acf 2006 food aid and alternatives to food aid

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Action Contre la Faim Food Aid and Alternatives to Food Aid

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Food Aid and Alternatives to Food Aid


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Objectives of this book:

Constitute a reference for the principles and methodology of intervention

for food aid and alternatives to food aid,

from initial assessment to implementation and monitoring.

Table of Contents

PREAMBLE ...............................................................................................................................................................5

INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................................................................................5

Chapter 1 : ACFINs Position on Food Aid .............................................................................................................7

I Introduction............................................................................................................................................................7

II Technical approach...............................................................................................................................................7

III Context and objectives of food aid programs......................................................................................................8

IV Impact of food distribution .................................................................................................................................8

V Intervention principles of food aid and its alternatives ......................................................................................10

VI Argument ..........................................................................................................................................................10

VII Summary..........................................................................................................................................................11

Chapter 2 : Preliminary Assessments.....................................................................................................................12

I Introduction..........................................................................................................................................................12

II Context Study .....................................................................................................................................................13

III Study of food markets .......................................................................................................................................13

IV Identifying the populations needs ....................................................................................................................15

V Estimating the number of individuals in a population........................................................................................16

VI Other actors present ..........................................................................................................................................16

VII Logistical assessment.......................................................................................................................................16VIII Deciding on an implementation plan for a distribution program ...................................................................17

IX Summary ...........................................................................................................................................................18

Chapter 3 : Choice of the Type of Distribution Program.....................................................................................19

I Establishing an intervention strategy...................................................................................................................19

II Responses to a lack of food availability .............................................................................................................22

III Responses to a lack of access to food................................................................................................................29

IV Key questions for the choice of program type ..................................................................................................34

V Summary ............................................................................................................................................................35

Chapter 4 : Development of the Program ..............................................................................................................36


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I Targeting the vulnerable population ....................................................................................................................36

II Selecting work-exchange projects......................................................................................................................39

III Determining the ration to be distributed............................................................................................................41

IV Supply logistics.................................................................................................................................................49

V How are the populations and local structures involved?....................................................................................54

VI Human resources...............................................................................................................................................56

VII Summary..........................................................................................................................................................62

Chapter 5 : Registration of Beneficiaries ...............................................................................................................63

I Introduction..........................................................................................................................................................63

II Obtaining lists realized by a third party..............................................................................................................64

III Realizing the registration process......................................................................................................................64

IV Ensuring the quality of the registration.............................................................................................................67

V Summary ............................................................................................................................................................70

Chapter 6 : Distribution Conditions.......................................................................................................................71

I Choosing a food distribution program.................................................................................................................71

II System of cash distribution.................................................................................................................................72

III Site selection and number of distribution points...............................................................................................73

IV Awareness .........................................................................................................................................................74

V Adjust the conditions in the case of absent beneficiaries...................................................................................75

VI Summary ...........................................................................................................................................................76

Chapter 7 : Food Distribution Circuit ....................................................................................................................77

I Stations prior to actual distribution of the foodstuffs ..........................................................................................77

II Actual distribution of the foodstuffs...................................................................................................................78

III Examples of distribution circuits.......................................................................................................................80

IV Canteen circuit ..................................................................................................................................................84

V Summary ............................................................................................................................................................86

Chapter 8 : Flow Planning and Management........................................................................................................88

I Flow of a food distribution program....................................................................................................................88II Planning the supply of distribution points..........................................................................................................90

III Basic documents................................................................................................................................................91

IV Flow management .............................................................................................................................................94

V Itemize the losses................................................................................................................................................95

VI What weight should be taken into account?......................................................................................................96

VII Reports.............................................................................................................................................................98

VIII Flow reconciliation and monitoring ...............................................................................................................99

IX Flow of a cash distribution program...............................................................................................................100X Summary ..........................................................................................................................................................101


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Chapter 9 : Program Monitoring and Evaluation...............................................................................................102

I Verifying the registration list and the targeting criteria.....................................................................................102

II Food Basket Monitoring (FBM) ....................................................................................................................104

III Post distribution monitoring (PDM).............................................................................................................106

IV Information to collect......................................................................................................................................108

V Role of nutritional surveys ...............................................................................................................................110

VI Summary .........................................................................................................................................................110

Chapter 10 : Frequently Asked Questions about Food Aid................................................................................111

I What is a food aid program?..............................................................................................................................111

II What is meant by alternatives to food aid?....................................................................................................111

III A food aid program: is it Logistics or Food Security?....................................................................................111

IV When should a food aid program start, and when should it stop?...................................................................112

V How can we be sure that the food aid reaches the most vulnerable? ...............................................................112

Examples .................................................................................................................................................................113

Figures .....................................................................................................................................................................114

Tables.......................................................................................................................................................................114

Appendices ..............................................................................................................................................................115


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PREAMBLE

This book is part of a series of food security books developed by Action Contre la Faim (ACFIN 1) and is basedupon a consolidation of experiences and investigations led over the past ten years in the field. This series looks at

and develops specific aspects of the different food security programs, especially the technical tools that can be usedwithin the scope of precise projects. Each of these books can be read alone or they can be complemented andreinforced with the other ACFIN Food Security books included in the series constituting a food security kit whichcan be presented as follows:

The books address a variety of audiences including the international humanitarian community, technical andoperation field workers and the general public who wishes to learn more about food security at the internationallevel. Each book contains a detailed index with examples of the different tools that can be used for theimplementation of the programs, a glossary of technical terminology and commonly asked questions that can givethe reader a quick response to key points highlighted throughout the document. This series could eventually becompleted with other types of food security programs depending on the development and research led in the field(i.e., food security in the urban context, in the pastoral environment or other topics such as community participation). All of these books are subject at all times to additions and or improvements following thedevelopment of the food security department at Action Contre la Faim and the continued internal and externalevaluations of the different food security activities.

INTRODUCTION

This book presents the principles and methodologies specific to food aid interventions and the alternatives to foodaid. The alternatives to food aid are programs based on monetary support that may be either direct (cashdistribution) or indirect (stamp or voucher distribution). Due to the diverse contexts and situations found in thefield, this book does not provide an exhaustive response to all the problems encountered but will furnish a certainnumber of keys and tools which will facilitate the implementation of food aid programs according to the needs ofthe population in a given context.Chapter 1 presents the position of Action Contre la Faim on food aid through its objectives, its stakes, and its

intervention principles.

1 ACFIN is the international network comprised of ACF Canada, ACF France, ACF Spain, ACF UK and ACF USA. The international network shares acommon charter and global objectives.

Introduction toFood Security:

Intervention Principles

Food Aid andAlternatives to

Food Aid

IncomeGeneratingActivities

AgriculturalRehabilitation

Food SecurityAssessments andSurveillance


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Chapter 2 readdresses the specifics of the initial assessment of any food aid program (the methodologies of whichhaving already been widely developed in the book, Food Security Assessments and Surveillance). This assessmentdetermines the nature and the level of the food security, as well as, where indicated, the conditions of intervention.Chapter 3 presents and compares the different types of food aid programs and the alternatives that may constitutethe intervention strategy so as to implement the most appropriate solution possible.Chapter 4 explains how to determine the essential aspects of intervention strategy, and Chapter 5 specificallyaddresses the methodologies of the registration of the programs beneficiaries, a step crucial to the success of the

program.Chapter 6 discusses the different possible distribution systems so as to help make the most appropriate choicesaccording to the advantages and disadvantages of each.Chapter 7 details the organization of the distribution sites according to the selected conditions, and Chapter 8 givesthe tools necessary for planning, monitoring, and the control of the flow of products to be distributed.Chapter 9 complements this process with the tools of follow-up and evaluation, making it possible to measure theprograms progress and to make adjustments when indicated.Chapter 10 ends with the most frequently asked key questions. The responses highlight the key points developedthroughout this book.

