugeriše na ciljani uticaj na

publiku, reditelj stvara ubedljivu atmosferu ispunjenu poštovanjem i divljenjem Marliju.

Zaključak

Kao što možemo videti iz ove analize filma Marley, Mekdonaldov portret Boba Marlija nudi

prikaz jednog vrlo zanimljivog i istovremeno neobičnog života. Reditelj nam skreće pažnju na

sve bitne momente koji su uslovili ili podstakli Marlijevu muzičku karijeru, hitove koji su ga

proslavili, kao i na način na koji su ovaj umetnik i njegova muzika bili prihvaćeni. Takođe,

poput istoričara, Mekdonald osvetljava Marlijevu ulogu u društvu i politici, ukazujući i na

uticaj koji je rege muzičar imao na istoriju muzike. Sve ovo se može podvesti pod elemente

muzikološkog rada, s obzirom da je reč o rasvetljavanju života ličnosti iz sveta muzike.

Mekdonaldova ekranizovana biografija, poduprta muzičkim primerima, ispunjava sve uslove

detaljne studije ličnosti. Reditelj se vešto služi novim medijem, popularišući, ili bolje reći,

čuvajući popularnost slavnog Marlija i njegovih pesama. On (Mekdonald) ostaje delimično

objektivan (iako se dokumentarni film smatra suprotnim fikciji, gledište reditelja je uvek

prisutno, stoga se o objektivnosti, u smislu termina koji implicira na postojanje nezavisnosti

od subjektivnih primesa i uticaja ne može govoriti), "pripovedajući" o rege muzičaru bez

ikakvih rekonstrukcija i bez idealizovanja Marlijeve ličnosti. Ne prikazuje ga kao nasmejanog

čoveka čiji hitovi asociraju na "sunce koje sija [...] njišuće palme" (Thompson 2002).

Naprotiv, ovaj film govori o univerzalnim porukama muzike Boba Marlija i o njegovoj

12




ličnosti, rušeći široko rasprostranjeno viđenje ove muzičke zvezde kao "ekstatičnog naivca"

(Lodge 2012). Na taj način, reditelj uspeva da očuva i određenu dozu objektivnosti,

neophodnu za kredibilitet biografije jednog umetnika, nasuprot komercijalizaciji Marlijevog

lika na šta ukazuje Tompson koji navodi da je Marli rangiran "među obe grupe – i među

najpopularnije i među pogrešno shvaćene figure u modernoj kulturi" (Thompson op. cit.)

Tompson dalje ističe da je Marli bio "dete iz geta koje je sanjalo Če Gevaru i Crne pantere,

[...] dete koje je verovalo u slobodu; u borbu koja je neophodna, [...] čiji su heroji bili Džejms

Braun i Muhamed Ali; čiji je Bog bio Ras Tafari i čiji je sakrament bila marihuana." Uprkos

tome i zanemarujući te činjenice, prema rečima Tompsona "Marli se pamti po dobroti, smehu,

suncu koje sija, drveću palmi koje se njiše i nizu hitova koji izlaze iz radija poput slatkiša iz

mašine za gumene bombone. Naravno to mu je osiguralo besmrtnost. Međutim, to ga je

takođe i ponizilo do neprepoznatljivosti. Bob Marli je vredeo mnogo više" (Ibid). U tom

smislu, Mekdonald prikazuje upravo to prvo, pravo lice Marlija, duboko religioznog

Rastafarija koji je verovao u slobodu.

Pristupajući Marlijevoj biografiji na način muzikologa, Kevin Mekdonald doprinosi

nasleđu istorije muzike koristeći filmsku medijsku tehnologiju kao "instrument društvenog

prosvetljenja" (Kelner 2004, 552). Na taj način on medijsku tehnologiju upotrebljava u korist

pojedinca, i to na više nivoa, "čuvajući" uspomenu na Marlija, promovišući njegovo nasleđe, i

pružajući zainteresovanom pojedincu mogućnost da se podrobnije upozna sa njegovim

(Marlijevim) životom i delom. Takođe, obraćajući se širokom krugu publike, Mekdonald kroz

film uspešno promoviše i rege muziku.

References

1. Austin, Thomas, and Wilma de Jong (Editors). 2008. Rethinking Documentary: New Perspectives and Practices. Maidenhead: Open University Press.

2. Bellis, Mary. 2018. "The History of the Motion Picture – Who Invented Cinema, the Camera, or Film?" ThoughtCo. URL: http://inventors.about.com/library/inventors/blmotionpictures.htm

3. Chevannes, Barry. 1994. Rastafari – Roots and Ideology. New York: Syracuse University Press.

4. Dixon, Wheeler Winston, and Gwendolyn Audrey Foster. 2018. A short History of Film (3rd Edition). New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press.

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5. Edgar, Robert, Kirsty Fairclough-Isaacs, and Benjamin Halligan (Editors). 2013. The Music Documentary: Acid Rock to Electropop. New York and London: Routledge.

6. Ellis, Jack C., and Betsy A. McLane. 2006. A New History of Documentary Film. London and New York: Continuum.

7. French, Philip. 2012. "Marley – review". The Guardian, April 22. URL: http://www.theguardian.com/film/2012/apr/22/bob-marley-documentary-review

8. Godmilow, Jill. Interview with Ann-Louise Shapiro. 1997. "How Real is the Reality in Documentary Film“. History and Theory (36/4): 80–101. Middletown: Weslyan University. URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2505576

9. Grierson, John. 1966. Grierson on Documentary. London: Faber and Faber Ltd.

10. Holden, Stephen. 2012. "Reggae's Mellow King, Defined by a Legacy He Couldn't Outrun“. The New York Times, April 19. URL: http://www.nytimes.com/2012/04/20/movies/a-documentary-on-bob-marley-from-kevin-macdonald.html?_r=0

11. Kelner, Daglas. 2004. Medijska kultura: studije kulture, identitet i politika između modernizma i postmodernizma. Prevod Aleksandra Čabraja. Beograd: Clio.

12. Kronja, Ivana. 2007. "Ka definiciji avangardnog filma“. U Zbornik radova Fakulteta dramskih umetnosti (11-12/2007), Urednik Vladimir Jevtović, 103 – l24. Beograd: FDU.

13. S. n., Leksikografski Zavod Miroslava Krleža. Dokumentarni film. U Hrvatska enciklopedija. URL: http://www.enciklopedija.hr/Natuknica.aspx?ID=15755.

14. Lodge, Guy. 2012. "Marley". Variety, February 12. URL: https://variety.com/2012/film/markets-festivals/marley-1117947069/

15. Logan, Robert K. 2010. Understanding New Media – Extending Marshall McLuhan. New York: Peter Lang Publishing, Inc.

16. Marshall, Robert L. 1997. "Film as Musicology: Amadeus“. The Musical Quarterly (81/2): 173–179. Oxford University Press. URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/742458

17. McQuail, Denis. 2010. Mass Comunication Theory (VI edition). London: SAGE Publications Ltd.

18. Mintzer, Jordan. 2012. "Marley: Film Review“. The Hoolywood Reporter, February 12. URL: http://www.hollywoodreporter.com/review/marley-berlin-film-review-kevin-macdonald-289561

19. Mišić, Ivana. 2011. "Elektronska muzika“. Studentski dnevni list. URL: http://www.studnel.com/vremeplov/2011/muzika/elektronska-muzika.html

20. Moskowitz, David V. 2007. Bob Marley: A Biography. Westport: Greenwood Press.

21. Nichols, Bill. 2010. Introduction to Documentary. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.

22. Nikolajević, Snežana. 1994. Muzika kao događaj. Beograd: Clio.

23. Prodanov Rajišnik, Ira. 2013. Muzika i mediji. Novi Sad: Akademija umetnosti InMusWB.

24. Reuters. 2012. "One Love: Marley Film leaves Berlin critics spellbound“. Firstpost, February 16. URL:http://www.firstpost.com/fwire/bollywood-fwire/one-love-marley-film-leaves-berlin-critics-spellbound-215827.html?utm_source=ref_article

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25. Tallents, Stephen. 1946. "The Documentary Film“. Journal of the Royal Society of Arts (95/4733): 75–85. Royal Society for the Encouragement of Arts, Manufactures and Comerce. URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/41364299

26. Thompson, Dave. 2002. Reggae and Caribbean Music. San Francisco: Backbeat Books

27. Uzelac, Ivan. 2015. Zasićenje. Istraživanje digitalne manipulacije zvukom u audiovizuelnom delu. Beograd: Univerzitet umetnosti.

28. Zone R. 2014. Stereoscopic Cinema & the Origins of 3-D Film, 1838-1952. The University Press of Kentucky.

29. Šuvaković, Miško. 2011. Pojmovnik teorije umetnosti. Beograd: Orion Art.

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Choir Management in Nigerian Schools:Choir Management in Nigerian Schools:Consequences of Pedagogical Methods Consequences of Pedagogical Methods

Femi AbiodunDepartment of Music,

ObafemiAwolowo University, Ile-Ife [email protected] [email protected]

Citation: Abiodun, Femi. 2019. "Choir Management in Nigerian Schools: Consequences of PedagogicalMethods ." Accelerando: B elgrade Journal of Music and Dance 4: 3 .

Abstract The increase in number of in-takes has exacerbated the already tensed classrooms in Nigerianschools. Choir management therefore constitutes a key pedagogical issue in chorus classroomas it determines the level of students’ behavior in chorus performance. Our aim was to studythe effectiveness of two teaching methods in the development of expertise in musicians andchorus managerial quality in learning four classical pieces (2 traditional and 2 western).Many researches have been conducted to attempt to explain the underlying causes of whyNigerian choirs sing the way they do. While the attempts were expository in nature, the bulkof the researches remains less empirical; hence this paper which investigated experimentallythe effect of teaching choirs with two different methods: (a) tonic sol-fa method (b) rotelearning method with a focus on four classical musical pieces. Students in the second year ofthe Department of Music, ObafemiAwolowo University, Ile-Ife (n=88) were used asexperimental and control groups. The students were exposed to teaching for a whole semester(2nd semester) and the students’ examination grades for the semester were used for thisstudy. The result revealed that the students taught with tonic- sol-fa method performedsignificantly better than their counterparts taught with rote learning in Western classicalpieces. This paper thus recommends the use of tonic sol-fa for European and African artsongs during choir training process in order to facilitate effective learning process, retentionof learned items, self-practice and better musical performance.Keywords: pedagogy, teaching methods, choir training, tonic sol-fa and rote learning

_____________________________________________

Introduction

There has been considerable research output in the development of expertise in musicians and

the contribution choir training makes in this direction. Choir training classes are relatively

larger in size than the regular classes. Being a practical class, it requires a lot of classroom

1

UDC:37.036:78(669) 78.087.68(669)COBISS.SR-ID 274386956

Received:Nov 21, 2018Reviewed:Dec 15, 2018Accepted:Jan 07, 2019

https://accelerandobjmd.weebly.com/issue4/choir-management-in-nigerian-schools-consequences-of-pedagogical-methods





Femi AbiodunChoir Management in Nigerian Schools: Consequences of Pedagogical Methods

management strategies. Tested in this study is the low-level learning strategy (Sullivan and

Cantwell, 1999).

The focus of this study is to determine the quality of practice and the types of

practicing strategies that teachers adopted in teaching 4 classical pieces to two levels of

University students. Cantwell and Millard’s (1994) study of the relationship between

approach to learning and learning strategies in learning music; and Sullivan and Cantwell’s

(1999) study of the planning behaviors of musicians engaging traditional and non-traditional

scores; identified and classified learning strategies into three levels: lower-level (rote learning,

trial and error and sight reading); mid-level (special alteration, linking of elements); and high-

level strategies (interpretation, patterning, prioritizing and monitoring). They found that for

the traditional score, there is significant relationship between the mid-level strategies and the

use of a deep approach to learning (Sullivan and Cantwell 1999, 245-266). Since this study

covered the lower levels of the University, the low level strategy was adopted and tested in

this study.

Conceptual Clarification

Tonic sol-fa is a pedagogical technique for teaching sight reading as invented by Serah Ann

Glover (1785-1867) of English. Gradually it has since then become a method of teaching

vocal music. None the less different approaches are applied to teaching choral groups. Each

group has its own peculiarity if perceived from the purpose of groping- community singing

group, school singing group, church choir, children, men or women choir. A preliminary

research of the use of tonic sol-fa among the students of tertiary institutions in Nigeria, the

study showed different perspectives like: I enjoy singing but I cannot sing with tonic sol-fa;

the songs become too difficult when tonic sol-fa is applied; I prefer solo singing; I enjoy

group singing with no part singing; it is difficult to apply the text after learning in tonic sol-fa;

people laugh at me when I make mistakes trying to use tonic sol-fa and so on. This

preliminary survey pointed to the fact that using tonic sol-fa may be problematic among

Nigerian students and this prompted this study. (Abiodun 2013,173-183). Other variables

controlled included:

• Those with hoarse voices;

• Those with trained voices;

2



• Those who can sing in sol-fa notation; and

• Those who cannot sing in sol-fa notation

Hanley (1998) notes that the technical aspects of teaching students in music class are laced

with problems ranging from those not singing in tune otherwise feeling incapacitated in music

(Hanley 1998, 36-39). Such technical aspect is the use of sol-fa notation to teach choir,

reading from score and performing without the score sheets.

The ability to sing or play (performance) has always been recognized as a desirable

musical accomplishment among musicians of the world. It contributes in no small measure to

the development of expertise in musicians (concerts and general performances). In the

absence of any musical instrument, the natural instrument, the voice, is capable of singing

without instrumental accompaniment (a cappella). It may be said that everyone who has a

voice ought to naturally sing or learn to sing. This is because singing is the most natural

expression of music and singer is provided with an instrument that costs him nothing, which

never requires tuning and which is always ready for use. Singing has also become a useful

framework to teaching other subjects in the curriculum especially language proficiency.

Training to sing is therefore paramount to acquiring and promoting cognitive and motor

sensory. Singing has a well-known impact on the emotional state, while it can also be a

motivating activity.

"Of all the diverse kinds of instruments, the human voice plays by far the greatest

part." (Ekwueme 1992, 67). The voice can imitate all the instruments (Western and African).

Singing gives all an opportunity to make music together and it fosters the spirit of working as

a team. Music as a subject in Nigeria can be traced to the "Flurry of Missionary activities" in

the Southern Nigeria during the second half of the 19th Century. Teaching and learning of

Music started with the introduction of singing into our schools and for years, singing

consistently appeared on our school time-table and still remains the only aspect of music

taught in Nigerian schools especially primary schools. Rudiments and theory of music is

currently sparely taught at the primary schools in Nigeria. Okafor (1988), Ekwueme (1992),

and Vidal (2004) confirmed this in different studies.

Studies have confirmed that the non-inclusion of music per se in the curriculum of our

primary schools and the absence of music as a subject in most of our secondary schools was

as a result of non-availability of trained teachers. The implication of this will include zero

3


level of preparedness for music education at higher level and non-exposure to musical

training. The results also showed the direct adverse effect this had on the teaching and

learning of music in our higher institutions. Candidates admitted into our tertiary institutions

have little or no knowledge of rudiments of music (Okafor, 1988, 15). This affects generally

the output of the music graduates of College of Education, Polytechnic and University

(Abiodun 2013, 180). To ameliorate this problem, music Educators in the training institutions

over the years have carried out many researches in order to discover suitable methods of

teaching Music. Charles Benner observed: "If school music is to have relevance for the

general populace, music educators must be capable of devising strategies, method, musical

materials and experiences through which most students will discover appropriate uses for

music as personal medium of interest and expression." (Faseun 1994, 8).