Acknowledgements:

It is not possible to name each person who contributed to the development of this book; however, the methodologyand examples illustrated here are a compilation of experiences from hundreds of ACFIN expatriates and local staffover the last ten years. Special thanks should be given to all those who have worked in the food securitydepartments of ACFIN headquarters and who all contributed in some way to develop the department and laid thefoundation of this Food Security Series.

Special recognition should go to Fred Mousseau, food aid expert, for having written the initial version of the fooddistribution module that remains the backbone of the current book,

Kate Ogden, Caroline Wilkinson, and Henri Leturque, for their technical contributions,

Batrice Carr and Anne-Laure Solnon for their volunteer and professional work on the quality control offoodstuffs and the capitalization of ACFIN experiences on food aid alternatives, respectively,

Laurent Mirione and Vincent Tanguy, directors of the mission logistics service, for their constructive collaborationon the common tools necessary for the food aid programs,

This book was updated this year by Fred Michel in coordination with a peer review team consisting of HannaMattinen, Pascal Debons and Lisa Ernoul.


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CHAPTER 1 : ACFINS POSITION ON FOOD AID

I Introduction2

Despite the promises of the World Food Summit in 1996 to halve the number of malnourished people by 2015, this

number has not ceased to grow at a rate of 4.5 million per year. In 2004, over 842 million people were consideredmalnourished, even though millions of tons of food aid are provided annually.Food aid volumes continue to depend on the stock available and the international trading price of cereals, especiallywheat. When the prices are low and the available stock becomes more abundant in developed countries, delivery offood aid increases, and vice versa. Bilateral aid from state to state remains a political and economic tool which ismost often monetized to help support the commercial balances of the beneficiary countries, generally withoutconnection to the needs of the hungry. Moreover, for decades international food aid has participated in theimpoverishment of the food crop economies by the dumping of foodstuffs produced in developed countries,flooding the national markets with low prices because of subsidies given to the Northern farmers. For almost tenyears, the majority of international food aid has been allocated to emergency and restoration operations, with thehelp of bilateral aid: this positive sign reflects a better understanding of humanitarian needs because it is addressed,on the basis of the analysis of the needs, to the populations without buying power and theoretically does not affectlocal production. The development of the capacities and expertise of emergency humanitarian organizationscontributes to the improvement of international food aid, making it a true humanitarian action. It is within thisperspective that ACFIN places itself in order to better fight against hunger.

II Technical approach

Action Contre la Faim aims to save lives, to relieve human suffering, and to re-establish and preserve food security,by acting at different levels, while respecting the dignity of the people and protecting the populations.

The technical strategy of ACFIN takes into account the different levels of causes (direct, underlying, or basic) thatdetermine the nutritional status of the individuals. This general method of tackling the problem is represented bythe flow chart on the causes of malnutrition (see figure 1).

Food security for ACFIN is based on the definition provided by the World Bank in 1986: ensure the access andavailability by all people at all times to enough quality, healthy and appropriate food. The key words here areclearly: access, availability, quality, healthy, appropriate food.

The use of the food is also taken into consideration, leading to a tight collaboration with the nutritional department.This service provides the necessary expertise on the nutritional impact of the foodstuff according to theircomposition (nutrients), their methods of conservation, and their preparation.

The objective of the food aid programs is to respond to food destitution by directly providing food, while

promoting the self sufficiency of the beneficiaries3. Consequently, the ACFIN food security service has developedspecific expertise through the recruitment and training of professionals who manage the food aid programs, fromemergency programs to those of longer-term food security.

The programs make up part of a global strategy including:- The analysis of the multiple components of food security- Immediate food aid in response to food destitution- Household economic support, with the goal of reinforcing the coping mechanisms to increase the access to

foodstuffs (production, exchange).

2 Adapted from the report written for ACF by Fred Mousseau, Bitter wheat, food aid, and the fight against hunger, October 20053 At the ACF headquarters in France, food aid was integrated into the food security service in 2001. The fusion of food aid and food security means a precisecontextual analysis may be carried out, and immediate food security activities are encouraged, while limiting the potential negative effects and the duration offood aid activities.


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This approach, developed by the food security service at Action Contre la Faim, is based on the analysis of thelocal food markets and the populations mechanisms to live and survive, as well as on the identification andtargeting of the most vulnerable groups within the populations.

III Context and objectives of food aid programs

Food aid or its alternatives are indispensable in emergency situations, when the populations lose their means oflivelihood (harvests, livestock, economic activities) because of a conflict, an economic or political crisis, or anatural disaster, and find themselves confronted with food destitution.

In these situations, distribution should be implemented in a fast, efficient manner in order to ensure the peoplessurvival. If necessary, parallel, complementary actions should be developed. These may include: reserves ofdrinking water; medical care and treatment for the malnourished in the nutritional centers. Simultaneously, foodsecurity responses over a longer term should be prepared to replace the emergency intervention.

In such a context, the distribution should help the crisis victims survive by providing available and accessible foodproducts, of adequate quality and quantities in order to prevent the development of malnutrition and disease.

Another objective of food aid is to prevent the peoples resorting to the kinds of coping mechanisms which could,over the long term, create negative consequences on the peoples living conditions and food security: total or partialmigration of the members of a household, transfer of capital, new and unsustainable economic activities such aswood harvesting, decapitalisation of productive goods, etc.

Depending on the cause and the severity of the food deficit within the households, the type of aid program will bebased on providing either foodstuffs or cash.

Table 1: Type of aid to be provided according to the food problematic

Conditions and Causes of food destitution Food problematic Response to provide

Level of harvest inexistent or verylow

Level of food stock inexistent or verylow

Market destitution, non-functioningmarkets

Elevated prices of staple foods

Lack of food availability Injection of foodstuffs

Significant drop in buying power dueto loss of revenues (work, loss of production tools) and/or the loss ofworking capacity (illness, death,

emigration) Functioning markets which can

respond to the increase in demand

Lack of access to foodstuffs Injection of cash and foodcoupons

IV Impact of food distribution

The expected impact of the food distribution program is above all nutritional because it tends either to improve thenutritional status of the beneficiary population or to prevent its deterioration. Nevertheless, food aid often has moreor less desirable effects that must be anticipated and evaluated before deciding on the kind of intervention and theconditions.

In order to reduce the negative impacts of food aid programs, Action Contre la Faim analyses the followingparameters prior to engaging in type of activity:


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Local economy and living standards of the populationAid constitutes an economic resource for the beneficiary population. It can be sold or exchanged and can provideresources which are indispensable to the household in dealing with the necessary expenses. Sometimes, food aidrepresents an essential part of the resources of the people in crisis situations. As such, it can become a major stakefor the populations but also for the authorities or the rival groups in an armed conflict.