Singing especially Western classical pieces is such an area where students with little or

no background in music rudiments have difficulty during choir rehearsal. The Nigerian folk

songs are learnt through rote learning method and melodies of such are passed down through

ascription from one generation to another. With the new technology, the media forum- radio

and television helps in transmitting the melodies regularly where Nigerians learn one folk

song or the other. Classical pieces are seldom played on Nigerian media, it is therefore not

popular.

Studies have shown that Western Music items dominate the curriculum contents of the

Music curricular in Nigerian schools, Colleges and Universities (Nzewi 1991; Omojola 1995).

As much as music Educators are clamouring for inclusion of African Music in our curriculum,

the Nigerian trained Musicians still use western notation to write the indigenous music. This

is a blessing in disguise since this helps to make African music available to the rest of the

world and to make its performance universal.

Rote learning is a described characteristic of informal apprenticeship system of music

education and training procedures in Nigeria (Abiodun 2013, 179); while tonic sol-fa which

was first used by the members of the clergy called monks during the medieval times was

evolved by Guido de Arezzo and developed into the first system of teaching choral music

(Grout 1973). Musical experience in Nigerian primary schools is limited to singing in a choir

and playing the local instrument in the school band (Okafor 1988, 15). Most often, the

experience does not include singing in parts (S.A.T.B) neither does it include the use of tonic

sol-fa to teach. Where the choir or the band has an organ/keyboard, the choir repeats the

4



melodic phrases after the keyboard and where there is no instrument; the choir re-echoes the

melodic phrases after the choir leader.

More emphasis is placed on singing in our schools because it is the only medium that

people understand and many still assume that music as a subject means just singing and

drumming alone. The singing which however is limited to the folk tunes of various cultural

background devoid of the western melodic pattern is not challenging enough to prepare the

mind of students for a Western classical music. One of the problems faced by music educators

in Nigeria is the inclination and preference of the students to listen to popular and traditional

music rather than western ‘serious’ music. There is much of Western items in our curriculum

but much popular music on Nigerian streets and in the air.

Studies equally showed that there is still no audience for Western classical music in

Nigerian musical scene (Ekwueme 1992, 67). Classical music (Vocal and instrumental) is

only appreciated by the academic musicians. Its performance is limited to classroom stages,

academic music conferences and very few churches in Nigeria. With many Africans still non

literate and most Africa being musically illiterate; classical music has not yet got a stable

audience in Nigeria.

It has equally been observed that Africans find it difficult to sing musical pieces with

semitone which is one of the outstanding features of classical piece. Ekwueme (1992, 69)

asserted that "the preponderance of the Africa pentatonic scale which has no semitone interval

at all, makes the proper intonation of semitone extremely difficult for many African Choirs."

Teaching classical pieces by rote learning may as a result of the problems identified above

pose a challenge and alter the actual intonation and melodic sequences in such songs. In a way

this also may contribute to variation in musicality and standard. Some factors determine this

and such factors according to Akosua (1998, 141) include language, materials and structure of

the music which dictate the pitch accuracy. Evidence in her studies suggested that linguistic

content influences musical ideas, particularly, melodic movement in the singing of children.

Other problems African may have as shown in Akosua’s studies include that if African

language patterns are being articulated in a Western tonal environment, they seem to produce

in children a restricted pitch range focused around a tonal center. They children produced a

narrow range of vowel pitches. According to her, one reason for this is the general assent

among adult Akan speakers that singing the major seventh can be problematic.

5


In a study of quality, pedagogy and governance in private; higher education

institutions in Egypt, Barsoum (2017, 193-211) found out that both types of institutions fall

short of providing student-activating teaching methods. The need to research into appropriate

teaching methods is still paramount in all studies. In Firrincieli’s (2016, 1520-1525) study of

Maieutic, a teaching method and learning approach as applied to western music investigated

how Western methodologies can be efficient and valuable in non-western cultures. He

concluded that music teaching and learning must be part of a cultural and artistic approach

towards diverse heritage as found out in the result of this study. No matter how efficient a

method is, it must be adaptable to different cultures because of the peculiarity of each song

within a culture.

Mapaya notes that music pedagogy places a premium on written notation, sometimes

to the demerit of orality (Mapaya 2016, 53). His position explains while many choirs in

Nigeria depend on rote-learning method and there is always a challenge of which of the

methods is better in teaching students with less formal musical experience. This is particularly

typical when training students to perform as a professional singer and attaining good

scholarship in vocal performance. The entry requirement for undergraduate studies in music is

a minimum of five credits grade of which music and English language are compulsory.

However, students without formal music training who showed musical ability at screening

excises are also considered based on their performance at the screening excise. Generally such

students learn the basic rudiments upon admission. Researches showed that the diagnostic test

at the point of admission does not probe musical ability as they are mostly subjective, biased,

flexible and sentimental. Faseun (1994) Vidal (2004) and Abiodun (2013) confirmed this in

their studies. The implication of this is that in the singing class we eventually find those not

singing in tune or otherwise feeling incapacitate in music (Hanley 1998, 39). In the class, we

will find those with bad voices, those with trained voices, those who can sing in sol-fa

notation and those who cannot (Abiodun 2013,180).

Behavioural Management in Chorus Classroom

It is assumed in this study that the fundamental principles of classroom management applied.

From the experience of the researcher for over thirty years as a choir teacher, trainer and

conductor, the first step of hypnosis and establishing routines and classroom management

tools formed the basis of any methods adopted in this study. Todd Finley (2016) reiterated

6



that successful classroom management depends on conscientiously executing a few big

strategies and a lot of little ones (Todd Finley 2016, 57). This because authors have noted that

no single method is enough to teach practical subjects like the chorus class and thus

concluded that related methods could be combined in practical oriented subjects.

Over some time, Nigerians from birth have formed and assumed singing habit

accruing from learning procedures such as learning from parents, peer groups and children

game songs through listening, participation, collaborating, self practice and learning by rote.

Through this a relatively permanent singing habit has been formed. These procedures have

been confirmed in different studies by Ekwueme (1992), Adeogun (2001) and Abiodun

(2013). The studies also confirmed that little or no musical literacy in terms of Western

oriented singing is found in the Nigerian school system. Kardos (2012) noted with dismay that

she has witnessed display of genuine distress and fear of over having to read music in

classroom setting. She further observed that sometimes students have natural resistance to

engaging with the world of classical or art music, often citing it as too difficult to understand.

(Kardos 2012, 143-151)

Behavioral management in chorus classroom entails managing the voice, the large

classroom and the professional ethics. In all these, the voice which is the basic musical

instrument, requires some basic managerial strategies. This study has adopted some of the

basic managerial principles. This includes validating the chorus items as an appropriate

section of Nigerian music curriculum. Finley also suggested that appropriate curriculum as a

classroom management strategy. He equally listed rehearsing transition, keeping student’s

behavior at arm, appreciating good behavior and building content-related anticipation as

strategies.

It has been observed that in big classes, autonomy of the students will enhance better

management of the class. Jessica Hockett and Kristina Doubet (2017) agitated for the

promotion of students' autonomy as a managerial strategy. According to them, "flexible

classrooms rely on students exercising a certain degree of independence. If teachers want to

maximize their time working with individuals and small groups, for example, they need the

rest of the class to be self-sufficient." (Hockett and Doubet 2017, 36-49). Autonomy as

applied to this study required that each part is autonomous and sing independently. Each part

with a student coordinator rehearsed separately for thirty minutes before the four parts sing

together. The 1-2-3 Then Me approach makes students to rely first on their own and their

7


peers’ understanding of a task. This made the students to work together in a class situation

and encouraged working together outside the class.

Different approaches were adopted to resolving classroom management challenges.

Embry and Biglan (2008) recommended the kernels approach described as "fundamental units

of behavior influence" which is the most appropriate for a large class like the chorus class.

(Embry and Biglan 2008, 18-34). Being a practical class of four groupings- Soprano, Alto,

Tenor and bass; the teacher needs a flexible approach to coordinate the class. Todd Finley

(2017) saw the kernel approach as "Research-based classroom management strategies

embedded into more complex constellations of evidenced-based behavioral programmes

because of their effectiveness in cuing self-regulation and pro-academic dispositions" a list of

eleven approaches was given by the author (Todd Finley 2017, 49-61). Two of the approaches

closely related to this study were the non-verbal cues approach which justifies the position of

a conductor in chorus performance; while the ‘When-Then’ approach is an intervention to

help students make responsible decisions. For instance, when you asked me to sing soft, I sing

soft. Studies showed that using this approach, classroom instructions systematically teach

self-regulation, relationship management and responsible decision making.

Mary Poppins’ study generated a list of 14 classroom strategies that are equally useful

in a large class like the chorus class (Mary Poppins 2014, 12-19). Natahe Schwartz’s (2017)

study suggested a set of hints on successful classroom management (Natahe Schwartz 2017,

49-56). One of them is that effective classroom management should be based on learnable set

of skills which in this study requires that the classroom teacher should select pieces according

to the age, the experience, exposure, ability and musical knowledge of the choir members.

This is in line with Abiodun (2013) who reiterated that educational management has to be

centrally concerned with the purpose or aims of education (Abiodun 2013, 173-183).

Natahe Schwartz (2017) suggested leadership approach defined as influencing other’s

actions in achieving desirable end. He further emphasized the importance of theory in

education management. According to him, theory provides a rationale for decision making,

theoretical framework underpinning practice in educational institution (Natahe Schwartz …

ibid). A good knowledge of rudiments and theory of music will enhance good quality musical

rehearsals, practices and performance.

8



The Problem

Many choirs in Nigeria cannot read the staff notation like most of the African choirs. The

choirs use mainly the rote learning method and few depend on sol-fa notation. There is always

a challenge of which of the methods is better in teaching students with less formal musical

experience. This study therefore investigated experimentally the effect of teaching a choir

with two different methods: (a) tonic sol-fa method and (b) rote learning method with a

focus on four classical musical pieces. This author observed for many years as an organist and

a performer that Nigerian choirs do not sing classical songs very well. This study assumed

that the problem may be as a result of bad method of teaching, choir incompetence, teacher’s

inexperience or phobia for classical songs. This study therefore investigated experimentally

the effect of two different methods of teaching a choir and the effect on student’s academic

performance in musicianship. Four classical pieces were purposely selected for the study:

1. Hallelujah Chorus ( excerpt from Handel’s Messiah 1685-1759)

2. Te Deum Laudamos (Samuel Akpabot 1975)

3. He shall be great (Peterson’s Down from His Glory (1977)

4. My love for you (excerpt from Omojola’s Odyssey of an innocent, 1994)

The Two methods used are rote learning and tonic sol-fa methods.

Research Hypothesis

H01: There will be no significant difference in the post-instruction performance of students

taught with tonic sol-fa method and their counterparts taught with rote learning method.

H02: There will be no significant difference in the post-instruction performance in songs

composed by Western and Nigerian composers.

Methodology

The target population for this study was the 200 levels students of Department of Music,

ObafemiAwolowo University 2015/2016 session. There were a total of eighty eight students

in the class. Half of the class (n=44) students were the control group (rote learning method)

while the second half (n=44) were the experimental group (tonic sol-fa method) 300 and 400

9


level students were not involved in the study because they have studied some of these

classical pieces previously. The study was conducted in the second semester of 2015/2016

session. The musical scores used were compositions of two Western composers, G.F. Handel

(1685-1759) and John Peterson (1977), and two Nigerian classical composers Samuel

Akpabot (1975) and Bode Omojola (1994).

To keep the teacher variable constant for the two songs, two lecturers in the

Department were involved in the teaching of the songs using the two methods of teaching

separately. The two lecturers were always present during instruction period. The four musical

scores chosen were taught for one semester.

At the end of the instructional period, the students were given the same questions

irrespective of the group. The two lecturers were also involved in examining the students and

the average scores were used to get the raw scores of each of the students. The scores used

were not the total score in the semester course but the scores in the Examination taken.

Continuous assessment scores were not used. The t-test statistical tool was used to test the two

stated hypotheses by comparing the mean scores of the two levels in each of the dependent

variable of different methods and different composers of different geographical setting and

different exposure.

Result

Table 1Mean Rating of control and experimental groups

on the items in the two different methods.

S/N Items Method Used Mean Rating

1. Hallelujah Chorus A1

B26.715.09

2. Te Deum Landamus AB

6.32

4.68

3. He shall be great AB

7.035.54

4. My Love for you AB

7.215.59

1 Experimental group (tonic sol-fa method) 2 Control group (Rote learning method)

10



From table 1, it is clearly shown that the experimental group had higher ratings than the

control group in all items.

Table 2 The t-test result on post- instruction performance scores of experimental and

control groups in the two methods used.

Method Used N X S.D Calculated t-value Table t-value Df

Experimental 44 27.28 2.27 8.39 2.069 23

Controled 44 20.09 1.7

In table 2, the calculated t-value of 8.39 is far greater than the critical t-test of 2.069 (at 23.df

and 0.05 level of significance). This implies that students taught with tonic sol-fa had

significantly more positively post instruction performance than their counterparts in the

control group. Even if there were differences in individual scores of both groups as a result of

natural talent, interest, exposure and voice parts, the difference is insignificant as much as no

particular score was exceptionally too high among others. The null hypothesis (H0) that there

is no significant difference in respect of the two different methods used is rejected since the

critical t-value is less than the calculated value. The mean rating (table 1) confirms this.

Table 3Western and Western Composers (Compared)

Composer Group N X S.D Calculated t-value

Table t-value

Df

Western 1 44 13.75 1.35 6.82 2.069 23

Western 2 44 10.36 0.94

The t-test on post instruction performance of experimental and control group based on

composer’s geographical settings (Western and Western Composers Compared).

11


Table 4Western and Nigerian composers (Compared)

Composer Group N X S.D Calculated t-value

Table t-value

Df

Nigerian 1 44 13.75 1.3 7.19 2.069 23

Western 2 44 9.8 1.17

Table 3 shows that the critical t-value of 2.069 (at df 23 and 0.05 level of significance) is far

below the calculated t-value of 6.82. This means that students taught with Tonic sol-fa even in

Western songs performed significantly better. Similarly in table 4 the result showed that the

calculated value of 7.19 (in favor of experimental group in songs composed by Nigerians) is

higher than the critical value of 2.069. The null hypothesis is therefore rejected.

Discussion and Conclusion

The findings of the study are both interesting and have important implications for the teaching

of a choir within and outside academic circle. This study has validated the use of tonic sol-fa

in the singing ensembles. It has equally confirmed its general usage in different types of

classical songs of various geographical settings with different musical elements such as form

and structure, range, totality, intonation, harmony, melodic pattern, rhythmic movements and

so on.

This study assumed that the problem may be as a result of bad method of teaching,

choir incompetence, teacher’s inexperience or phobia for classical songs. The result showed

that the effect of method used for teaching does not affect significantly the performance

output compared to the effect of culturally nuances. Such cultural indices include the duality

of choir performance situations. The Nigerian choirs are product of two situations:

a) Creative musical ability (outside school) emanating from

i. Band outside school

ii. Church choir

iii. Moonlight play

iv. Musical and non-musical events (festivals, social events like naming, traditional

marriage and funeral ceremonies)

12



v. The griots and ministrels (solo performance along the streets)

b) School choir

i. Nursery rhymes

ii. Primary school singing group

iii. Secondary school singing groups mostly a capella groups

iv. University choir

The two situations are relatively managed and are instrumental to performance outcomes of

Nigerian choirs. The ability to manage the different performance situations shows

significantly when contesting with Nigerian voice texture and the pitches of the melody on

one hand and the intonation of the text and melodic contour of the pieces on the other hand.