International politics and commerceAid can also be a commercial or economical political tool of international contributors, accentuating thedependence of a beneficiary country on external aid. Often the volume of food aid is based on international marketprices rather than the degree of the populations food needs. The agricultural excesses of rich countries make up thegreater part of the food aid. For example, such food aid does not permit the use of the local food availabile whenthey exist and can, in such a case, generate significant degradation of the economic outlets of the local producers.

Political situation and social relationships within a groupThe economic importance of the aid can naturally tempt politicians and the local despots to divert these resourcestowards political ends. Food aid, in particular, may serve as a substitute for the social assistance of a government.Additionally, depending on the distribution method, the aid can influence the internal relationships within a group.For example, it could create a foundation of power or situations of dependence. Aid can also facilitate a certain

social cohesion or, by contrast, create tensions (for example, in the case where only certain groups are targeted).

Security of the peopleThe value of the aid can also attract the attention of armed groups, military groups, or Mafia, thereby creating newrisks, especially when there are new governments and/or population movements.

Economic organization of a zoneAid can enterde facto into competition with the local production, harm the pre-existing commercial networks, andthereby cause a modification of the prices of foodstuffs in the beneficiary zone. This concerns not only the impactof the distribution but also the choices made with regards to the merchandise (local or regional purchases orimportation from another region), the foodstuffs (type and varieties chosen), and the type of distribution (actualfood or a food coupon system). Inversely, local purchases in large quantities when availability is insufficient could

cause a price increase that would penalize the entire population of the zone.

Population movementsAid can stabilize populations in the beneficiary zone, or it can stir them up. The local authorities or the militaryforces may be tempted to use the aid as a political instrument for displacement or regrouping. By contrast, localauthorities or military forces could oppose the aid if they believe it encourages an undesirable situation to continue.

Perpetuation of a crisis situationAid can demotivate or even discourage the populations during their necessary return to self-sufficiency following acrisis. In certain cases, as a result of taxation, theft, or the more or less voluntary participation of the aid recipientsin a war effort, aid can also become a source of provision for armed groups implicated in the crisis.

Health of the populationsAlthough food aid normally has a positive effect on the health of the beneficiaries, the distribution of rations thatare insufficient in vitamins and minerals could cause the development of epidemics and serious deficiencies, forexample pellagra, scurvy, or beriberi. International aid focuses on the macronutrients (lipids, proteins) and rarelyconsiders the micronutrients in the composition of its rations. Food aid therefore becomes a risk, especially when itis the principle resource (i.e., not complemented by other sources) over a prolonged period.

Ecological environmentCertain distributed foods require more fuel than others for their preparation. This may have an ecological impactover the long term, engendering deforestation. On the other hand, favoring local foods reduces the risks that

foodstuffs containing genetically modified organisms4 might be used as planting seeds.

4For more information, refer to the ACFIN paper on positioning concerning genetically modified organisms.


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Cultural aspectsImporting foodstuffs can have long-term consequences on local customs. Here again, local food should be favoredin order to prevent upsetting the local eating traditions.

V Intervention principles of food aid and its alternatives

Food aid consists of distributing the food to the beneficiary populations. When alternatives to food aid are moreappropriate, non-food items (blankets, jerry cans, cooking utensils, emergency shelters) and/or cash could also bedistributed.

In conformity with the project cycle management, the activities are defined with the goal of minimizing the adverseeffects previously mentioned and to maximize the results expected from the desired objectives (see above, sectionIII).

Distribution programs are based on the following principles:

All food aid programs are preceded by an assessment and an analysis of both the needs of the populationsand the socio-economic and geopolitical contexts, including the aid politics of international contributors.This analysis shows the pertinence of the intervention and helps determine objectively identifiableindicators to monitor the potential activities.

Food aid is a means and not an end: an exit strategy is prepared at the beginning of the intervention; foodsecurity activities that are aimed at longer-term objectives may be gradually introduced.

Program implementation takes into account the logistical capacities and the human and financial resourcesof ACFIN, including the capacity to manage the security necessary because of the context or the type ofproject.

Food rations should consider the composition with regards to an appropriate supply in nutrients(micronutrients included), local customs, and respect for the environment.

Local and regional purchases are, when possible, favored in order to ensure culturally appropriate food and

in order to support the local economy. Food products of good quality are provided by respecting the definition of the appropriate specifications

and a systematic quality control of the foodstuffs from the supplier to the beneficiary.

The existing local capacities and resources are identified and used throughout the program as much aspossible.

Effective measures are adopted in order to ensure that the most vulnerable groups are effectively reached,while taking into account the security risks5, the local context, and the dignity of the populations.

All of the programs activities are subjected to ongoing monitoring and systematic evaluations throughoutthe duration of the program. An impact analysis is carried out in order to reorient the activities, ifnecessary, and to optimize the definition and realization of future programs.

The activities are coordinated with the other partners onsite, with the goal of obtaining optimal aid cover.

VI Argument

ACFIN aims to contribute to reducing hunger by informing the public and by influencing the politics and thepractices of the principal actors through a proof-based analysis.Its argument is based on the following principles:

Detailed analysis of the causes, responsibilities, and solutions of the hunger problem in certain countries.

Identification of the common factors of the hunger problem in the countries where ACFIN intervenes, inorder to define global tendencies.

Defend the cause of hunger before the national and international communities.

5Security risks for the populations and ACFIN teams


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Depending on the stakes involved, the food aid programs can be at the heart ACFINs lobbying, especially on theinternational system of food aid to contribute to its improvement for the benefit of the populations suffering fromhunger.

ACFIN means thereby to denounce as much as possible the downward spiral of a food aid system....- Which offers only a default response to the deeper problems which continue to be overlooked,- Which contributes to reduced food crop farming and increased dependence on the importation of foodstuffs,

- Whose allocations depend less on objective needs assessments and more on the political or commercialinterests of the donating countries.

This is why ACFIN proposes a certain number of paths for lobbying and action 6:

Reject the conditionality of the aid: aid should be provided according to objective assessments of the needsand not the interests and agendas of the donating countries. Food aid should especially be providedindependently of the market reforms.

Encourage the donating countries to reduce actual food aid in preference for direct financial aid, whichwould permit the financing of other types of actions and of local food aid purchases in the developingcountries.

Encourage food aid purchases in the Southern countries, ensuring that this will benefit the poorest countriesand their small farmers.

See that the food aid is no longer the dominant response in emergency situations nor the default response tostructural deficit problems and chronic food insecurity. Food aid should become an instrument amongothers and be used pragmatically and within limits.

Reform or eliminate the international institutions that govern food aid, whose existence and mandate reflectthe logistical measures of dealing with surplus in developed countries.

Review and reconsider aid politics in order to give priority to the local farmers and to favor food self-sufficiency in the poorest countries.

Return the responsibility and the means of fighting international hunger to the FAO (United Nations Foodand Agriculture Organization) by implementing a more responsible aid politic with the governments andthe NGOs.

Give the poorest countries the political and financial means of fighting hunger, through the elimination ofdebt, enhanced development aid, and the right to food sovereignty.

VII Summary

Food aid and its alternatives are tools for improving food security of populations having suffered adverseconditions.

Food aid programs are necessary when a certain population or group no longer has the capacity to feeditself.