The study also affirmed that Western-trained Nigerian musicians who used European

idioms equally produced music that are of high standard like their counterparts in Europe. It

shows that more Mozart in West Africa have been produced- the first being Rober Coker

(Omojola 1995). Firrincieli (2016) reiterated that western teaching approach methodologies

could be efficient and valuable in a variegated context which in this case among the choirs in

Nigeria where this study has also confirmed that Western method (tonic sol-fa) was efficient

in teaching African oriented melodies. The "musical exchange" between Nigeria and the West

and in most African countries contributed in no small measure to a radical re-definition of art

music in Nigeria. At least we still use Western notation system to write our compositions.

Singing for a long time has been a misrepresentation of music as a subject on the time

table in our schools. The only method used for this singing exercise is rote learning. The

teacher leads and the pupils repeat after him. She/he only beats the desk to maintain rhythmic

pattern and tempo. She/he relies on her/his own suitable pitch of voice to determine the key

and she/he eventually sings all the songs in the same key. With the singing as the only aspect

of music most cherished, it should be thoroughly taught and it is high time we set aside rote-

learning method for a more desirable method capable of developing positive attitude, musical

habit, and musical skills in singing.

More positive attitudes were identified with this study. The tonic sol-fa method is

discovered to be capable of creating a permanent learning status rather than casual learning

and offers an opportunity for self-practice and revision at one’s convenience. Use of tonic sol-

13


fa methods makes learning less difficult; reduces enormous task of teachers, help the

unmusical and greatly improve musical performance. More importantly, it makes a choir

more confident, composed and assured. It facilitates fast learning of songs irrespective of the

geographical setting of the songs. Use of tonic sol-fa could go a long way to make pupil more

musical and a persistent use would eventually eradicate the rote learning method and make

singing a more expressive, moving exhilarating and beautiful experience.

In Firrincieli’s (2016) study of Maieutic, a teaching method and learning approach as

applied to western music investigated how Western methodologies can be efficient and

valuable in non-western cultures (Firrincieli 2016, 1520-1525). This study confirmed

Firrincieli’s study. In this study, we were able to identify the inter-cultural nuances in the

teaching methods considering the Nigerian singing culture within the context of a musical

event and even in events that are not musical like the festival where singing only features.

Teaching singing in schools could be effective when these two independent inter-

cultural methods are combined. It will go a long way in blending the Western and African

cultures. No matter how efficient a method is, it must be adaptable to different cultures

because of the peculiarity of each song within a culture.

References

1. Abiodun, F. 2013. "Training of musicians in traditional setting: Contemporary and pedagogical issues." Journal of Nigerian Music Education 5: 173-183.

2. Adeogun, A. O. 2001 "The future directions of music teacher education in Nigeria." Journal of Nigerian Music Education 1: 17-33.

3. Akosua, O. A. 1998. "Melody, language and the development of singing in the curriculum." British Journal of Music Education 15 (2): 139-148.

4. Barsoum, G. 2017. "Quality, pedagogy and governance in private higher institutions in Egypt." Africa Education Review 14 (1): 193-211.

5. Cantwell, R. H. and Y. Millard. 1994. "The relationship between approach to learning and learning strategies in learning music." British Journal of Educational Psychology. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.2044-8279.1994.tb01084.x

6. Ekwueme, L. 1992. "Composing contemporary African choral music: Problems and prospects." Lagos: Centre for Intercultural Music arts.

7. Embry, D. D. and A. Biglan. 2008. "Evidenced- based kernel: Fundamental units of behavior influence." Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review. 18-34. Doi 10.1007/s10567-008-0036-x

8. Faseun, F. 1994. "Musical curriculum in Nigeria secondary schools and College: What relevance?" A paper presented at the 2nd National Conference of Musicological society of Nigeria, University of Nigeria, Nsukka. 1-23.

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9. Finley, T. 2017. "19 Big and small classroom management strategies." Lucas Educational Foundation. https://www.edutopia.org Accessed March 4, 2018. 49-61.

10. Firrincieli, A. 2016. "Maieutic: A teaching and learning approach as applied to Western music." Procedia-Social and Behavioural Science 237: 1520-1525.

11. Grout, D. J. 1973. A History of Western Music. New York: W. W. Norton Company.

12. Hanley, B. 1998. "Music in elementary teacher education in BC." Canadian Music Educator 39(3):36-39.

13. Hockett, J. and K. Doubet. 2017. "6 strategies for promoting student autonomy." Lucas Educational Foundation. https://www.edutopia.org Accessed March 4, 2018. 39-49.

14. Kardos, Leah. 2012. "How music technology can make sound and music worlds accessible to students composers in further education colleges." British Journal of Music Education 29 (2): 143-151.

15. Mapaya, M. G. 2016. "University-based music training and current South Africa music praxis:Notes and tunes." African Studies Quarterly 16(2): 47-65

16. Mishra, Jenniffer. 2007. "Correlating musical memorization styles and perceptual learning modalities." Vissions of Research in Music Education 9(1): 1-19.

17. Nzewi, M. 1991. Musical Practice and Creativity, an African Traditional Perspective. Bayreuth: Iwalewa-Haus, University of Bayreuth.

18. Okafor, R. C. 1988. "Focus on music education in Nigeria." International Journal of Music Education 12: 9-17.

19. Omojola, B. 1995. Nigerian art music. Ibadan: IFRA.

20. Poppins, M. 2014. "14 classroom management strategies." Lucas Educational Foundation. https://www.edutopia.org Accessed March 4, 2018. 12-19.

21. Schwartz, N. 2017. "Top 10 secrets of successful classroom management." Lucas Educational Foundation. https://www.edutopia.org Accessed March 4, 2018.

22. Sullivan, Y. and R. H. Cantwell. 1999. "The Planning behaviors of musicians engaging traditional and non-traditional scores." Psychology of Music 27 (2): 245-266.

23. Vidal, T. 2004. "Music education in Nigeria: Entering the 21st century with a pragmatic philosophy." A keynote address delivered at the 4th annual conference of musicological society of Nigeria at University of Ibadan. June 5.

15



Movement Interpretation of Music in Eurhythmics:Movement Interpretation of Music in Eurhythmics:Approach to Movement Interpretation in Music Education in PolandApproach to Movement Interpretation in Music Education in Poland

Anna Galikowska-GajewskaStanisław Moniuszko Academy of Music, Gdańsk, Poland

[email protected]

Citation: Galikowska-Gajewska, Anna. 2019. "Movement Interpretation of Music in Eurhythmics: Approach to Movement Interpretation in Music Education in Poland". Accelerando: Belgrade Journal of Music and Dance 4:4.

Abstract In this article the main topic is related to the movement interpretation of music which isfounded on the artistic version of the Dalcroze method. The essence of movementinterpretation is a synthesis of music and movement designed in space. This perfect form ofmusic materializing in the movement of the human body is a clear and interesting offer ofbecoming acquainted with music and refers to the contemporary indicators of contemplationof art. The discussed issues will be presented in the historical context, particularlyemphasizing the formation and the development of Eurhythmics during Dalcroze's stay inHellerau and the spread of it throughout the world, as well as the consecutive approach tomovement interpretation with the emphasis on Polish approach to movement interpretationand its application in music education system. In addition, also in the context of personalexperiences of the author, connected with creating of movement interpretations presented bychildren and adolescences on the stage. The author analyzes the process of creatingmovement interpretations of music, shows its subsequent stages, leading to the final -visualization of music on the stage in movement and space. Therefore, the author emphasizesthe role of movement interpretation in popularizing music, indicating that the movementinterpretations of music offer a perfect way of perception of a music work, which leads boththe performers and the recipients to the world of music.Keywords: rhythms of space, plastic music, natural rhythm, Music, Plastic Expression,Eurhythmics, music expression

_____________________________________________

Introduction

The Dalcroze method of teaching music is based on the assumption of comprehensive human

development in numerous spheres. Movement being the basis of the Rhythmics leads to

harmonious progress of the whole human organism. Emil Jaques – Dalcroze refers to the

1

UDC:78.071.1 Жак-Далкроз E.Жак-Далкроз Жак-Далкроз E.E. Жак-Далкроз E. Жак-Далкроз E. Жак-Далкроз E. Жак-Далкроз E.37.015:781.15(475)COBISS.SR-ID Жак-Далкроз E.274387212 Жак-Далкроз E.

Received:Oct Жак-Далкроз E.03, Жак-Далкроз E.2018Reviewed:Dec Жак-Далкроз E.14, Жак-Далкроз E.2018Accepted:Jan Жак-Далкроз E.06, Жак-Далкроз E.2019

https://accelerandobjmd.weebly.com/issue4/approach-to-movement-interpretation-in-music-education-in-poland



Anna Galikowska-GajewskaMovement Interpretation of Music in Eurhythmics: Approach to Movement Interpretation in Music Education inPoland

famous definition by Plato "(…) rhythm is the order of movement" (Dalcroze 1992, 9), but he

adds that "muscles were made for movement, and rhythm is movement" (Ibidem, 17).

Dalcroze, born in Vienna in 1865 to a Swiss family, made movement the basis of his

creative system of teaching music. All its components: rhythmics, solfege, and improvisation

lead to the artistic version of the Dalcroze method, which is founded on movement

interpretations of music. This perfect form of music materializing in the movement of the

human body, planned for the space of the stage, is the subject of this article. The discussed

issues will be presented in the context of personal experiences of the author, connected with

creating of movement interpretations of music presented on the stage. It also refers to the

author's completed and published work of art: a DVD, book and photo album, published as a

combined work under the title The sound in movement interpretation of a music piece:

Debussy, Cage, Penderecki, Szalonek, Dobrowolski, Olczak, Kaiser (Galikowska-Gajewska

2012).

Historical aspect

The words that are always worth being reminded to our contemporaries, the words that never

lose their value – the artistic credo of Émile Jaques-Dalcroze: "I dream about such system of

teaching music in which the human body will be playing a

direct role between the sound and the thought, it will

simply become an instrument of expressing our

sensations." (Brzozowska-Kuczkiewicz 1991,13). Émile

Jaques-Dalcroze discovered that the human body can

express and convey content which is not told by words but

communicated by means of movement. He affirmed that

specifically "body, a perfect instrument for movement

expression, should be trained by special artistic studies,

with the object of stimulating temperament, overcoming

neural resistance, creating correlation between imagination

and centres of realization, developing, disciplining and

harmonizing statement means" (Gerhardt – Punicka 1963,

79). He observed also that the properly prepared and taught human body is capable of

expressing all nuances of music. The Dalcroze teaching of movement helps to attain full ease,

2

Émile Jaques-Dalcrozesource linksource link

http://www.gutenberg.org/files/21653/21653-h/21653-h.htm




expressiveness, and ability to experience and sense the music with one's own body.

Expressiveness of music, its full emotional load, was reflected by the aesthetic and natural

movement of the performers. In his search for natural and spontaneous form of movement

expressing music, Dalcroze reached for the legacy of the Greek culture, whose noble ideas of

education and shaping people's hearts, bodies, and minds, became an unattainable ideal for

many generations of creators. He had been studying the construction of Greek sculptures from

which he extracted twenty gestures, subsequently applied to plastique animée.

Simultaneously, Dalcroze was trying to find a kind of movement that was not movement

for movement's sake. This movement should be subjected to music and follow it to cause

"(…) the body to become music" as he used used to say (Martin 1975, 117). Dalcroze

discovered also that body movement can be used to express a music piece. This became the

basis of his education. Dalcroze created a method consisting of three, related to each other,

links: eurhythmics with plastique animée, solfége and improvisation.

Rhythmics

Rhythmics is the basis of the method: "It is a form of musical education, based in the first

place on listening and teaching of movement […]" (Porte 1975, 117). "Rhythmics teaches the

concept of rhythm, structure, and musical expression by movement" (dalcrozeusa.org). As

John R. Stevenson writes: "In rhythmics the body movement is the dominant experience […]"

(Stevenson, summerdalcroze.com).

Movement interpretation of music is an integral part of eurhythmics, initially called by

its creator: the plastique animée. A definition, the term and the notion of plastique animée

was introduced by Emile Jaques-Dalcroze himself. It is currently included in the Polish

curricula under the name of "Technique and movement expression" or "Exercises in

movement expression" (Dalcroze 1992, 63-84).

Plastique animée, called nowadays the movement expression, is a crucial element of

movement interpretation of music, which builds the artistic dimension of the Eurhythmics

Method. The essence of the movement interpretation of music is a close relation between

music and movement. It is specified by the Eurhythmics creator, Émile Jaques Dalcroze: "The

aim of eurhythmics is to express the meaning of music by body movement (…)" (Ibidem, 63).

Music, emotionally affecting a human being, is a stimulus for imaginative creations. It occurs

as movement interpretation of a piece, animated picture of music, where movement composed

3

http://www.summerdalcroze.com/html/articles

http://www.dalcrozeusa.org/about-us/history/


in space is a tool of music visualization. In the first movement interpretations the Eurhythmics

creator revives twenty gestures. Hence, he went to Hellerau, just north of Dresden, and it was

where two innovators, two men with their broader views and their revolutionary ideas about

theatrical perfomance, began their collaboration. It was in 1906 when Emil Jaques–Dalcroze

met the scenographer Adolphe Appia, the creator of the system of Eurhythmics met the

creator of the revolution in stage lightining brought by electricity, the man with the broader

view on music education met the man with the broader scenographic philosophy. According

to Dalcroze:

authors, poets, musicians and painters cannot demand from the interpreters oftheir works knowledge of the relations between movements in time and in space,for this knowledge can only be developed by special studies. No doubt a few poetsand painters have an inborn knowledge of the rhythms of space; for instance,Hugo von Hofmannsthal, the stage mounter of "Electra" at the Vienna Opera, whoconstructed a huge staircase, on which, however, the actors, having littleacquaintance with the most elementary notions of balance, moved with deplorableheaviness [Pg. 25]; or again, the aesthetician Adolphe Appia, whose remarkablework Music and Stage Mounting ought to be the guide of all stage managers. Butthe majority of composers write their plastic music without knowing whether it iscapable of being practically realized, without personal experience of the laws ofweight, force and bodily movement. (Dalcroze 1909, 25.)

Eventually their collaboration flourished in the city of Hellerau, "the bright meadow", a

"garden city" (it was called a German "Garden city" as been dedicated to the humanization of

modern industrial practices), and there the Euthythmics was born.

Eurhythmics

According to John W. Harvey,

[...] the term Eurhythmics has been here coined for the purpose. The originalityof the Dalcroze method, the fact that it is a discovery, gives it a right to a name ofits own: it is because it is in a sense also the rediscovery of an old secret that aname has been chosen of such plain reference and derivation. Plato, in the wordsquoted above, has said that the whole of a man's life stands in need of a rightrhythm: and it is natural to see some kinship between this Platonic attitude and theclaim of Dalcroze that his discovery is not a mere refinement of dancing, nor animproved method of music-teaching, but a principle that must have effect uponevery part of life. (Dalcroze 1915, 5.)

4



Therefore, Hellerau became a European centre for teaching and performing according to the

guidelines of the Eurythmics Method at the Dalcroze Institute or Festival Theater (1910-11) in

Hellerau, founded by German brothers Dohrn to Jaques-Dalcroze. "It was there, in Hellerau,

where the two men came to meet and to plan for the possibilities offered by the projected

Hellerau festivals" (Beacham, 1985). It was there where vigorous performances of

eurhythmics put on by Dalcroze, radically simple sets designed by Appia and dramatically lit

by Georgian painter and stage designer Alexandar von Salzmann could be seen. It was there

where Jaques–Dalcroze staged Gluck's opera "Orpheus and Eurydice", the second act in 1911

and the entire work in 1912. At the first public school "Festival" in the summer of 1911, the

students performed scenes from "Orpheus", as well as improvisation and group exercises

before 500 journalists and more than 4,000 people in an audience.