Food aid responds to a lack of food availability: the alternatives respond to the populations lack of access

to the foodstuffs. Intervention principles enable risk reduction and maximized impact of the aid program.

Food aid should remain short-term and can be relieved by longer-term programs that restore autonomy inthe targeted population.

Food aid at ACFIN also aims to contribute to the improvement of the international system by denouncingany wrongdoings witnessed in the intervention fields and by making recommendations.

6 Extract of the report written for ACFIN by Fred Mousseau, Bitter wheat, food aid, and the fight against hunger, October 2005.


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CHAPTER 2 : PRELIMINARY ASSESSMENTS

I Introduction

Action Contre la Faim follows the causal approach of malnutrition to evaluate humanitarian needs. As theconceptual chart shows (see figure 1), malnutrition is not only related to a problem of accessibility or availability of

food, and other factors must be taken into consideration. Identification of the populations needs is therefore notcentered only its food situation; it also takes its social, medical, or sanitary problems into account. In the sameapproach, the basic causes at the economic and political levels must also be fully understood. Even in the casewhere Action Contre la Faim would not be able to develop responses to all the needs identified, it is important toperform this type of multi-sectional assessment in order to ensure that the proposed response is indeed the mostappropriate. Additionally, it may serve as a way to lobby for the intervention of other actors.

Figure 1: Causal chart of malnutrition 7

In a crisis situation, the general context analysis and an initial needs identification make it possible to recommendpossible activities. When it is decided that food aid must be provided, these assessments should necessarily becomplemented by further investigation to help establish the pertinence and feasibility of this type of intervention.The methodologies of the investigations are presented in the book,Food Security Assessments and Surveillance.

7 Adapted from UNICEF, 1997

MORTALITY

INADEQUATE FOODSUPPLY

LOCAL PRIORITIES

FORMAL AND INFORMAL ORGANISATIONS AND INSTITUTIONS

POLITICAL IDEOLOGY

RESOURCES Human Social Environmental Structural Financial

FUNDAMENTAL CAUSES

UNDERLYING CAUSES

IMMEDIATE CAUSES

HOUSEHOLD FOOD SECURITY

Food availability Food accessibility

PUBLIC HEALTH AND HYGIENE

Sanitary environment Access to health structures

Availability, quality, and accessto water

MALNUTRITION

SOCIAL ENVIRONMENT AND RESPONSIBILITY Behaviours and responsibility Role, status, and rights of women Social and organisational networks

DISEASE

Use of food


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II Context Study

The context in which a crisis has occurred should be studied in depth, from various angles:Social

Socio-cultural characteristics of the population: way of life, habitat, customs, role and status of women, etc.

Local capacities and resources: administrative or traditional structures in place, their functions, theircapacities and reliability, level of education of the local population, languages spoken, capacities andcapabilities, particular constraints related to their characteristics.

Political and social structure of the population: institutions, social system, etc.Security

Conditions of access of the affected population as well as the factors influencing the safety and security ofthat population and the people who intervene: risk analysis, study of the different actors involved in aconflict, etc.

Economic

Economic and food situation of the targeted region: the principle resources and dependencies in the zone;exporter zone, deficitary zone, balanced zone; types of foodstuffs imported/exported

Environment, climate, agricultural calendar and their effects on the populations in terms of activities andmovement

III Study of food markets

As soon as a serious perturbation of the livelihood of the affected populations is suspected in terms of food(production crisis, breakdown in the supply system), we must first, before developing any sort of program, evaluatethe food availability in the affected zone and its prospects according to the possible market reactions. The goal is todetermine whether the program should respond to the problematic of a lack of food availability or a lack of foodaccessibility.Seasonal variations must always be taken into consideration (agricultural calendar of local production, for example)

to identify the real impact of the crisis on the food economy. The results of this study, led at the country level aswell as at the target zone level, are then combined with the analysis at the household level (see section IV).

First, an analysis must be performed on:The availability of basic products before and after the crisis, in the affected zone and within the whole country,based on macro-economic data:

- Seasonality of the exchanges in a normal year- Level and sources of production (deficitary zones and surplus zones)- Level of the accessibility and functionality of production sources- Level and origins of imports- Level and destinations of exports- Level of stock (private and public8) and government politics on the use of reserves

- Level of bilateral donations- Evolution of internal and external flow (cross-border)- Evolution of the exchange rates (official and parallel) and their impacts on the prices

The conditions of functioning market:- Price levels- Existence of speculative phenomena- Situation of a monopoly of the actors (merchants, government) where prices are fixed- Level of integration (connections) of principle and secondary markets- Creation/disappearance of markets- Creation of new supply circuits- Sufficient or insufficient availability of staple products9

8 There may be national cereal offices having the role of stabilising the prices of cereals by manipulating the purchase and reselling of a part of the nationalproduction and/or of imported products.


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- Changes in the types of foodstuffs and their packaging- Types of exchange: monetary or barter- Level and evolution of prices of staple products- Evolution in terms of exchange- Number of active merchants, and their capacity and willingness to respond to an increase in demand (for

example, by transfer from a surplus zone to deficitary zones)- Capacity for storage (size of warehouses, turn-over) and for transport (delivery frequency, truck size)

- Existence of internal exchange barriers (taxes, road and bridge conditions, insecurity, front line, borderclosings)

- Evolution of buying power of the population in terms of credit systems

Later, the possible market reaction scenarios must be identified in order to understand the impact on the foodavailability of the affected zone according to whether food or cash is to be injected.

Table 2: Type of aid according to the conditions on the food markets (Oxfam, 2005).

Scenario Problematics and possible impacts RecommendationNo available food in the zones neighboringmarketsORNon-functioning markets

Problem of food availability withoutpossibility of being addressed by thelocal markets.

Food aid

Abnormally high food pricesANDNon-functioning markets

Problem of accessibility due to the lossof buying power because of elevatedprices. Cash injection would elevate theprices even more.

Food aid

Food available in neighboring marketsANDLoss of revenues in the populationANDFunctioning markets

ANDHindered exchange actions (taxes, conflict)ORNon-competitive markets (prices controlled bymerchants/speculators)ORNon-integrated (or non-connected) marketsORMerchants not willing or unable to respond to theincreased demand

Problem of access to food.Cash injection would elevate pricesbecause the offer could not be increasedin the zone because of...--exchange barriers,

--elevated adjustments of the controlledprices,--neighboring markets not beingconnected to supply the zone (increasethe offer)--merchants not increasing the offer offoodstuffs on the markets.

Food aid

Food available in neighboring marketsAND

Loss of revenues in the populationANDFunctioning marketsANDExchanges unhinderedANDCompetitive markets (prices controlled)ANDIntegrated marketsANDMerchants willing and able to respond to theincreased demand

Problem of access to food.The injection of food would lessen the

demand and prevent development of thelocal economy of the food markets(production, commerce).Cash injection would cause an increasein demand and the conditions in the foodmarkets would provide a response to theproblem while developing theiractivities.

Direct aid on thebuying power byinjection of cash orfood coupons.

9 The staple products are classically the traditional food products consumed by the population (in terms of cereals, legumes, fats and oils, fruits andvegetables) as well as the products of primary necessity such as soap and fuel.


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Additionally, food needs at the household level must be understood: especially the potential impact on their level ofresources and their coping strategies.