At the second "Festival" a year later they performed a full performance of "Orpheus and

Eurydice", before an audience of over than 5,000, that included viewers such as G. B. Show,

5

Festival Theatre Hellerau circa 1913.Image courtesy of King's College Centre for Computing in the Humanities, London, UK.

source linksource link

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Festspielhaus_Hellerau#/media/File:Festspielhaus_Hellerau_1913.png

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Festspielhaus_Hellerau#/media/File:Festspielhaus_Hellerau_1913.png


Oskar Kokoschka, Max Reinhardt, Reiner Maria Rilke, and Gerhart Hauptmann, among many

other European intellectuals. Janina Mieczyńska-Lewkowska, student of Dalcroze, said when

describing this event: "It was an amazing show. In one time and place resounded music

conducted by Dalcroze, the music that was made visible by choreography, and by a great team

of performers who, following the example of ancient Greek players, wore tunics; movement

and lights were closely related to each other." (Mieczyńska-Lewakowska 1993, 43).

This happened in the first purpose-built shool of eurhythmy, where the German

Reform architect Heinrich Tessenow (1876-1950) created a totally novel interior performance

space: the celling and walls were lined with white waxed sheets of cloth, behind which

thousands of bullbs produced a diffuse, indefinite light, so that the interior was suffused with

light emanating from the surfaces of the ceiling and walls of the space itself; it was the space

in which there was no division between stage and audience, freely combining stage elements

and rows of audience seating, without any permanent fittings, neither the stage nor the curtain,

and featuring a retractable orchestra pit, which all was the novelty developing from that time

until today. The audience and performers were supposed to merge into spiritual and sensory

unity.

It is in the Institute in Hellerau that Dalcroze point out the importance of filling the

gap between the intellectual and the artistic work of the schools:

His experience suggests the possibility of a much closer combination of thesetwo elements, both in elementary and in secondary education. His teachingrequires from the pupils a sustained and careful attention, is in short a severe(though not exhausting) intellectual exercise; while at the same time it trains thesense of form and rhythm, the capacity to analyse musical structure, and thepower of expressing rhythm through harmonious movement." (Dalcroze 1915,11.)

It is worth to mention in this context that both Le Corbusier and Mies van der Rohe had

connections with Dalcroze Institute in the Garden City of Hellerau immediately before the

First World War. Dalcroze menaged to make Hellerau, then a surburb of Dresden, a center for

European modernism. Unfortunatelly, the onset of wars cut off the institute's activities

prematurely. In the summer of 1914, Dalcroze and Appia went to Switzerland and never came

back to Hellerau. Fortunatelly enough, it happened "[...] not before many seeds had been

sown, including the foundation of the Dalcroze Society in Britain […]" (docomomo.uk ).

6



Experiments with new types of school continued in Hellerau, and Dalcroze's pupils spread

his teaching through Dresden and all over Europe, and furthermore, throughout the world.

Polish approach to movement interpretation

The simple yet clear way of presenting music in movement and in space developed by

Dalcroze as movement interpretations have evolved and changed, along with changes in

people and in music. The essence of this art form, however, remains constant, perfectly

expressed by Friedrich Schiller: "When the music reaches its noblest power, it becomes a

shape in space" (Appia 1974, 95). For what is interpretation but a moving shape of music

presented as expressive movement of performers in space? In this creative form, the concrete

dimension of music is realised by the human body in movement. The art of creating

movement interpretations of music consists in continuous construction of relations between

the music and the human body, between movement and space.

It is this perspective and the personal store of experiences that affect how an individual

understands and defines the discussed subject. And thus Monika Skazińska, a renowned

Polish artist, teacher of Eurhythmics and choreographer, explained: "Movement interpretation

of a musical piece is a method of piece explanation by using moves. Its task is to translate the

basic musical material which is 'sound language' into 'movement language'" (Skazińska

1989, 215).

For the author of the article "movement interpretations of a musical piece are the most

beautiful and the most perfect way of reflecting music by means of spatial-movement

measures. They constitute the synthesis of music and movement, thanks to which they allow a

deeper experience of music that is embodied in the movement of the human body"

(Galikowska-Gajewska 2012, 49). Movement interpretations of music summarise Dalcroze's

educational paradigm. They express the integration of music and movement. Personal

experience and perception of music through the movement of the human body, which is the

foundation for all music-and-movement undertakings, leads to understanding music, to a

better and easier perception of a musical work, and eventually for performers of movement

interpretations, to expressive articulation of the expression of the music itself through a

movement realization. The unity of music with movement is an expression of a complete

fusion between a musical work, and its spatial-motor visualization, synchronized in time and

space.

7


Such a way of communicating with music is at its most meaningful and effective in

the process of educating professionals: musicians, dancers, actors and singers. In Poland

Rhythmics is an obligatory subject taught at the music schools of the 1st and 2nd level, ballet

schools, comprehensive schools, music centers, at the Academies of Music, Pedagogical

Academies, Higher Theater and Film Schools. Six Polish music academies offer Eurhythmics

courses at undergraduate and graduate levels. Studies of the 1st and 2nd cycle in Rhythmics

are offered by the Music Schools in Gdańsk, Poznań, Łódź, Kraków, Katowice, and by the

University of Music in Warsaw. However, the amateur movement allows children, young

people, and adults to experience music in movement too. Rhythmic classes are organized in

local and cultural centers, educational care centers, therapeutic centers, cultural and

educational institutions, and non-school educational centers.

The contemporary Polish landscape which encompasses both professional

Eurhythmics education and its availability to a broader range of participants, demonstrates the

influence of the Dalcroze method, and within the method, the supremely important role

played by movement interpretations. The strict subordination of movement to music - the

clear relationship, "[...] leads all people involved in movement interpretations of music to

intense experiences of music-in-movement, and to the performers' identification with the

performed music. The human body becomes a transmitter of emotions, of feelings, and of the

expression of the music itself." (Galikowska-Gajewska 2015, 226).

Movement interpretations of music facilitate a harmonious development of

participants, regardless of age. The creator of Eurhythmics placed so much stress in his

method precisely on such harmonious development, recommending exercises to develop and

raise the awareness of one's own body, understood as an image of the whole body, but also of

its individual parts (Brzozowska-Kuczkiewicz op. cit., 47). The psychologist Henri Wallon

explains it: "[...] awareness of the body is a vital element for building one's personality, it's a

more or less holistic, specific and diverse impression an individual has in relation to their own

body." (Idem; it is in accordance with the views in L. Picq and P. Vayer's Education

psychomotoric published in 1970).

Regardless of the perspective, awareness of the body assumes a close relationship

between the body and the mind. These relationships are emphasised by other authors, to

mention Mabel Todd for example, an American, one of the founders of the discipline of

science on the relationships between mental images and movement, on the concept of

8



ideokinesis (images referring to movement). In her Structural Hygiene she pointed out how

magnificently built human body was and that it had the ability to change according to our will

( Franklin 2007, 25). In her belief in the importance of the "natural posture" [more conscious

awareness of how the body functions in motion and how to improve balanced posture], a call

for better bodily alignment through self-conscious awareness, she is very close to Dalcroze

belief and his ephasise on the importance of acquiring " natural rhythm": "It is a fact that very

young children taught by my method invent quite naturally physical rhythms such as would

have occurred to very few professional musicians, and that my most advanced pupils find

monotonous many contemporary works the rhythmic poverty of which shocks neither public

nor critics." (Dalcroze 1915, 23 ).

Rhythm as a factor in education

Movement interpretations, the Dalcroze's way to contemplate and express music using

movements and gestures, are intended for everybody. This universality, as mentioned above,

refers to the natural and aesthetic human movement.

Schools of Music, formerly frequented only by born musicians, gifted from birthwith unusual powers of perception for sound and rhythm, to-day receive all whoare fond of music, however little Nature may have endowed them with thenecessary capacity for musical expression and realization. The number of soloplayers, both pianists and violinists, is constantly increasing, instrumentaltechnique is being developed to an extraordinary degree, but everywhere, too, thequestion is being asked whether the quality of instrumental players is equal totheir quantity, and whether the acquirement of extraordinary technique is likely tohelp musical progress when this technique is not joined to musical powers, if notof the first rank, at least normal. Of ten certificated pianists of to-day, at the mostone, if indeed one, is capable of recognizing one key from another, of improvisingfour bars with character or so as to give pleasure to the listener, of giving (Pg. 16)expression to a composition without the help of the more or less numerousannotations with which present day composers have to burden their work, ofexperiencing any feeling whatever when they listen to, or perform, thecomposition of another. The solo players of older days were without exceptioncomplete musicians, able to improvise and compose, artists driven irresistiblytowards art by a noble thirst for aesthetic expression, whereas most young peoplewho devote themselves nowadays to solo playing have the gifts neither of hearingnor of expression, are content to imitate the composer's expression without thepower of feeling it, and have no other sensibility than that of the fingers, no othermotor faculty than an automatism painfully acquired. Solo playing of the presentday has specialized in a finger technique which takes no account of the faculty of

9


mental expression. It is no longer a means, it has become an end. (Dalcroze 1915,16.)

That is why simple movement interpretations of music have become a permanent feature of

musical education of nursery children in Poland. They are also an extremely important part of

professional musical education. Dalcroze's Eurhythmics beginning at the elementary music

school level, through music high school, and ending with tertiary music courses.

Children in the first level music schools get to know music and express it in simple

movement interpretations. This type of physical activity evokes high levels of spontaneity and

joy. More difficult musical repertoire is covered at the second level of music education within

the subjects of Eurhythmics and Rhythmics courses. The fullest extent of a very intimate and

mature relationship with music is experienced by the tertiary-level students of the Rhythmics

specialization within the course subjects of Eurhythmics, Movement composition of music

works, and Rhythmics.

The students participate in the creative process of developing a movement and space

composition and by doing that become familiar with the work, its origins, and its form. By

formally analyzing the piece they learn musical notation, the construction of the score.

However, it is the spontaneous motor reactions during the first - improvisational - movement

interpretations that are the most valuable - the personal sensory experience. Such a way of

communing with music (while working on the spatial-movement composition) ensures

developing better understanding and an in-depth knowledge of the music.

Music repertoire for movement interpretations

The selection factors

The selection of music for movement interpretation is determined by a number of factors.

They include the group with which the teacher works and the type of institution where the

Eurhythmics classes are organized. Different musical repertoire is intended for children,

young people, and adults. This division results from the perceptive and movement capabilities

of people of different age groups. Individual interests of the choreographers connected with a

specific music style or the selected composer, etc., are another criterion of selection of music

pieces for moment interpretation. The author believes that it is just this factor that is most

inspirational and stimulates undertaking challenges in designing movement interpretations.

10



Creation of a movement concept

A work of music understood as the synthesis of many elements in the movement

interpretation "is subject to visualization in the form a movement picture designed in space"

(Galikowska-Gajewska 2010, 46). Music being the source of inspiration for artistic activities,

suggests solutions with regard to the movement solutions as well as spatial form. Creating a

movement concept is related with movement improvisation. During movement improvisation

the performer senses the music with his/her entire body, lets the music carry him/her away,

submits himself/herself to the influence of music, thus creating a movement unity with it. A

music piece being an inspiration for creative work, should stimulate the movement sphere of

the performers and lead them to articulate the full expression of music in movement. The

degree of vividness and expressiveness of the movement language to a large extent depends

on the perceptive and movement capabilities of the performers themselves. During the entire

process of creating choreography, we should find more information about inspiration, origin

and sources of the object of our interest. Thus, we ought to understand art's aesthetics and try

to feel the atmosphere of a particular period of time. Then we should search for a suitable

movement which allows expressing real music, not only its form but also the emotions and

expression. Distinct movement is the best manner to show a vision of music and interpretation

in time and space.

Contemporary music as the inspiration for movement interpretations

Contemporary music is the biggest inspiration for the author of this article. Its versatility

resulting first and foremost from the richness of musical sound, offers enormous flexibility to

create and explore original space and movement solutions. Contemporary music has a very

strong impact on human imagination and is a great incentive for continuous exploration of

movement, the limitations of which may result only from the anatomical features of the

human body. This kind of music always opens her mind and stimulates her imagination.

The simplest forms of illustrating music visualization

The simplest forms of illustrating music in movement and space by the youngest children in

the first place relate to the visualization of the elements of the music work, as described by

Dalcroze: "Rhythm, like dynamics, depends entirely on movement, and finds its nearest

11


prototype in our muscular system. All the nuances of time – allegro, andante, accelerando,

ritenuto – all the nuances of energy – forte, piano, crescendo, diminuendo - can be realized by

our bodies, and the acuteness of our musical feeling will depend on the acuteness of our

bodily sensations" (Dalcroze 2000, 60). The dynamic in the body is related to the muscular

system. Every dynamic tones we can express through the correct tension and relaxation of the

muscles. But we also need to link this issue with the size of the movement and the space. We

realized that it isn't easy to practice the tension muscles with children. So we need support in

the form of props.

The props – properties

The props can be used in movement interpretations in a number of various ways. They can be

a kind of set design – decorations - on the stage. The props include also stage costumes and

various objects used to express the emotional character and expressiveness of music in

movement. Lighting is an indispensable element of stage presentations as well.

Lighting, multimedia presentations, animations and visualizations

As it has been already said, on the stage in Hellerau Adolph Appia experimented with

lighting, being aware of the unusually important, expressive, and unifying role of this

element, of its significance for the whole stage work perceived. Nowadays, lighting is treated

in two ways: either as an element to unify the stage presentation or as an individual way of

expression. When presenting movement interpretations of music on stage we take the

advantage of nowadays broad range of the newest stage means that include multimedia

presentations or more advances animations and visualizations. Having an even richer range of

technical means to strengthen the expression of stage communication (the author refers here

to movement interpretation of music), we cannot forget about the leading role of music. This

has been always emphasized by Émile Jaques-Dalcroze and is manifested in his words citated

in Brzozowska – Kuczkiewicz (op. cit., 31): "My whole system of education by rhythm is

based on music, because music has a strong psychic force which, by its power of evoking

action and then regulating it, can harmonize our whole being."

12



The role of movement interpretations in popularisation of music

Concerts are an invaluable tool in the process of popularizing music. They include the

following: Concerts of Movement Interpretations of Music, Concerts of Music Choreography,

a cycle of concerts 'Music – Movement – Space, concerts entitled "To see music", "To see a

picture", etc. The variety of their names does exclude the main idea of such artistic events. At

the same time music is present on the stage and its visualization is presented live by the

expressive movement of the performers. Thus contemporary music with its sound richness has

been promoted more and more boldly for many years. Local community concerts for children,

young people, and the senior citizens; concerts at children academies, concerts at the festivals

of science, concerts in the concert halls for music lovers, concerts at scientific panels,

congresses, seminars taking place in Poland and abroad, provide a great opportunity to present

in public a broad range of music works in their movement dimension.

Conclusion

The comprehensive method of arts education proposed by Émile Jaques-Dalcroze in the

beginning of the 20th century leads to harmonious human development through movement.

My hope is, that sincere artists desirous of perfection and seeking progress willstudy seriously the grave question which I raise. For my own part, relying onmany experiments, and full of confidence in ideas carefully thought out, I havedevoted my life to the teaching of rhythm, being fully satisfied that, thanks to it,man will regain his natural powers of expression, and at the same time his fullmotor faculties, and that art has everything to hope from new generations broughtup in the cult of harmony, of physical and mental health, of order, beauty andtruth. (Dalcroze 1915, 25.)