IV Identifying the populations needs

The nutritional survey will estimate the level of malnutrition prevalent within a given population through the use ofanthropometrics criteria and supplies good indications on the definition of the programs priorities.10 The foodsecurity assessment11 seeks to identify the causes of this malnutrition and of the food insecurity. It should evaluatethe populations food availability, determine the food access and food consumption mechanisms, identify thecategories of the population that are most affected, and understand the adaptation or coping mechanisms employed.It should also evaluate the capacities of the population to resist adverse conditions over time.

The identification of the food security needs results from this capacity to cope with a crisis in order to minimize thedeterioration of their livelihood means. (See figure 2 in the book,Food Security Assessments and Surveillance, formore information on the coping mechanisms.)

For the specific identification of the food needs, the assessment should respond to the following questions:

- What is the current rate of malnutrition, and how has it evolved?- What are the causes of the malnutrition?- How much reduction or loss of livelihood has the population suffered (in terms of production, revenues,

tools/productive assets)?- What is the cause of the loss of buying power? (elevated prices, loss of revenues)- How have the prices of staple products evolved on the markets, and what are the exchange terms (when the

economy is poorly monetized or not monetized)?- How have the types of foodstuffs being consumed changed?- How significant is the drop in number of daily meals and quantities consumed?- What changes in the sources of supply have occurred (purchase, loan, begging, gathering)?- What changes in the levels of household food stocks have occurred?

- Are the coping mechanisms adopted unbearable or risky?- What is the capacity of the households to cope with the adverse conditions?- What are the prospects of revenue (economic and agricultural) according to the seasonal variations?

The crosscheck of the needs analysis of the population and the study of the food markets (see section III) helpdetermine whether the problematic is a lack of access to or a lack of availability of food, or both.

As the conceptual chart shows (see figure 1), malnutrition is not necessarily linked to a problem of food access oravailability, and other factors must be taken into account. For example, a problem of malnutrition is sometimes theresult of poor weaning practices or sanitary problems related to poor drinking water quality that would obviouslynot be improved by food supply.

Also, even if the nutritional needs are identified as priority and the food aid represents an adapted response, theprograms impact can be reduced because other needs have not been taken into account. For example, it is possiblethat the beneficiaries would have to resell a part of their foodstuffs to cover other needs which were not covered bythe assistance, such as the purchase of hygiene products or reconstruction materials. The nutritional supply wouldtherefore be inferior to that which had been initially planned and would not respond to the objectives fixed by theprogram.

The identification of a populations needs is a step that must be taken prior to any intervention, but it should also becontinued throughout the programs ongoing verification and monitoring. The monitoring and evaluation shouldhelp measure the results and the impact of the activities and therefore continue to identify the evolving needs of thepopulation (see the book,Introduction to Food Security, for more information concerning the project cycle).

10 Nutritional investigations are led exclusively by nutritionists who have the required expertise. Without this investigation, it is still possible to performMUAC measurements on children under five, with the technical advice of the Nutrition department, in order to verify whether acute malnutrition is present ornot. The results should never be used as statistically viable data.11 For the information collection techniques and methodologies, see the book,Food Security Assessments and Surveillance.


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V Estimating the number of individuals in a population

During an initial needs assessment, it is imperative to have at least a rough estimation of the number of peopleaffected as well as their demographic characteristics in order to be able to evaluate the magnitude of the crisis, thefeasibility of the intervention, and the volume of assistance required.

Two options may be available from the outset:- Figures and statistics obtained from administrations, community representatives, or other organizations

present- Calculations based on local existing lists (in cases of displacement camps, for example).

In cases where this information might not be available or seems unreliable, crosschecking of different sources willbe needed, such as comparing local administration census figures to those of a vaccination campaign performed byanother organization. The number of people can also simply be estimated by the aid workers using two methodsthat are explained in Appendix 3.

VI Other actors present

It is crucial to take the current or planned actions led by other organizations or local authorities into consideration.The following elements should be studied in particular:

- The real on site presence of the actors: NGOs (local and international), international organizations (ICRC,United Nations agencies, especially WFP, UNICEF), sponsors, local authorities, social institutions, localgroups...

- Their analysis and position: What approach are the actors taking to the crisis? What assistance are theygiving or planning to give?

- The current or forthcoming national politics: Is there a cereal reserve? How is it used to stabilize themarkets? Are any zones being neglected?

- The type of assistance provided: rations provided for distribution but also the other activities beingimplemented in the other technical sectors (water and clean-up, medical, nutrition)

- How much geographic cover is included in the assistance: Which beneficiaries are targeted? How many?In which sites or what region?

- The selection methods of the beneficiaries employed: What selection criteria are used? How are theyapplied? How are the beneficiaries registered?

- The distribution methods employed: direct? How often?- Different constraints encountered during the registration of beneficiaries and foodstuff distribution.- Expectations and capacities for future action, which actions, when?- Access to the affected populations? Have any zones been overlooked?

This study is essential because it constitutes the first step toward good coordination among the actors and a

cohesion of the interventions. It helps identify the zones that are not covered or poorly covered. Insufficientcoordination may, in fact, cause later iniquities or program overlaps and even limit the impact of the assistance.Some groups could receive too much aid, others not enough. If rations or selection criteria are different, this couldencourage people to relocate in order to be in the place where they feel they will receive the most aid.Additionally, joint cover by the different actors could influence the priorities or needs in a specific zone. Such azone might have such poor cover that, in the end, it appears that it should have been targeted in the first place.

VII Logistical assessment

It is essential that the logistics service be involved at the initial stage of the assessment and especially in the perspective of developing distribution programs which require significant logistical support for the supply ofproducts. The logistical plan should be defined at the same time as the program to ensure its feasibility and to be

activated as soon as the budget has been validated.The logistical assessment will study the conditions of the beneficiaries access to the intended aid and therebyestablish the feasibility of the implementation of activities. It therefore considers the possible alternatives for the


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purchase or reception of the foodstuffs, their shipment, their storage, and their delivery to the distribution pointswhere indicated.This study thus investigates:

The possibilities of transport and storage (including in the affected zones)

The entry points (ports, border crossings, airports) and their import capacities (equipment and materials)

Location of existing foodstuff stocks, their availability, their costs, their mobility

Identification of the private suppliers and assess their capacity to respond to the demand (quality, quantity,delivery time)

Identification of the capacity of the humanitarian actors present who are susceptible to provide foodstuffsand other primary necessity goods (WFP, UNICEF, UNHCR, ICRC)

The possible routes between the supply points (entry points, stock) and the affected zones

The customs procedures and formalities and national legislation concerning the importation of specific(nutritional) products

Transportation, storage, and warehouse costs

The potential risks (security, access, quality of foodstuffs)Appendix 4 shows an example questionnaire for a rapid assessment of the different logistical aspects in an affectedzone.

VIII Deciding on an implementation plan for a distribution program

The different assessments mentioned above should not only provide an objective view of the different domainsstudied but also take the foreseeable or possible effects of food aid into account (see Chapter 1): displacement ofthe population towards distribution points, aggravation of insecurity in areas adjacent to the distribution sites,depopulation of agricultural production areas, upset of the local market, reduction in the agricultural productionvolume, environmental impact, etc.

Even so, it is often the case that in an emergency context that access conditions and insecurity prevent aid workersfrom performing as complete and in-depth assessments as would normally be desired. Consequently, it will benecessary to construct a certain number of working hypotheses that will later need to be confirmed or invalidated

through the program monitoring. The monitoring and ad-hoc assessments of both the program and its impactshould thus provide a way to review the hypotheses and the corresponding choices and to consequently adapt ouractions.

There is not only one solution for the definition and implementation of a food aid program. Only by synthesizingand comparing different assessments can the most appropriate program be decided, its pertinence and feasibilitydetermined, and its implementation plan drawn up. The decision to implement a food aid program should thussystematically be based on a variety of objective indicators, such as those presented in the table below, initiallyhelping to establish priorities the needs of a food aid program.

Table 3: Indicators to determine the pertinence of a program

Indicators Description

Degree of food needs

Rate (evolution) of acute malnutritionFood consumption level (quantity, diversity/quality) of familiesProduction and food resource levels of familiesBreakdown of the production system and/or crop supplyLocal coping mechanisms (households, economic actors)

Level of needs Number of people affected

Presence of humanitarian actors Capacity to cover food needs

Level of risks of adverse affectsaccording to the context

Access to the populationSubstitution of the role of local authoritiesUpset of the local economyManipulation or misappropriation of organized aid


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Security and political risks to the beneficiaries and the personnelRisks of aggravation of an unfavorable situation

Potential lobbying themes Local purchasesNutritional qualitymicroelementsForgotten populations/discriminationEffects on the local economy caused by an international aid system

Technical and operational goals How transversal it is (with the food security and other technical activities)Development and capitalization of innovative projects (which could bereproduced in other intervention zones)

IX Summary

The initial assessment establishes an analysis that serves as a reference to follow the evolution of thesituation and the causes of the identified problem.

The nature of the food problematics (lack of availability or lack of access) determines the type of responseto be provided (injection of food or cash).

It is at the household level that the intervention needs are confirmed; program monitoring and evaluationensure an ongoing needs analysis in order to respond in the most appropriate manner.

The capacities and the intentions of the actors present determine the help determine the interventioncontext.

Logistics are an essential part of the initial assessment so that the constraints and resources necessary forthe implementation of the program may be integrated from the very beginning.

The decision to intervene is based on the totality of the indicators identified during the assessment process.


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Example 1: Planning depends on the objective

The theoretical chart below presents the possible evolution of food and nutrition factors. The red line shows howfood cover levels for the most vulnerable households may evolve over one year of poor harvest, and the yellow lineshows how the prevalence of acute malnutrition might evolve over that same period. This represents a typicalsituation found in rural zones when the most vulnerable populations depend heavily on the level of their

agricultural harvests (Taylor, 2004).

The type of intervention and its timing could be different according to the fixed objective:- If the food distribution begins in January it could prevent the deterioration of the nutritional status of the

population.- If the intervention begins in March it could prevent the sale of personal goods, i.e., the decapitalization of

households.- In April/May, distribution could prove useful to limit the emigration movements and permit the households to

maintain their work force for the preparation of agricultural planting.- After June/July, the intervention could consist of protecting the seeds to ensure an agricultural boost at the

moment of planting and increase the food availability during the hunger gap.- After the month of August, a cash distribution would be most appropriate, given the improved food availability in

the zone.

Finally, it is important to include the conditions and steps for concluding the aid program in the interventionstrategy: the exit strategy. This is made easier if the distribution program has been planned as a complement or aforerunner to a longer-term type of assistance that would contribute to the affected populations return toautonomy.

Formalization of the strategy and monitoring indicators:It is the whole process that determines the intervention strategy; it should be formalized within a logicalintervention framework12: this ensures coherence among the general objective, the specific objective, the expectedresults, and the activities to be led.

(See Appendix 5 for an example of the logical framework of a direct distribution project.)

12 Refer to the book,Introduction to FoodSecurity, for the use of a logical intervention framework.

80

60

40

20

0

Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May June July Aug Sept Oct

% food needscovered

% prevalence ofacutemalnutrition

Sale of pers.goods

Exceptional migration

harvests harvestsHunger gap


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Each of these intervention phases should be monitored according to objectively verifiable indicators previouslyidentified. The indicators should be defined during strategy development to guarantee the possibility of monitoringthe programs progress and pertinence: a must to ensure if the response is appropriate to the evolving needs of the population. The difficulty is in measuring the desired results in terms of prevention: it is hard to objectivelymeasure the part of the productive capital which was not have been sold because of, for example, a distributionprogram. It is preferable to observe how the revenue sources have evolved by using qualitative investigations (post-

distribution interviews) to see if the decapitalization phenomenon has indeed been stopped or reduced during theprogram: such a trend would show the programs pertinence for this aspect.The indicators will therefore be different according to the objective and the type of program. In Table 4, below, themost frequently seen indicators are listed.

Table 4: Examples of distribution program monitoring indicators

Objectives anddesired results

Objectively verifiable indicators Sources of verification

The targetedpopulation receivesfood baskets or cash

Cycles of distribution carried out

Number of beneficiaries served

Number of beneficiaries registered

Quantity of food and/or cashdistributed

Number of food baskets provided

% of beneficiaries who received theentire defined ration

% of beneficiaries who are satisfiedwith the quality of the rations provided

Activity report

Distribution report

Registration list

Distribution and stockreport

Distribution report

FBM13 and PDM14

PDM

Food availabilitywithin the householdsis improved

Use of the food basket

Duration of the food basket

Quality of diet

% of the nutritional needs covered bythe food basket

PDM

PDM

PDM

PDM

Access to foodstuffs isimproved

Use of the food basket

Structure of the household expenses

Quality of diet

Evolution of the staple food prices

PDM

PDM

PDM

Market survey

Decapitalization ofproductive goods isreduced

Evolution of the sale of goods inoverall income

Evolution of the herd size

PDM, food securitysurvey

PDM, food securitysurvey

The accessibility of thezone is improved(through a restoration

project)

Costs of transportation and of products

Evolution of the number of merchants

Food security surveyand focus groupdiscussions

The seeds are protectedfrom food consumption(through food basketdistribution)

Area of sowed land

Level of harvests

Pre-harvest survey

Post-harvest survey

Depending on the nature of the food crisis, the program will be defined with the goal of optimizing its impactwithin the affected population while minimizing the risks and potential adverse effects. The type of distributionmust be selected according to set objectives, taking into account the advantages and disadvantages of each type ofactivity. Sections II and III, below, present the different types of distribution implemented by ACFIN according to

whether they respond to a problematic of lack of food availability or a lack of food access.

13 FBM: Food Basket Monitoring is the verification of quantities for each foodstuff in the ration, performed at the exit of the distribution site (see Chapter 9).14 PDM: Post-Distribution Monitoring is the follow-up after distribution via a sampling of the distribution beneficiaries (see Chapter 9).