Movement interpretations of music that constitute an integral part of this education are a clear

and interesting offer of becoming acquainted with music. The essence of movement

interpretation, a synthesis of music and movement designed in space, refers to the

contemporary indicators of contemplation of art.

Therefore, the author emphasizes the following with great determination: don't be

afraid to create artistic visions of music in movement and space, marked with individual

character. The author's conclusion is that it is exactly the movement interpretations of music

that offer a perfect way of perception of a music work, which opens both the performers and

13


the recipients the world of music. In addition, the author's movement interpretations of music

can be seen in Accelerando: BJMD Issue 2.

References

1. Appia, A. 1974. Live work of art and other works. Wydawnictwo Artystyczne i Filmowe. Warszawa. [in Polish]

2. Beacham, Richard C. 1985. "Appia, Jaques-Dalcroze, and Hellerau, Part One: 'Music Made Visible.'" New Theatre Quaterly 1 (02): 154-164 doi: 101017/S0266464X00001524

3. Brzozowska-Kuczkiewicz. M. 1991. Emil Jaques-Dalcroze and his Rhythmics. Warszawa: WSiP. [in Polish]

4. Dalcroze, E. Jaques. 1909. "Rhythm as a factor in education." Le Rhythme (Bâle) of December, 1909.

5. - - - . 1915. The Eurhythmics of Jaques-Dalcroze. Boston, Small Manyard and Company. The Project Gutenberg. Release Date: June 1, 2007 [EBook #21653].

6. - - - . 1992. Selected Letters. M. Bogdan and B. Wakar, compilers. Warszawa: WSiP. [in Polish]

7. - - - . 2000. Rhythm, Music, Education. Translated from the French by Harold F. Rubenstein. Published by The Dalcroze Society (Inc), 5th Edition 2000.

8. Franklin, E.N. 2007. Dynamic Alignment Through Imagery. Warszawa: Wydawnictwo Kined.[in Polish]

9. Galikowska-Gajewska, A. 2010. "Solo pieces as inspiring source in the process of creation movement interpretations of music." Art. Culture and Education, Scientific Dictionary no. 1 (2010): 46. Gdańsk: The department of choral conducting, music education and rhythmcs [in Polish]

10. - - -. 2012. The sound in movement interpretation of a music piece: Debussy, Cage, Penderecki, Szalonek, Dobrowolski, Olczak, Kaiser. Gdańsk: Academy of Music S. Moniuszki in Gdańsk. [in Polish]

11. - - -. 2015. "Eurhythmics: a metod for improving the quality of human functioning in the modern word." In A Man in the Face of the Crisis. Crisis in an Interdisciplinary Perspective. Edited by Aliny Chyczewskiej and Iwony Marii Kijowskiej, 226. Elbląg: Publishers of a State Higher Professional School in Elblag. [in Polish]

12. Gerhardt – Punicka, J. 1963. "Plastics in the Dalcroze Method." In The Documents of COPS. Warszawa 1963 (book no. 71): 79. [in Polish]

13. Levitin, D. S. 2006. This is your brain in music: the science of a human obsession. Dulton, NY. [in Polish]

14. Martin, F. 1975. "Some reflections on the Jaques-Dalcroze's Eurhythmics." Translated by B. Niewiadomska, 117. In The materials of COPS, Warszawa 1975, book no. 162. [in Polish]

15. Mieczyńska-Lewakowska, J. 1993. Facts and people from my life. Łódź: The city of Łódź. [in Polish]

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https://accelerandobjmd.weebly.com/issue2/9-the-sound-in-movement



16. Picq, Luis and Pierre Vayer. 1970. Education psychomotrice. Paris: Doin Editors. [in French]

17. Porte, D. 1974. "The bases of the Method of Jaques-Dalcroze." Le Rythme, (june): 1974. [in French]

18. - - - . 1975. "The bases of the Method of Jaques-Dalcroze." Translated by B. Niewiadomska. In Materials of of COPSA (162): 117. Warszawa 1975. [in Polish]

19. Skazińska, M. 1989. "The meaning of movement interpretation of musical pieces in educationof eurhythmics teachers." In Scientific Notebook of the Academy of Music from the 12 session, no. XVIII, 215. Łódź 1989. [in Polish]

20. Stevenson, R. 2011. "The Principles of a Jaques-Dalcroze Education." [online]. [ acc.: 14 December, 2011]. URL: http://www.summerdalcroze.com/html/articles

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Interpretacje ruchowe muzyki w metodzie Interpretacje ruchowe muzyki w metodzie Rytmiki Emila Jaques-Dalcroze’a Rytmiki Emila Jaques-Dalcroze’a

Interpretation of Motorial Music in the Interpretation of Motorial Music in the Rhythmic Method of Emil Jaques-DalcrozeRhythmic Method of Emil Jaques-Dalcroze

Anna Galikowska-GajewskaStanisław Moniuszko Academy of Music Gdańsk, Poland

[email protected]

Citation: Galikowska-Gajewska, Anna. 2019. "Interpretacje ruchowe muzyki w metodzie Rytmiki Emila Jaques-Dalcroze’a." Accelerando: Belgrade Journal of Music and Dance 4:5.

Abstract The method of learning and experiencing music through movement is proposed by EmilJaques-Dalcroze at the beginning of the 20th century as a very complex, holistic method ofartistic education, that leads to harmonious development of man through the movement.Connected with it integrally interpretation of movement/rhythm and music determines thelegible and interesting proposal of the cognition of music. The essence of "motorial music"interpretation - the synthesis of music and of planned movement in space - appeals tocontemporary determinants of the contemplation of art. The perception of music in general isoften associated with activity in the supplementary motor cortex, as is shown in the D. S.Levitin research ("This is your brain in music: the science of a human obsession" (quoted inBader 2013, 398, published by Dulton, NY in 2006), pointing to a strong influence ofmovement and perception in music. Moreover, an author desires to emphasize these wordswith large determination: Let us not be afraid of to be created artistic visions of music in themovement and space, marked by the features of individuals, because, exactly motorial musicis the perfect manner of the perception of a musical work, which makes both performers andreceivers part of the whole, involving them in the world of music. Keywords: motorial music, rhythmic, rhythm, perception of music, Eurhythmics.

_____________________________________________

Wprowadzenie

Dalcrozowska metoda edukacji muzycznej zakłada wszechstronny rozwój człowieka w wielu

jego sferach. Ruch stanowiący podstawę Rytmiki prowadzi do harmonijnego progresu całego

organizmu człowieka. Emil Jaques – Dalcroze nawiązując do słynnej definicji Platona "(…)

1

UDC:78.071.1 Жак-Далкроз E.Жак-Далкроз Жак-Далкроз E.E. Жак-Далкроз E. Жак-Далкроз E. Жак-Далкроз E. Жак-Далкроз E.37.015:78(475) Жак-Далкроз E. Жак-Далкроз E. Жак-Далкроз E. Жак-Далкроз E.781.01:793.327COBISS.SR-ID Жак-Далкроз E.274388492 Жак-Далкроз E.

Received:Dec Жак-Далкроз E.06, Жак-Далкроз E.2018Reviewed:Jan Жак-Далкроз E.04, Жак-Далкроз E.2019Accepted:Jan Жак-Далкроз E.13, Жак-Далкроз E.2019

https://accelerandobjmd.weebly.com/issue4/interpretation-of-motorial-music-in-the-rhythmic-method-of-emil-jaques-dalcroze

https://accelerandobjmd.weebly.com/issue4/interpretation-of-motorial-music-in-the-rhythmic-method-of-emil-jaques-dalcroze

Anna Galikowska-GajewskaInterpretacje ruchowe muzyki w metodzie Rytmiki Emila Jaques-Dalcroze’a

rytm jest porządkiem ruchu" (E. Jaques-Dalcroze 1992, 9), dodaje: "Mięśnie stworzone są dla

ruchu, a rytm jest właśnie ruchem." (Ibidem, 17).

Dalcroze uczynił ruch podstawą swojego kreatywnego systemu nauczania

muzycznego. Wszystkie jego elementy: rytmika, solfeż i improwizacja prowadzą do

artystycznej odsłony dalcrozowskiej metody, którą stanowią interpretacje ruchowe muzyki.

Ta doskonała forma urzeczywistniania muzyki w ruchu ludzkiego ciała, zaplanowanego

w przestrzeni sceny, stała się tematem niniejszego artykułu. Omawiana problematyka

przedstawiona zostanie w kontekście osobistych doświadczeń autorki, związanych

z tworzeniem interpretacji ruchowych muzyki prezentowanych na scenie, jak również odnosi

się do opublikowanego dzieła artystycznego: płyty DVD, książki i albumu fotograficznego,

wydanego jako dzieło zintegrowane, pod wspólnym tytułem Brzmienie w interpretacjach

ruchowych utworu muzycznegoDebussy, Cage, Penderecki, Szalonek, Dobrowolski, Olczak,

Kaiser (Galikowska-Gajewska 2012).

IAspekt historyczny

Słowa, które zawsze warto przypominać współczesnym, słowa, które nigdy nie tracą na

swojej wartości – artystyczne credo Emila Jaques-Dalcroze’a: "Marzy mi się taki system

kształcenia muzycznego, w którym ciało ludzkie samo przez się będzie grało bezpośrednią

rolę między dźwiękiem a myślą, stanie się po prostu instrumentem do wyrażania naszych

wrażeń" (Brzozowska-Kuczkiewicz 1991, 13).

Twórca Rytmiki był przekonany, że ciało ludzkie może coś wyrażać i przekazywać

treści nie wypowiedziane słowami, lecz za pomocą ruchu. Dlatego też twierdził, że to właśnie

"[…] ciało ludzkie, ten doskonały instrument ruchu, należy kształcić przez specjalne studia

artystyczne, mające na celu obudzenie temperamentu, przezwyciężenie oporów nerwowych,

stworzenie korelacji między wyobraźnią a środkami realizacji, rozwinięcie, zdyscyplinowanie

i zharmonizowanie środków wypowiedzi" (Gerhardt – Punicka 1963, 79).

Zauważył on również, że odpowiednio przygotowane i kształcone ludzkie ciało jest

w stanie wyrazić wszystkie niuanse muzyki. Dalcrozowska edukacja ruchowa pomaga

w osiągnięciu pełnej swobody, ekspresyjności i zdolności przeżywania i odczuwania muzyki

własnym ciałem. Ekspresyjność muzyki, jej cały ładunek emocjonalny, znalazły swoje

odzwierciedlenie w estetycznym i naturalnym ruchu wykonawców. W swoich

2



poszukiwaniach naturalnej i spontanicznej formy ruchu wyrażającej muzykę, sięgnął Emil

Jaques-Dalcroze do spuścizny kultury greckiej, której szczytne idee wychowania

i kształtowania ludzkich serc, ciał i umysłów stały się niedoścignionym wzorem dla wielu

pokoleń twórców. Zainspirowany starożytnymi rzeźbami greckimi, stworzył dwadzieścia

gestów, które zastosował w swojej metodzie. Jednocześnie twórca Rytmiki poszukiwał

takiego rodzaju ruchu, który nie był celem sam w sobie, ale ruchem tak podporządkowanym

muzyce i tak wynikającym z niej, aby " […] aby ciało stawało się muzyką " (Porte 1974).

Dalcroze odkrył, że ciało ludzkie może wyrażać ekspresję utworu muzycznego. Ten

fakt stał się podstawą jego edukacji. Dalcroze stworzył metodę składającą się z 3 połączonych

ze sobą elementów: rytmiki wraz z plastyką ruchu, solfeżui improwizacji.

Rytmika stanowi podstawę metody: "Jest formą kształcenia muzycznego, opartą

przede wszystkim na słuchaniu i kształceniu ruchowym […]" (Ibidem.) "Rytmika uczy

koncepcji rytmu, struktury i ekspresji muzycznej poprzez ruch" (Galikowska-Gajewska 2012,

45). John R. Stevenson pisze: "W rytmice ruch ciała jest dominującym doświadczeniem (…)"

(Galikowska-Gajewska, ibidem.).

Integralną częścią rytmiki jest interpretacja ruchowa muzyki, początkowo zwana przez

twórcę Rytmiki plastyką ożywioną — plastique animée (Plastique animée — określenie

wprowadzone przez samego Emila Jaques-Dalcroze’a. Obecnie w Polsce w programach

nauczania funkcjonujejako "Technika i ekspresja ruchu" bądź "Ćwiczenia ekspresji

ruchowej", zob. więcej: E. Jaques-Dalcroze 1992, 63–84). Plastique animée, zwana dzisiaj

ekspresją ruchową jest fundamentalnym elementem interpretacji ruchowych, stanowiących

artystyczną nadbudowę metody Dalcroze’a. Podstawą interpretacji ruchowych są bliskie

relacje między muzyką i ruchem, co podkreślał twórca Rytmiki w następujących słowach:

"Celem rytmiki jest wyrażanie ruchami ciała znaczeń zawartych w muzyce (…) (Jaques –

Dalcroze 1992, 63). Muzyka emocjonalnie oddziaływując na człoweka stymuluje jego

wyobraźnię. Dlatego też interpretacja ruchowa muzyki – ożywiony obraz utworu muzycznego

– przedstawiony w ruchu wykonawców, zakomponowanych w przestrzeni sceny – staje się

narzędziem wizualizacji muzycznej.

W pierwszych interpretacjach ruchowych twórca Rytmiki ożywiał 20 gestów.

Wydarzenie z 1912 roku - wystawienie w Hellerau. (Instytut w Hellerau został ufundowany

przez niemieckich braci Dorn. Tam w mieście – ogrodzie Dalcroze rozwijaj swoją metodę.

Obecnie jest to europejskie centrum dalcrozowskie.) II aktu Orfeusza Glücka, jeden

3


z krytyków określił następująco: "To, co się tam działo, różniło się od zwykłego teatru, jak

prawda różni się od kłamstwa. Było to niezwykłe widowisko. W jednym czasie i w jednym

miejscu rozbrzmiewała muzyka (orkiestrą dyrygował sam Dalcroze), ruchowy obraz muzyki

w przestrzeni (choreografię) przedstawiał wielki zespół wykonawców (na wzór teatru

greckiego odzianych w tuniki), ruch i światło ściśle ze sobą były zespolone, w nowy sposób

wykorzystano scenę przez zastosowanie schodów i praktykabli. To wszystko sprawiało

kolosalne wrażenie i budziło zachwyt widzów" (Mieczyńska-Lewakowska 1993, 43).

Skróconą wersję opery wystawiono w 1913 roku.

IIPolskie spojrzenie na interpretację ruchową

Zaproponowany przez Dalcroze’a w postaci interpretacji ruchowych prosty a zarazem

czytelny sposób przedstawienia muzyki w ruchu i przestrzeni, ewaluował tak, jak zmieniała

się muzyka, czasy i ludzie. Niezmienna pozostaje istota tej artystycznej formy, którą tak

doskonale tłumaczą słowa Friedricha Schillera: "Kiedy muzyka osiąga najszlachetniejszą

moc, staje się kształtem w przestrzeni" (Appia 1974, 95).

Bo czymże jest interpretacja muzyki, jak nie właśnie ruchowym kształtem muzyki

przedstawionym w ekspresyjnym ruchu wykonawców w przestrzeni. W tej kreacji twórczej,

konkretny wymiar muzyki urzeczywistnia w ruchu ciało człowieka. Sztuka tworzenia

interpretacji ruchowej muzyki to permanentne budowanie relacji między muzyką, ludzkim

ciałem, ruchem i przestrzenią.