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II Responses to a lack of food availability

II.1 Free general (or targeted) food distributionII.1.1 DescriptionOne or several kinds of foodstuffs are freely distributed to populations affected by a lack of food availability in the

zone. The food basket is defined on the basis of the nutritional needs15 and the food security analysis of

households, who may also be simultaneously suffering from access to food.This type of distribution can cover a selected population in a general manner or in a targeted manner according tothe objective criteria (see Chapter 4, Section I) leading to a cover for the most vulnerable people. This type oftargeting allows us to complement the nutrition programs during a significant nutritional crisis. General fooddistributions or distributions targeting a sector of the population (children under 5) allow the activities to be quicklyset in motion without having to register the beneficiaries, while at the same time, effectively curbing a nutritionalcrisis as the following example shows:

Example 2: Free distribution to children under 5 years old

Southern Darfur Sudan, September 2005Close to Nyala, the capital of Southern Darfur, the Kalma camp housed approximately 70 to 90 thousand refugeesfleeing combats and perpetrated violence for more than a year. Often following several displacements, these

civilians found Kalma to be their ultimate refuge, finding access to assistance from humanitarian organizations, onwhich they were totally dependent in terms of medical care and food. Distributions were theoretically carried outevery month. Even so, the rate of acute malnutrition during this period was constantly rising, reaching more than20% among children under 5 years of age. After an investigation, the principle reason for the increasedmalnutrition was determined to be poor cover of the general distribution due to a lack of systematic registration ofthe new arrivals and to the logistical constraints that prevented proper supplying of full rations. It was decided torapidly implement a targeted distribution to all children less than 5 years old (estimated to be about 15,000 people)with a mixed ration (equivalent to one porridge meal per day) in order to prevent the risks of malnutrition amongthis particularly vulnerable population. This targeted distribution, which lasted nearly 5 months, worked well incomplement with the general distribution and the nutritional centers that could not cope with the growing numberof cases of malnutrition.

If the food security analysis indicates a lack of access to foodstuffsin other words, an excessively weak buying power resulting from a loss of revenues even though the level of availability is normala complementary orunique distribution of non-food products or cash is indicated to help improve the access to food (see below, SectionIII).

II.1.2 Specific objectives:- Ensure survival- Improve the nutritional status of the populations- Improve the household means of livelihood

II.1.3 Desired results:

- Availability of food in quality and in quantity- Reduction or prevention of malnutrition- Prevention of risky coping mechanisms- Reduction of the decapitalization of productive goods (livestock, tools)- Prevention of new, unsustainable economic activities or of falling into debt- Increase in the capacity of households to concentrate on productive activities

II.1.4 Order of program events:- Identify the needs of the population (see Chapter 2)- Identify the targeted population (see Chapter 4, Section I)- Determine the food rations to be provided (see Chapter 4, Section III)- Prepare the supply (see Chapter 4, section IV)

- Establish distribution committees and awareness campaigns (see Chapter 4, Section V)

15 By nutritional needs is meant the deficit between the current diet and the minimum required to remain in good health.


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- Organize the team (see Chapter 4, Section VI)- Register the beneficiaries (see Chapter 5)- Determine the distribution systems and site installation (see Chapter 6)- Distribute food rations and manage flow (see Chapters 7 and 8)- Verify the quantities actually received and the use of the foodstuffs (see Chapter 9)- Evaluate the impact with regard to the fixed objectives (see Chapter 9)

II.1.5 Initial conditions:Context:

- Large-scale emergency- Sudden natural catastrophe- Significant movements of the population- Abnormally high or rising level of malnutrition- Disintegrated social structures, lack of reliability and equity of social structures (thereby not being able to

manage distribution themselves)Food market:

- Breakdown of production or market supply system- Absence or inefficacy of public organisms to regulate cereal markets

- Elevated food prices and/or rapid inflation- Abnormally low availability of staple foods, absence of certain foodstuffsPopulation:

- Population cut off from its usual food source (refugees, displaced persons)- Population having lost its harvest or means of livelihood- Insufficient capacity of the families to produce or generate incomes (weak proportion of active workers in

the family, monoparental family)- Poor access to production means / access to land, forests, sea, possession of assets

Logistics/security:- Easy access to populations in terms of geography and security- Possible distribution sites are accessible and of adequate size

Table 5: Advantages and disadvantages of free distribution

Advantages Disadvantages Immediate impact, rapid implementation

Limited risks of aggravation of thenutritional situation

Direct contact with beneficiaries andpossibility of large-scale awareness

Reduction of the risk ofmisappropriation of distributed goods(no intermediary)

No discrimination for access to food

Reaches the most vulnerable people orfamilies

Lowered food prices on the market =>rise in buying power

Stimulates local economy and production when the rations arepurchased locally

Can complement the goods available onthe market

Economic value of the food, making it possible to transfer expenses to otherprimary necessity stations

Requires enough time and resources to select and register thebeneficiaries

Requires significant capacities of transportation and storage,high logistical costs

Is work-intensive

Sometimes requires repackaging the food into individualrations

Does not always respects the dietary habits and customscompared to the lack of local availability

Does not take into account the differences between villagesand between families when there is no targeting

Creates dependence on the donor when the donation is in pure form (incertitude, supply delays, types of rations andfoodstuffs)

Develops dependency and may cause lack of motivation forauto-production

Risks keeping the populations where they are, ordiscouraging the return of refugees/displaced persons.

Risks destabilizing the local markets (unbalanced offer ordemand) and lowering the revenues of local producers.

Creates security risks due to large quantities of foodstuffs


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II.2 Canteens16II.2.1 DescriptionDistribution of cooked food rations to nutritionally vulnerable groups (the poor, children...) directly or throughexisting institutions. Distribution is daily and the site may or may not offer the possibility to eat on site. A canteenprogram most often aims to complement the resources of a targeted population, and the meals are distributed tocover one meal per day, five or six days per week. Even so, it is still possible to distribute dry rations for the mealsthat are not covered by the program if the needs require it. Setting up canteens can also be perceived as a primary

phase of a micro-project that the local managing committee could take over during the programs duration.

Example 3: Canteen programs

Gonaives Haiti, December 2004Prior to Hurricane Jeanne, the city of Gonaives was already especially vulnerable after years of economic andpolitical crisis. The vast majority of its population was living in the shantytowns at the time the hurricane hit. Afterthe storm ravaged the weakened city, these shantytown populations were cut off from their meager resources(fishing, market gardening, craftsmanship, small businesses). The city itself was no longer supplied in foodstuffsthat were usually imported from domestic or foreign production zones. The first food aid was literally looted by adesperate population. In this situation, the weakest were unable to benefit from this food distribution, whichrequired police protection. Fearing a rapid aggravation of the nutritional situation and in the impossibility to carry

out any socio-economic targeting which would only cause greater tension, Action Contre la Faim decided toimplement a canteen program. The canteens were set up in the very heart of the shantytowns. In collaboration withcommittees from these neighborhoods, the canteens provided a way to distribute one bowl of porridge per day toeach child under 5 years of age, the only fair and acceptable selection criteria for the population. This distributionalso ensured that the infantile population was protected from the risks of malnutrition while saving their familiesthe money that would have been spent on these meals. This distribution method allowed the weakest populations toaccess the program, and the nuisance of having to come each day to collect prepared porridge stopped the peoplewithout real need from taking food. Also, the volume of the food distributed per canteen and per day was notattractive enough for the looters. The program was continued for four months, the time needed to stabilize thesituation and to see the markets once again receiving new stocks.

II.2.2 Specific objectives

- Prevent malnutrition and furnish a food supplement to the most needy people in nutritional terms- Provide financial support by lessening family food expenses

II.2.3 Desired results- Availability of food in quality and in quantity- Reduction or prevention of the cases of malnutrition- Prevention of risky coping mechanisms- Reduction of the decapitalization of productive goods (livestock, tools)- Prevention of new, unsustainable economic activities or of falling into debt- Reinforcement of local capacities

II.2.4 Order of program events:- Identify the needs of the population (see Chapter 2)- Identify the targeted population (see Chapter 4, Section I)- Determine the rations and number of meals to be to be distributed per person, per day (see Chapter 4,

Section III)- Establish management committees and increase awareness among the populations (see Chapter 4, Section

V)- Register or possibly not register the under-5 population (see Chapter 5)- Set up the canteens (see Chapter 6)- Distribute daily rations and manage flow (see Chapters 7 and 8)- Verify the quantities actually received and the use of the foodstuffs (see Chapter 9)- Evaluate the impact with regard to the fixed objectives (see Chapter 9)

16 These canteens should not be confused with the school canteen programs that aim to improve the scholarity and education rates of the children. Thesegoals are not part of the ACFIN mandate. These school canteen programmes are not directly supported by ACFIN. For more information, refer to theevaluation of the school canteen programmes led by DFID in 2004.


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II.2.5 Initial conditionsContext:

- Breakdown of the social institutional system- Significant concentration of the population (camp, urban context)- Level of malnutrition abnormally high or rising

Food market:- Breakdown of the market supply or markets not accessible to the population- Raised food prices and/or rapid inflation- Abnormally low availability of staple foods

Population:- Excluded population (in economic, political, and/or ethnic terms)- Displaced population (with intent to return) without material capacity to prepare meals- Population surrounded by armed groups- Population at risk, with regard to malnutrition (children less than 5 years old, pregnant and nursing

women)Logistics / Security

- Predation risks: looting of the populations by armed groups

- Possibility of accessible distribution sites, of sufficient size, with a small, secure warehouseTable 6: Advantages and disadvantages of canteens

Advantages Disadvantages Possibility of inducing self-targeting (rations are

not very attractive and are on a daily basis)

Ensures the consumption of the distributed ration(impossible to store)

Low risk of misappropriation of foodstuffs: smallquantities delivered at the distribution points,cooked rations

Wide-spread support in terms of fuel and water

Verification of the nutritional quality Possibility of screening the beneficiaries

Community involvement (canteen management)

Employment of numerous people (effect of cashinjection)

Possibility of purchasing fruits and vegetablesfrom the local markets to complete the rations

Possibility to boost the dynamics of the socialnetwork

Possibility to transfer the management of thecanteens at the end of the project (exit strategy)

Difficult to offer varied daily meals

Difficult to offer non-stop service (7 days a week)noon and night

Significant logistical means (transportation, storage,site preparation, water, fuel)

Complicated flow management of foodstuffs

Significant human resource needs (15 to 20 percanteen)

Scarcity of fuels, which degrade the environment,entailing the use of an expensive alternative (gas)

Difficult to monitor the distributed quantities(rations prepared in large quantities, in 50-liter pots)

Obligation of beneficiaries to come every day to thesite for several hours, which reduces theiravailability for other essential activities

Risk of ration sharing once it is taken home

Competition with local economic activities (sale ofprepared meals)

II.3 Seed protection rationsII.3.1 DescriptionAgricultural entrants and food are simultaneously distributed, covering needs for the planting season even thoughthe hunger gap has already begun. Adequate planning of the distribution ensures that the seeds will be usedappropriately and eliminates the constraint of food deficit (and the risk of seed consumption) that the farminghouseholds must face.

Example 4: Seed protection program

Southern Darfur, Sudan, June 2005In the agropastoral zone one hour south of Nyala, the situation remained relatively stable enough to allow thepopulation that had fled the violence to return home to prepare their fields. In order to help them get out of the

vicious circle of dependence on food aid, Action Contre la Faim decided to support these populations. They wereassisted in their renewed agricultural efforts by receiving seeds and tools. However, the seeds were at great risk ofbeing consumed prior to planting because of the zones existing lack of food, compounded by an abnormally early


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hunger gap. Thus, to ensure that the distributed seeds would not be even partially consumed, a months worth ofcomplete food rations were distributed to all the beneficiary families of the agricultural program. Consequently, thefarmers were able to take more risks (early sowing) in their planting strategies, depending on their forecasts for thefirst rainfalls, in order to obtain optimal returns.

II.3.2 Specific objectives- Increase the targeted populations food production by securing the planting season- If necessary, cover the entire hunger gap, up to the harvest, depending on the need level

II.3.3 Desired results- Availability of food in quality and quantity- Mobilization of the work force in agricultural activities- Optimization of the use of agricultural entrants- Prevention of the decapitalization of productive goods- Contribution to a return to food autonomy

II.3.4 Order of program events:- Identify the needs of the population (see Chapter 2)

- Identify the targeted population: most often the beneficiaries an agricultural rehabilitation program (seeChapter 4 Section I)- Determine the ration to cover the planting period (see Chapter 4, Section III)- Prepare for the supply (see Chapter 4, Section IV)- Inform and increase awareness of the population- Coordinate the distribution of seeds with that of agricultural entrants (see the Agricultural Rehabilitation

book)- Verify the quantities actually received and the utilization of the foodstuffs (see Chapter 9)- Evaluate the impact with regards to the fixed objectives (see Chapter 9)

II.3.5 Initial conditions:Context:

- Hunger gap- Rural zone

Food market:- Raised food prices and/or rapid inflation- Abnormally low availability of staple foods

Populations:- Population capable of farming- Access to land and to entrants

Logistics/security:- Stable situation allowing medium-term planning

Table 7: Advantages and disadvantages of seed protection

Advantages Disadvantages Easy targeting because it corresponds to that of

the seeds and tools beneficiaries

Short period of assistance calculated from theplanting season: automatic exit strategy

Possibility of spreading out the food assistanceup until the harvest if the food availabilityremains insufficient

Exclusion of vulnerable families which do not havefarming capacities (lack of access to land, lack ofworkers)

Heavy logistics for a supply over a very short period

Transportation constraints for the beneficiaries whoreceive a large total ration (seeds, tools, andfoodstuffs)

Security risk for the beneficiaries because of theattractive qualities of the rations


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II.4 Food for workII.4.1 Description

The program consists of restoring community projects by the inhabitants (residents or displaced persons) whoreceive a food basket as payment for their work.

The choice of the programs location is based on the identification of the most vulnerable zones (zoning) in which

the potential projects will be selected. The nature of the projects should require a great number of workers to obtaina significant impact on the improvement of the food availability in the targeted village. The restoration ofinfrastructures should help improve development conditions within the targeted zone, for example the restoration ofa road or irrigation structures. The restoration project should be technically feasible and be long-lasting: it shouldbe the result of a selection process based on criteria defined by the community in advance. These criteria also takeinto account the severity of the food needs: the pertinence (impact and durability) of the projects could becomesecondary in order to better favor a rapid implementation of the work, such as cleaning activities. As a result, thefood baskets are packaged at the work site and the selection of beneficiaries stems from the selection of villagesdirectly concerned by the realization of the projects. It is then possible to establish rules for selecting workerswithin these villages to ensure the participation of the most vulnerable families. By definition, only the familieshaving a work force can participate in the

acf 2006 food aid and alternatives to food aid

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