Ta właśnie pespektywa oraz bagaż doświadczeń wpływają na indywidualne

rozumienie i definiowanie omawianego zagadnienia. I tak Monika Skazińska (zasłużona

polska artystka, pedagog rytmiki i choreograf) mówiła: "Interpretacja ruchowa to sposób

objaśnienia tegoż utworu środkami ruchowymi. Jej zadaniem jest przełożenie podstawowego

tworzywa muzyki, "języka dźwięków", na "język ruchów" (Skazińska 1989, 215).

Z kolei dla autorki artykułu "Interpretacje ruchowe są najpełniejszym

i najdoskonalszym sposobem odzwierciedlenia muzyki za pomocą środków przestrzenno-

ruchowych. Stanowią syntezę muzyki i ruchu, przez co pozwalają na głębsze przeżycie

i doświadczenie muzyki upostaciowionej w ruchu ludzkiego ciała" (Galikowska-Gajewska

2012, 49).

4



Interpretacje ruchowe muzyki stanowią podsumowanie wszystkich działań

prowadzonych w ramach dalcrozowskiego kształcenia. Są wyrazem integracji muzyki i ruchu.

Osobiste doświadczanie i odczuwanie muzyki ruchem ludzkiego ciała, będące podstawą

wszystkich działań muzyczno-ruchowych prowadzi do zrozumienia muzyki, do lepszej

i łatwiejszej percepcji dzieła muzycznego, aż wreszcie (w kontekście wykonawców

interpretacji ruchowych) do ekspresyjnego wyrażania ekspresji samej muzyki poprzez

realizację ruchową. Jedność muzyki z ruchem jest wyrazem pełnego zespolenia dzieła

muzycznego z jego wizualizacją przestrzenno-ruchową, która przebiega synchronicznie

w czasie i przestrzeni.

Taki sposób obcowania z muzyką najsilniej oddziałuje w procesie kształcenia

profesjonalistów: muzyków, tancerzy, aktorów i wokalistów [W Polsce Rytmika jest

obowiązkowym przedmiotem realizowanym w szkolnictwie muzycznym I i II stopnia,

w szkołach baletowych, w szkołach ogólnokształcących, w ogniskach muzycznych,

w Akademiach Muzycznych, Pedagogicznych, Wyższych Szkołach Teatralnych

i Filmowych]. Studia w zakresie Rytmiki oferuje 6 polskich uczelni muzycznych, zarówno na

poziomie licencjackim, jak i magisterskim [Rytmikę studiować można na studiach I i II

stopnia w Akademii Muzycznej w Gdańsku, Poznaniu, Łodzi, Krakowie, Katowicach oraz na

Uniwersytecie Muzycznym w Warszawie]. Jednakże doświadczać i przeżywać muzykę

w ruchu mogą dzieci, młodzież i dorośli, biorący udział w ruchu amatorskim. Zajęcia rytmiki

prowadzone są w domach i pałacach kultury, w ośrodkach szkolno-wychowawczych

i terapeutycznych, w placówkach kulturalno-oświatowych, w ogniskach pracy pozaszkolnej.

Ten polski współczesny obraz zarówno profesjonalnego kształcenia metodą Rytmiki

jak i oferowanie jej szerszemu gronu odbiorców, ukazuje skalę oddziaływań dalcrozowskiej

metody, a niej niezwykle ważną rolę, jaką pełnią interpretacje ruchowe. Ścisłe

podporządkowania ruchu – muzyce, ta czytelna relacja, "(…) prowadzi wszystkich

uczestniczących w interpretacjach ruchowych muzyki do intensywnego przeżywania muzyki

w ruchu, jak również do utożsamiania się wykonawców z realizowaną muzyką. Ciało ludzkie

staje się tu przekaźnikiem emocji, uczuć i ekspresji samej muzyki." (Galikowska-Gajewska

2015, 226).

Interpretacje ruchowe muzyki prowadzą również uczestników do harmonijnego

rozwoju, niezależnie od wieku. A przecież twórca Rytmika tak bardzo zabiegał w swojej

metodzie właśnie o ten zrównoważony rozwój, zalecając ćwiczenia rozwijające i podnoszące

5


świadomość poczucia własnego ciała, rozumianą jako nasze wyobrażenie o całym

organizmie, ale też o poszczególnych jego częściach (Brzozowska-Kuczkiewicz op. cit., 47).

Psycholog Henri Wallon tak tłumaczy: " […] świadomość poczucia ciała jest zasadniczym

elementem niezbędnym do budowania własnej osobowości, jest to mnie lub więcej

całościowe, specyficzne i zróżnicowane wrażenie, jakie ma jednostka w odniesieniu do

własnego ciała" (M. Brzozowska-Kuczkiewicz op. cit., 47, według L. Picq i P. Vayer 1970).

Niezależnie od spojrzenia na tę problematykę, świadomość poczucia ciała zakłada ścisłą

relację pomiędzy ciałem a umysłem. Związki te akcentuje m. in. Mabel Todd (Amerykanka,

jedna z twórców nauki zajmującej się związkami między obrazami mentalnymi i ruchem, idea

kinezjologii (wyobrażeń odnoszących się do ruchu) w swojej metodzie Structual higiene ,

podkreślając: "[…] jak wspaniale jest zbudowane ludzie ciało i że ma ono zdolność

zmieniania się zgodnie z naszą wolą" (Franklin 2007, 25, cyt. za: M. Todd).

Interpretacje ruchowe - dalcrozowski sposób kontemplowania i wyrażania muzyki za

pomocą ruchów i gestów dedykowany jest każdemu. Ten uniwersalizm, jak wspomniano już

wyżej, odwołuje się do naturalnego i estetycznego ruchu człowieka. Dlatego też w Polsce

proste interpretacje ruchowe muzyki są już stałym elementem procesu umuzykalniania dzieci

w przedszkolu. Stanowią szalenie ważny element profesjonalnej edukacji muzyczne, a w niej

dalcrozowskiej rytmiki, począwszy od podstawowej szkoły muzycznej, poprzez szkołę

średnią, a na studiach muzycznych kończąc.

Dzieci w szkole muzycznej I stopnia poznają muzykę i wyrażają ją ruchem w prostych

interpretacjach ruchowych. Ten rodzaj aktywności ruchowej wywołuje w nich wiele

spontaniczności i radości. Trudniejszy repertuar muzyczny towarzyszy uczniom w ramach

przedmiotów: Rytmika i Zespoły rytmiki na poziomie II stopnia kształcenia muzycznego.

W najpełniejszym wymiarze doświadczają bliskich a zarazem bardzo dojrzałych relacji

z muzyką, studenci specjalności Rytmika w ramach przedmiotów realizowanych w toku

studiów, takich jak: Rytmika, Kompozycje ruchowe utworów muzycznych, Zespoły rytmiki.

Uczestnicy zajęć w twórczym procesie powstawania kompozycji przestrzenno-

ruchowej zapoznają się z utworem, z genezą jego powstania, poznają formę dzieła

muzycznego, dokonując analizy formalnej utworu, poznają zapis nutowy – partyturę,

Jednakże to spontaniczne reakcje ruchowe towarzyszące improwizacji ruchowej do pierwszej

odsłony wybranego utworu, stanowią najcenniejsze - osobiste doświadczenie zmysłowe.

6



Takie sposób obcowania z muzyką (w trakcie pracy nad kompozycją przestrzenno-ruchową)

jest gwarantem lepszego jej zrozumienia i poznania.

Muzyka w interpretacjach ruchowych

Wybór muzyki do interpretacji ruchowej uzależniony jest od wielu czynników. Jednym z nich

jest grupa, z którą pracuje nauczyciel i rodzaj placówki, w której prowadzone są zajęcia

Rytmiki. Inny repertuar muzyczny przeznaczony jest dla dzieci, inny dla młodzieży i osób

dorosłych. Podział ten związany jest z możliwościami percepcyjnymi i ruchowymi osób

w różnym wieku. Kolejnym kryterium wyboru utworów do interpretacji ruchowych są

indywidualne zainteresowania twórców choreografii związane z konkretnym stylem

w muzyce czy wybranym kompozytorem itp. W opinii autorki to właśnie ten czynnik wpływa

najbardziej inspirująco na podejmowanie wyzwań w zakresie powstawania interpretacji

ruchowych.

Dzieło muzyczne rozumiane jako synteza wielu elementów w interpretacji ruchowej

"podlega wizualizacji w postaci obrazu ruchowego zakomponowanego w przestrzeni"

(Galikowska-Gajewska 2010, 46). Muzyka stanowiąca inspirację dla działań artystycznych,

nasuwa rozwiązania w zakresie użycia środków ruchowych, jak i formy przestrzennej.

Tworzenie koncepcji ruchowej związane jest z improwizacją ruchową. Podczas improwizacji

ruchowej wykonawca odczuwa muzykę całym swoim ciałem, pozwala się jej ponieść,

poddaje się działaniu muzyki tworząc z nią ruchową jedność.

Utwór muzyczny stanowiący inspirację do pracy twórczej, powinien pobudzać sferę

ruchową wykonawców i prowadzić ich do wyrażenia pełnej ekspresji muzyki w ruchu.

Stopień wyrazistości i ekspresyjności języka ruchowego w dużym stopniu uzależniony jest od

możliwości percepcyjnych i ruchowych samych wykonawców.

W procesie tworzenia interpretacji ruchowych muzyki powinniśmy dotrzeć do informacji

związanych z genezą powstania utworu – do źródeł inspiracji dla kompozytora. Ważna jest

również estetyka muzyczna epoki, w której powstał utwór. Jednakże najważniejsze są

poszukiwania odpowiednich ruchów ludzkiego ciała, które są w stanie oddać wszystkie

odcienie emocji i ekspresji samego dzieła muzycznego.

Dla autorki artykułu muzyka współczesna jest największym natchnieniem.

Wszechstronność dzieł współczesnych, wynikająca przede wszystkim z bogactwa

muzycznego brzmienia, stwarza olbrzymie możliwości kreacji i odkrywania oryginalnych

7


rozwiązań przestrzenno-ruchowych. Muzyka współczesna bardzo silnie oddziałująca na

ludzką wyobraźnię jest doskonałym bodźcem do ciągłych poszukiwań ruchowych, których

ograniczenia mogą wynikać jedynie z możliwości anatomicznych ludzkiego ciała.

Najprostsze formy ilustrowania muzyki w ruchu i przestrzeni przez najmłodsze dzieci

odnoszą się przede wszystkim do wizualizacji podstawowych elementów dzieła muzycznego,

o których pisze Dalcroze: "Rytm, podobnie jak dynamika, zależy całkowicie od ruchu

i znajduje swój prototyp w naszym układzie mięśniowym. Wszystkie niuanse agogiczne -

allegro, andante, accelerando, ritenuto - wszystkie niuanse dynamiczne - forte, piano,

crescendo, diminuendo mogą być realizowane przez nasze ciała, a ostrość naszego

muzycznego uczucia zależeć będzie od ostrości naszych cielesnych wrażeń." (Dalcroze 2000,

60).

Dynamika w ludzkim ciele związana jest systemem mięśniowym. Każdy impuls

muzyczny – każdy dźwięk, możemy wyrazić poprzez napięcie i rozluźnienie mięśni. Musimy

również połączyć to muzyczne zagadnienie z wielkością ruchu i przestrzenią. Należy zdać

sobie sprawę, że nie jest to łatwe dla dzieci. Nie potrafią one jeszcze świadomie napinać

i rozluźniać mięśni. Dlatego potrzebujemy dla nich wsparcia – rekwizytów.

Użycie rekwizytów w interpretacjach ruchowych może być wielorakie. Można

traktować je jako rodzaj scenografii, dekoracji na scenie. Do rekwizytów zaliczyć należy

również kostium sceniczny czy różnorakie przedmioty użyte w celu wyrażenia

emocjonalności i ekspresyjności muzyki w ruchu. Nieodzownym elementem prezentacji

scenicznych jest również oświetlenie. Już na scenie w Hellerau eksperymentował ze światłem

Adolph Appia, zdając sobie sprawę z niesamowicie ważnej, ekspresyjnej oraz scalającej roli,

tegoż elementu dla całości percypowanego dzieła scenicznego. Współcześnie oświetlenie

traktowane jest w działaniach scenicznych w dwojaki sposób. Jako element scalający

sceniczną prezentację bądź jako samodzielny sposób wypowiedzi. Do palety najnowszych

środków scenicznych, z których korzystamy współcześnie, prezentując interpretacje ruchowe

na scenie, zaliczyć należy prezentacje multimedialne czy bardziej zaawansowane - animacje

i wizualizacje. Mając do wyboru coraz to bogatszą paletę środków technicznych,

wzmacniających ekspresję scenicznej wypowiedzi (autorka odnosi się tu do interpretacji

ruchowych), nie można zapominać o przewodniej roli muzyki, którą podkreśla i manifestuje

w słowach Emil Jaques-Dalcroze; "Cały mój system zbudowałem na muzyce dlatego, że

muzyka jest potężną siłą psychiczną, wynikłą z naszego działania duchowego i wyrazowego,

8



która dzięki swej możności pobudzania i regulowania może porządkować nasze czynności

życiowe." (Brzozowska – Kuczkiewicz op. cit., 31).

Poniżej zamieszczono zdjęcia autorskich interpretacji ruchowych, przygotowanych

z udziałem dzieci: uczniów klas 1-3 Państwowej Szkoły Muzycznej im. Witolda

Lutosławskiego w Starogardzie Gdańskim oraz absolwentów i studentów specjalności

Rytmika, Akademii Muzycznej im. Stanisława Moniuszki w Gdańsku. Wybrane zdjęcia

z rekwizytami opatrzono krótkim komentarzem – uzasadnieniem użycia konkretnego

rekwizytu (Zdjęcia 1-5).

Zdjęcia 1-2. W. Kilar, Bitwa. (Autor: Przemysław Gabryel)

Zdjęcie 3. W. Kilar, Mrówki. (Autor: Przemysław Gabryel)

9


Zdjęcie 4.

Betelehemu, kolęda z Nigerii. (Autor: Przemysław Gabryel)

Zdjęcie 5. J.S.Bach, Badinerie z II suity orkiestrowej

h –moll. Użyte rekwizyty - krzesła stanowiąstały element scenografii i dynamizują

relacje między wykonawcami. (Autor: Przemysław Gabryel.)

Zdjęcie 6. J. Cage, Our Spring Will Come. "Zastosowany w kompozycji rekwizyt — trampolina, podkresla

specyfikę brzmieniowosci utworu. W interpretacji ruchowej 'Our Spring Will Come' bierze udział pięcwykonawczyn ubranych w czarne kostiumy. Wspólny kolor strojów symbolizuje tu jednosc dzwiękową

fortepianu" (Galikowska-Gajewska 2012, 71). (Autor: Piotr Rodak.)

10



Zdjęcie 7. K. Penderecki, Anaklasis. "Osiem białych materiałów użytych przez wykonawców w interpretacjiruchowej utworu Anaklasis, podkresla szerokie spektrum brzmieniowe przebiegu muzycznego"

(Galikowska-Gajewska Ibidem, 94). (Autor: Piotr Rodak)

Zdjęcie 8. A. Dobrowolski, Krabogapa."W tej choreografii muzyki istotną rolę odgrywa rekwizyt-drabina. To ona staje się dla wykonawców płaszczyzną do ukazania relacji pomiędzy instrumentami w zakresie wysokosci dzwięków i rejestrów. Charakterystycznebrzmienie w utworze podkreslone zostało

odpowiednim doborem kostiumów w czarno-pomaranczowych barwach" (Galikowska-Gajewska Ibidem, 142-143). Oswietlenie sceny stanowi wyrazisty element interpretacji ruchowej. (Autor: Piotr Rodak)

11


Zdjęcie 9. K. Olczak, Trio hommage á Karol Szymanowski. (Autor: Piotr Rodak)

Zdjęcie 10. T. Kaiser, Dinosaur Bones.Kostiumy wykonawców (ich

różnorodne kroje)podkreslają

nowoczesny charaktereletroakustycznego utworu

Dinosaur Bones. (Autor: Piotr Rodak)

Zdjęcia 11-12. H. H. Jabłonski, Capriccio no 1 for cellosolo. Dwie wykonawczynie symbolizujądwa różne rejestry wiolonczeli. Użyty rekwizyt – maska – scala i jednoczyje w ruchu.(Autor: Sylwia Holeksa-Wilkowska )

12



Zdjęcie 13. P. Mykietyn, "Whoever hath her wish, thou hast thy will" to the words

of Shakespeare's Sonnet. Wykorzystane w interpretacji ruchowej kostiumy nawiązują doquasi-barokowej maniery, w której kompozytor napisał utwór.

Natomiast krzesła stanowią ruchomy element scenografii. (Autor: Krzysztof Warzała)

IIIRola interpretacji ruchowych w procesie upowszechniania muzyki

Nieocenionym narzędziem w procesie popularyzacji muzyki są Koncerty Interpretacji

Ruchowych Muzyki, Koncerty Choreografii Muzyki, Koncerty z cyklu Muzyka – Ruch –

Przestrzeń, koncerty zatytułowane Zobaczyć muzykę, Usłyszeć obraz itd. Różnorodność

nazw koncertów nie wyklucza jednej głównej idei tego typu wydarzeń artystycznych. W tym

samym czasie na scenie rozbrzmiewa muzyka, a jej wizualizację przestawiają na żywo

ekspresyjnym ruchem wykonawcy. Coraz śmielej od wielu lat promowana jest w ten sposób

muzyka współczesna ze swoim bogactwem brzmieniowym. Koncerty środowiskowe dla

dzieci, młodzieży, seniorów, koncerty w ramach akademii dziecięcych, koncerty w ramach

festiwali nauki, koncerty w salach koncertowych dla melomanów, koncerty w ramach sesji

naukowych, kongresów, seminariów, odbywających się w Polsce i za granicą, dają ogromną

szansę poznania publiczności szerokiego spektrum dzieł muzycznych w wymiarze ruchowym.

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Podsumowanie

Zaproponowana przez Emila Jaques-Dalcroz’a na początku XX wieku wszechstronna metoda

edukacji artystycznej – prowadzi do harmonijnego rozwoju człowieka poprzez ruch.

Związane z nią integralnie interpretacje ruchowe muzyki stanowią czytelną i ciekawą

propozycję poznawania muzyki. Istota interpretacji ruchowej - synteza muzyki i ruchu

zaplanowanego w przestrzeni odwołuje się do współczesnych wyznaczników kontemplacji

sztuki. Dlatego też – autorka pragnie podkreślić te słowa z wielką determinacją: Nie bójmy

się tworzyć artystycznych wizji muzyki w ruchu i przestrzeni, naznaczonych cechą

indywidualności, ponieważ to właśnie interpretacje ruchowe muzyki są doskonałym

sposobem percepcji dzieła muzycznego, który prowadzi zarówno wykonawców, jak

i odbiorców do świata muzyki.

References

1. Appia, A. 1974. Dzieło sztuki żywej i inne prace.Wydawnictwo Artystyczne i Filmowe. Warszawa.

2. Bader, R. 2013. Nonlinearities and Synchronization in Musical Acoustics and Music Psychology. Current Research in Systematic Musicology. Issue/Vol. 2. Edited by Bader, Rolf, Leman, Marc, Godoy, Rolf-Inge. Berlin Heidelberg: Springer. ISBN/ISSN: 978-3-642-36098

3. Brzozowska-Kuczkiewicz. M. 1991. Emil Jaques-Dalcroze i jego Rytmika. Warszawa: WSiP.

4. Dalcroze, E. Jaques. 1992. Pisma wybrane. M. Bogdan and B. Wakar, compilers. Warszawa: WSiP.

5. Dalcroze, E. J. 2000. Rhythm, Music, Education. Translated from the French by Harold F. Rubenstein. Published by The Dalcroze Society (Inc), 5th Edition 2000.

6. Franklin, E.N. 2007. Świadomosc ciała. Wykorzystanie obrazów mentalnych w pedagogice ruchu. Warszawa: Wydawnictwo Kined.

7. Galikowska-Gajewska, A. 2010. "Utwory solowe jako źródło inspiracji w tworzeniu interpretacji ruchowych muzyki." Sztuka, Kultura, Edukacja, Rocznik Naukowy nr 1 (2010): 46. Gdańsk: Wydział Dyrygentury Chóralnej, Edukacji Muzycznej i Rytmiki, Wydawnictwo Akademii Muzycznej im C w Gdańsku. [The department of choral conducting, music education and rhythmicity.]

8. - - -. 2012. Brzmienie w interpretacjach ruchowych utworu muzycznego, Debussy, Cage, Penderecki, Szalonek, Dobrowolski, Olczak, Kaiser. Gdańsk: Akademia Muzyczna im. S. Moniuszki w Gdańsku, Gdańsk.

9. - - -. 2015. "Rytmika jako sposób na poprawę jakości funkcjonowania człowieka we współczesnym świecie." In Człowiek w obliczy kryzysu. Kryzys w perspektywie interdyscyplinarnej, ed. Aliny Chyczewskiej and Iwony Marii Kijowskiej, 226. Elbląg: Wydawnictwo Państwowej Wyższej Szkoły Zawodowej w Elblągu [Publishers of a State Higher Professional School in Elblag].

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10. Gerhardt – Punicka, J. 1963. "Plastyka w metodzie Dalcroze’a." In Materiały pomocnicze COPSA. Warszawa 1963 (book no. 71): 79.

11. Levitin, D. S. 2006. This is your brain in music: the science of a human obsession. Dulton, NY.

12. Mieczyńska-Lewakowska, J. 1993. Fakty i ludzie z mego życia. [Facts and people from my life.] Łódź: Zarząd Miasta Łodzi.

13. Picq, L. and P. Vayer. 1970. Education psychomotrice (Kształcenie psychomotoryczne). Ed. Doin 1970.

14. Porte, D. 1974. "Podstawy metody Jaques-Dalcroze’a" [Les bases de la Méthode Jaques-Dalcroze]. Le Rythme, czerwiec [june]1974.

15. - - - . 1975. "Podstawy metody Jaques-Dalcroze’a" [Les bases de la Méthode Jaques-Dalcroze].Translated by B. Niewiadomska. In Materiały Informacyjno-Dyskusyjne COPSA 162:117. Warszawa 1975.

16. Skazińska, M. 1989. "Znaczenie interpretacji ruchowej utworów muzycznych w kształceniu nauczycieli rytmiki." In Zeszyt Naukowy Akademii Muzycznej w Łodzi, materiały z 12 sesji, nr XVIII, 215. Łódź 1989.

17. Stevenson, R. 2011. "The Principles of a Jaques-Dalcroze Education." [online]. [dostęp [acc.]:14 grudnia 2011]. Dostępny w Internecie.

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Accelerando: Belgrade Journal of Music and DanceIssue 4, February 2019


Function and Structure of Yoruba Songs on Dental Health among theFunction and Structure of Yoruba Songs on Dental Health among theNursing Mothers in Southwestern NigeriaNursing Mothers in Southwestern Nigeria

Olusegun Stephen TitusDepartment of Music

Obafemi Awolowo UniversityIle-Ife, Osun State

[email protected]

Olufemi Elijah Oyetola

Consultant in Oral MedicineDepartment of Preventive Dentistry,

Faculty of Dentistry,College of Health Sciences,Obafemi Awolowo UniversityIle Ife, Nigeria

[email protected]

Citation: Titus, O. S., and O. E. Oyetola. 2019. "Function and Structure of Yoruba Songs on Dental Health among the Nursing Mothers in Southwestern Nigeria." Accelerando: B elgrade J ournal of M usic and D ance 4 : 6 .

Abstract Music serves different purposes on different occasions. One of its functions is to educate orenlighten on health related issues. There are different studies on the use of music in healthliteracy. This paper, therefore, focuses on the use of Yoruba songs among the nursingmothers in pediatric ward in Obafemi Awolowo University Teaching Hospital Complex(OAUTHC) Ile-Ife. Interviews, participant observation, cultural history, and lyrical analysiswere used for this paper. Based on health beliefs and transformative musicology theories, thepaper suggests that Yoruba songs on dental health for nursing mothers are very functional asthey are rooted in the socio-cultural life of the people. Yoruba songs serve as education,caution, entertainment, encouragement, and psychological therapy for the nursing motherswhose children were admitted to a pediatric observation unit at the OAUTHC.Keywords: transformative musicology theories, music structure, yoruba songs, dental health,nursing mothers

_____________________________________________

Introduction

Music plays different roles in the well-being of humans which includes standard of living,

level of living and quality of life. Medical ethnomusicology is a growing area of study interest

among applied and advocacy ethnomusicologists. This is rooted in the integrative,

1

UDC:615.85:78(669) 615.8:616.31(669)COBISS.SR-ID 274397452

Received:Jan 15, 2019Reviewed:Jan 25, 2019Accepted:Feb 05, 2019

https://accelerandobjmd.weebly.com/issue4/function-and-structure-of-yoruba-songs-on-dental-health-among-the-nursing-mothers-in-southwestern-nigeria












Olusegun Stephen Titus and Olufemi Elijah OyetolaFunction and Structure of Yoruba Songs on Dental Health among the Nursing Mothers in Southwestern Nigeria

complementary and alternative medicine approach to health and healing. Medical

ethnomusicology examines how music can be used to access "biological, psychological,

social, emotional and spiritual domains of life" (Koen et al. 2008, 4). Effectively, music may

become "the bridge by which the physical and spiritual are connected and can be the most

vital component of a healing ceremony or practice" (Koen 2009, 4). In Bleibinger’s (2007)

review of Barz´s (2006) book titled Singing for Life, he notes that Barz’s work on AIDS

reveals the importance of medical ethnomusicology, but it definitely doesn’t mark an end.

Rather, it stands at the beginning of new studies to come. This paper is another angle of

looking at medical ethnomusicology from dental health perspective. In contrast to music

therapy, which more often draws on Western music practices, medical ethnomusicology

explores world cultures and "music medicine" healing traditions as a means to address disease

care and prevention. Barz defines medical ethnomusicology as:

[..] medical intervention or treatment, or even as medicine itself in indigenous or cultural understanding. Whether music may cure or just support the process of healing, it is linked with strategies and practices developed by communities in order to respond to different types of disease, illness, health and healing, which are themselves culturally conceptualized. Medical ethnomusicology takes into account those conceptualizations, cultural understandings, and interpretations of disease, discussing them from differing transdisciplinary points of view. Focusing on the performative nature of treatment and healing, medical ethnomusicology seeks to gain a better understanding of how disease is made meaningful. (Barz 2006, 62.)

Methodology

This paper aims to find out the effects, functions and structures of dental related songs among

the nursing mothers who are attending to their children in the Pediatrics Clinic/Ward of

OAUTHC. This paper therefore answers the following questions: what are the categories of

Yoruba dental health songs used among the nursing women in OAUTHC? What are the

functions of theses Yoruba dental songs among the Nursing mothers? What are the cultural

musical structures in the selected music?

Interviews were conducted with 15 people. This entails 2 dentists, 2 nurses, and 10

nursing mothers who have participated in the dental health talks. Likewise the researcher

participated in the morning health education training on health and specifically dental health

of parents as it affects their children in the Pediatric ward. He recorded some of the Yoruba

songs sang during the training. The songs were analysed and transcribed to English language.

The objectives of this paper are: to identify and categorize dental related songs, examine the

2



roles of the songs on dental health and analyse the effects of the selected songs on dental

health.

This paper is based on the Health Belief Model and transformative musicology

theories. Health Belief Model theory is one of the longest established theoretical models

designed to explain health behavior by better understanding beliefs about health (Harrison et

al. 1992; Harrison et al. 2010; Nutbeam and Harris 2004). At its core, according to Nutbeam

and Harris (2004, 10), it suggests that the likelihood of an individual taking action related to a

given health problem is based on the interaction between four different types of beliefs. The

model predicts that individuals will take action to protect or promote health if

They perceive themselves to be susceptible to a condition or problem. If they believe it will have potentially serious consequences. If they believe a course of action is available that will reduce their susceptibility, or minimize the consequences. And finally if they believe that the benefits of taking action will outweigh the costs or barriers. (Nutbeam and Harris 2004, 10.)

This theory is germane to the discourse of medical ethnomusicology on dental health among

nursing mothers. Nursing mother’s susceptibility made the nursing mothers to listen and even

sing the dental health songs and also analyse the meanings with the health educator during the

training. Also, the nursing mothers with various health issues with their kids will not want

further health challenges for themselves or for their kids, thereby participating in the dental

health education songs.

The theory is aptly applicable to the women as they acted in singing, believing that it

is less costly and taking part will not be a barrier to their or their kids’ health. They also

believe in practically taking care of their dental health, for their good and the good of others.

Still on the model and dental health, the model further explains that refinement has

acknowledged the important modifying factors, particularly those associated with personal

characteristics and social circumstances as well as the impact on personal experience. Added

to this analysis of the model is the concept of self efficacy, that is, the belief in one’s

competency to take appropriate action as a factor influencing the strength of the model in

predicting behavior change. This is still applicable to dental health as the song texts will lead

them to taking daily actions of brushing their teeth and that of their children believing that it

will reduce the effect of teeth decay (caries), pains and other oral health issues.

3


Transformative musicology aims at the transformation of individual and our world at

large. It encompasses all musical activities that focus on transformative purposes (Adedeji,

2006a). The ambivalent nature of the power of music was demonstrated in Adedeji (1999),

where he enumerated the anabolic and catabolic roles of music. The theory is applicable to

dental health songs among nursing mothers in paediatric hospitals. The songs have power to

transform those who have been very careless about their dental health to take positive action

and sometimes may need to visit dental clinic for regular checkups.

Songs and singing is part of daily activities of Yoruba people as a form of

transformative music. Beier (1956, 23) rightly notes that "The Yorubas are indeed a poetic

nation, because every person has his own praise songs, by which he will be greeted on all

important occasions". Beier in his research recognises the transformative power of music in

the daily routine of Yoruba people with their oriki praise name. Olajubu (1978, 676) echoes

on verbal arts and artists in Yorubaland that:

Youba verbal artists include oral poets, singers, dramatists, storytellers, public orators, priests and diviners, and others who perform by word of mouth in the presence of an audience or even without an audience. They include those who sing or chant at work to reduce the tedium of labor, those who intone the advertisement of their merchandise, and those who have to chant incantations privately to them to ensure the efficacy of a drug or as a form of prayer.

While Olajubu recognises the transformative functionality of music, he however excludes the

way music is used in dental health related issues, a lacuna this paper is out to fill.

Orimoogunje (2016, 857) explains that the verbal arts in general and those used in Yoruba

indigenous healthcare practices in particular are products of society, and they are used by, and

for the people in the Yorùbá society. He further asserts that:

[...] the members of the Yoruba society are active users of verbal arts. They include theknowledgeable elders, both male and female in their capacity as fathers, mothers, headsof the families, heads of communities, priests, artistes, etc. The heath-related genres are inthe society to address situations when someone, a member of the society is sick, whenperforming general greetings at meetings, during other rituals in the community, andwhen mothers are caring for their baby. (Orimoogunje 2016, 93)

This paper agrees with, and extends Orimoogunje’s assertion of the verbal arts, especially in

indigenous health care centers among the Yoruba; the researcher notes that the western health

center is an area of research that he negligibly did nothing about.

4



Orimoogunje (2003, 3) notes that "among the Yoruba musicians and chanters, the

verbal arts related to Yoruba indigenous healthcare delivery system constitute a source of

information on Yoruba life". They use verbal arts for dual purposes – to amuse people and to

inculcate in them the views of the Yoruba on certain phenomena. These genres are used in

such a way as to have an impact on the psyche of their targets. Still on Yoruba songs and

traditional healthcare as a means of transformation, Orimoogunje (2005) examines the various

Yoruba verbal arts used in the Yoruba indigenous health care center and notes that the Yorùbá

verbal arts in indigenous healthcare practices have strong informative functions that urge

mankind to be aware of the appropriate step to be taken towards ensuring cure within the

indigenous healthcare delivery system. He further highlights the different Yoruba verbal arts

used in traditional health care to include:

[…] orin-ìbo (Liturgical songs), ìbà (homage). OfoQ (incantations), àyájoR (myth-like incantations), ìwúre (supplicatory blessings), èpè (curse), èQbèQ (propitiation) and orin-ìbejì (twin babies' songs) oríkì (verbal Salutes), orin-ìrèmolèRkún (lullabies), orin-erésùpá/orin àloR -onítàn(moonlight songs) and orin-ìpàdé oloR mowèRwèR (natal songs) used in the indigenous healthcare delivery system are a bit more secular than the ones earlier mentioned above. (Orimoogunje 2005, 3.)

Furthermore, Orimoogunje (2005) expatiates on some of the verbal arts used in the

indigenous Yoruba health centers and their users. He notes that

Through the Yorùbá verbal arts (in indigenous health management), the users are well informed of the beliefs, convictions, fears of the unknown and the aspiration of the Yorùbá traditional setting. The orin-ìbo (liturgical songs) extracted from orin-àgbon during OQ sàrà festival at Ilé-IfèQ discusses the belief of the Yorùbá on how their society views the possession of children. (Orimoogunje 2005, 3.)

While the reviewed studies showed the efficacy of music in general and its usage in the

Yoruba indigenous health centers, none of the studies reviewed examine the use of Yoruba

songs in Dental Health education in Obafemi Awolowo University Teaching Hospital

Complex.

Ogli (2010) defines song as the combination of music and words to provide a

universally accepted platform for expressing joy, sorrow, love, and appreciation that can

deeply impact on the audience. Song is a short lyric or narrative text set to music. The music

often reproduces the mood of and lends a heightened emotional expression to the song's text,

which is often a poem.

5


Nketia (1974) notes that African traditions deliberately treat songs as though they were

speech utterances. Arom (1991) explains that music and language are closely interconnected

and that the phonemic structure of language has powerful constraining effect on the melodic

structure of the songs. African songs contain lyrics that are composed in a narrative style.

Nzewi (1988) opines that the knowledge of the African cultural value systems provides the

understanding to interpret African songs and deduce full meaning from the communication

experience. Agbese (1989) argues that music has always been the most visible attempt

employed by ourselves to listen to ourselves. African music is a powerful medium of

communication, through which human actions and reactions are expressed by Africans. It

provides a forum to mirror the society so that members could understand things better and

learn more about life. African music focuses on the teaching of morality and building

restraints into the psyche of the public. Aluede’s (2012) study is based on the use of music

therapy in healing homes. Which include the Iyayi society in Edo state of Nigeria, and the

biblical example of healing to Nigeria music healers. The reviews above have shown the

relationship of Music and health. However, none have addressed the use of religion, faith and

songs among the pregnant women attending the antenatal clinic in southwestern Nigeria.

While discussing the context of verbal arts Orimoogunje (2005) asserts that:

The use of verbal arts in the Yoruba indigenous healthcare practices extends beyond thedomestic context. At the communal level, various groups of performers from different homes of the same community are involved. These various groups use verbal arts for different goals in the community. The groups involved in this context are traditional artists, and nursing mothers in both the indigenous and orthodox health centres. (Orimoogunje 2005, 93.)

The researcher extends the discourse of African song by examining the Yoruba dental health

songs as used among the nursing mother’s health education talks in Obafemi Awolowo

University Ile-Ife.

Functions of the Yoruba Dental Health Songs

Dental songs are functional because they give some kind of directives, instructions and

education on how to treat the teeth. Some of the identified songs include:

6



I.We ki o mo, ji ko rorin, ge ekannare, jeun todara lasiko ma jeun ju

[Have daily bath, brush every day,brush your teeth,

cut your finger nails, eat good foodand don’t be a glutton (authors'

translation)]

The song above encourages nursing mothers to daily have good hygiene. This should include

bathing and brushing of the teeth, among others. Here the health educator (Alhaji 2016, in a

health talk in OAUTHC) explains to the nursing mothers that "some women in the name of

being tired [when] breast feeding baby encourage smelly teeth. Some who are not fully

engaged in any job may not see the need to brush their teeth till evenings which is neither

good for their heath nor that of their baby they are nursing". The song text jí kororín

emphasises the need to brush early in the morning to clear off the bacteria that hang on food

remains, there is the need for daily brushing of teeth. Orín is made of wood sliced to small

sizes. Some of the trees used for this are believed to be medicinal for reducing tooth decay

and pains. Though modern day tooth brush and tooth paste like Close-up among others are

equally encouraged.

II.Yetunde o, Yetunde mi da Yetunde

Aromi mon we, elenu rerun, ota pako

[Oh Yetunde my Yetunde, where are you? Yetunde is going about with smelly mouth,

an enemy of chewing stick](authors' translation)

The song above is a satire against ladies that goes about without proper care of teeth. The

song mentions Yetunde. Yetunde is a Yoruba female name which means ‘mother has

reincarnated’ symbolising (in the song) women and in extension any one that encourages dirt

especially mouth odor.

7


III.Imo toto lole segun arun

gbogbo- Imo toto eyin, imo toto ara,

Imo toto lole segun arungbogbo

[Good hygiene curessicknesses,

Good hygiene of the teeth,Good care of the bodyGood hygiene cures

sicknesses](authors' translation)

IV.Eleyin iru lokala,wende weri lokata

Baba won lo r’o giriKo be won ko ledun

[You with smelling teethgo and sit down]

(authors' translation)

V.Jeyin jeyin mabeyin mi je, jedojedo mama bami ja

8



VI.Bí mo bá jí, Bí mo bá jí lo'wúrò

Ma bomi tómi bójú, Ma bomi sénuMa bomi tutu si baluwe, Ma bomi sike ,

Ma sara loge, ki igbe orin maa gbe orere womiKi jeyinjeyin maa sa funmi, Mo ti pinya pelu sobia,

Emi ati onigbameji ti di ota, Omi to darogun o si nita temi,yanmuyanmu toi sole mi dakoti

[When I wake up, when I wake up in the morningI take water to wash my face, and wash my mouth

I will shower at the bath room with cold waterI make sure I keep myself neat,

So that cholera and …do not come near my housetooth decay should run away from me

I have separated with sobiaMe and cholera have become enemies

Water in waste materials is far from my surroundingsMosquitos will not make my house a dwelling place]

(authors' translation)

The selected Yoruba Dental songs are entertaining. According to one of the informants

(Ojuola 2016 Personal communication) the health talks here do go with songs since that is

part of our cultural inheritance. The songs apart from any other thing make the mothers happy

and lively. Even those who are sad because of their child been in the hospital gets entertained.

Likewise, one of the nursing mothers (Mummy Erastus, 2016, personal communication)

asserts that the songs just enlivened their minds and also entertained them. In support of the

entertainment function of Dental Health songs Peterson (1993) writes that the tradition of

entertainment is an important one in many African states. Music performs the functions of

entertainment to deserving members, in order to encourage such persons who are doing well

in the society to continue in their good deeds, as well as stimulate others to emulate them.

Even when the songs are satirical, the composers still consider the value of entertainment very

important. They ensure that the text of the songs and all other musical and extra-musical

elements that are capable of stimulating a good sense of humour are contained in the songs.

The Yoruba Dental Health songs do not just entertain but teach and educate both the

singers and listeners. Iyabode (2016, personal communication) argues that though she has

been singing the songs before but using the songs during health talks in the wards here give

her a deeper meaning and especially the need for regular brushing both for her and for her

9


family members. Another nursing mother (Ola, 2016) notes that jeyinjeyin could easily come

and affect the teeth if it is not constantly washed. Another nursing mother (Abayomi 2016,

personal communication) notes that the singing and the training helped her to make a new

decision and that she will even start washing the gum of the baby gently before the teeth come

out.

Music text gives cautions and warnings. This is seen in the selected Yoruba Dental

Health songs. The first and third songs are directly warning the need for constant tooth

washing. On caution, Alade (2016, personal communication) notes that "dental health songs

warn us to be careful. If we are healthy is it not for our good? So songs have a way of warning

people and we are careful now so that we can live in good health".

The selected songs performed therapeutic functions because of their psychological

relevancies. Their efficacious effects on nursing mothers cannot be over-emphasized. As

Olabode (2016, personal communication) notes that "the song Imo toto sometimes give them

some psychological relief while nursing their sick child in the hospital ward. Just mere

hearing musical sounds creates relief of depression and worry and brings joy to the mind".

This is further supported by Orimoogunje (2016, 857) who observes that some of the Yorùbá

verbal arts are tools that can be used to work on the socio-psychological conditions of the

people who directly benefit from the performance of the verbal arts.

Yoruba dental songs portray the aesthetic quality of the teeth and the need to care for it.

Orimoogunje (2016) in support of this assertion notes that "there is much literary dexterity in

the Yorùbá verbal arts used in indigenous healthcare delivery system … the aesthetic function

of the verbal arts are on three distinct levels - musical, recitative and dance". The song titled

We ki o mo help us to realize the need for aesthetics in our teeth and other parts of our body.

Musical Analysis

In this section, the musical analyses of dental songs selected were examined. Scales of dental

related songs are varied. The composer chooses the scale which suits him best. In doing this,

however, his creative act is guided by certain rules like the proper placement of words to

achieve intelligibility, ensuring that the intervallic range of notes and the ambit of the melody

agree with the speech-tone patterns of the chosen text, and he also ensures that the melody

conceived is based on the chosen mode of the text. Akpabot (1998) notes that scale patterns in

African music are very important not as a vehicle for a theoretical exercise for Western

10



scholars, which in the end is counter-productive, but as an important yardstick for looking at

traditional melodies and melodic movement. Ogli (2010) notes that Idoma music is conceived

and built on the tonal pattern of Idoma language. Likewise, dental health songs are patterned

after Yoruba language. Although African music is generally characterised by pentatonic scale,

in dental songs, as studied, some of the scales employed include tetratonic and pentatonic

scales.

• Tetratonic Scale is a scale with its music built on four notes. For instance, see

tetratonic example below. The tetratonic scale comprises of four musical notes. A

typical example is the song titled Jeyinjeyin C, D, E and A notes. At other times the

tetratonic scale could comprise C, D, E and G. See example below (all the example are

authors' archive):

• Pentatonic Scale comprises music built on five musical notes. For instance the song

Eleyin iru has five notes which comprises of E, G, F, C, and D, while the song Imototo

has same pentatonic scale but with notes different from Eleyin iru. It consists of G, C,

E D and B. See the example below:

• Heptatonic Scale is song built on six notes. For example, the heptatonic scale in song

titled We ki o mo is constructed with C, D, E, G, A, and B. The other types of

heptatonic scale do not make use of leading notes in the build-up:

11


Different melodic structures are observable in dental songs. One of such is phrase in song

melody. Musical phrase is a section of a musical line somewhat comparable to a clause or

sentence in prose and is typically defined by arrival at a point of momentary stability such as

is created by a cadence. The varieties of melodic phrases observed in the songs sampled

include: two melodic phrases (binary), three melodic phrases (ternary). Ogli (2010) explains

that an observable element of Idoma funeral songs is the asymmetrical nature of the phrase

lengths. This is also similar in dental songs in the example below:

The melodic intervals in songs are mostly steps and sometimes leap or step-wise. The

melodies are further characterized by both conjunct and disjunct movements. Some melodies

are more conjunct than others, because there is no strict adherence to balancing the usage of

these movements in a given song. Small leaps of 3rds are more common than leaps of 5ths

and 6ths, although leaps of 5ths and 4ths occur within melodies. This is observed in the song

Jeyin jeyin:

12



According to Ofosu (2000), tonality implies loyalty to a tonic or key system as

uncompromisingly practiced and guarded in Western music. African music especially the

dental songs exhibits little or no allegiance to tonal rigidity in the Western sense. Rather, they

reflect speech tone patterns and inflections as obtainable in given cultures. Nketia (1974)

earlier expresses this view when he said that African traditions give similar tonal treatment to

both songs and speech. Dental songs are treated along this same general principle underlying

African songs. He further observes that African music is organised around a tonal centre

rather than the key. He went further to highlight the following as indices for identifying the

tonal centre. Although this general principle is applicable to most African cultures, the speech

and tonal variations on which African music is based make it imperative that music from

different cultures demand tonal arrangement based on its background. Ogli (2010) notes that

in Idoma, the tonal centres of most vocal music lie around the centre of the entire range of a

given melody. In dental related songs selected centre key revolves around C.

Akpabot (1998) defines rhythm as the organization of music in respect of time, which

can be expanded by adding that it is the regular or irregular recurrence of groups and motions

in relation to pulse, meter, stress, duration, accent, pitch, contour and design, functioning

within the architectural structure of the artistic whole. Rhythm can be free, flexible, measured

or metrical. Akpabot notes that the rhythm of a song, which was determined by its poetic

context, was divided into long and short corresponding to the six generally accepted rhythmic

modes, which are trochaic, iambic, dactylic, anapest, spondee and tribrach. The most

commonly used in dental songs is trochaic. Nketia (1974) observes that the rhythm

organisation of African music includes various complex structures such as hemiola, cross

rhythm, additive, strict and free vocal, multilinear hocket and interlocking. The study of

13


dental songs also reveals that no single rhythmic mode is used throughout a given piece of

music, rather, a combination of rhythmic modes as determined sometimes by Yoruba speech

pattern. However, the two common modes that frequently recur are the Trochaic and Iambic

meters. It is obvious that the choice of rhythmic mode in dental related songs selected is made

with deep consciousness of tonal compatibility and phonic structure of the language,

especially for the purpose of variation, emphasis or stress. The iambic meter, as used in one of

the songs, has the following rhythm:

Tone, diction, intention and meaning are interrelated in the study of dental songs. We observe

that the Yoruba language, though tonal, is flexible when the words are set to music. Agawu

(1988) examines that in tonal languages the tone must as far as possible agree with the rise

and fall of the speech tone. He then argues that tone is operative on the level of syllable, word,

phrase and sentence. We find further evidence of the language flexibility to melodic

configuration.

Conclusion

In this paper the researchers have shown the relationships between music and dental health

and specifically the use of Yoruba dental songs during educational trainings in paediatric

wards in OAUTHC. They have also demonstrated that the songs are rooted in Yoruba socio-

cultural traditions. More so, they have shown the gap which the paper fills in terms of the use

14



of Yoruba songs for dental health awareness during training. The songs sampled are

functional tools including entertainment, education, therapy, and caution in altitude to dental

health. Also, the musical structure of the selected songs was analyzed. They include the

pentatonic, tetratonic, and hexatonic scale. Other structure includes the melodic phrase,

melodic intervals, tonal organization and rhythm. A lot of researches could still be done in the

future on music and dental health especially with the fact that only little studies have been

done in Nigeria especially with the use of music for dental health awareness.

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