TERRORISM AT THE GULF OF GUINEA: A CASE STUDY OF BOKO HARAM TERRORISM IN NORTHERN NIGERIA AND NORTHERN CAMEROON

Department of Culture and Global Studies

Msc. Thesis In Development and International Relations

Hand in date: 18 December 2014

Supervisor: Søren Schmidt

Keystrokes Incl. space: 110150110150

Prepared by: Justice Tumasang

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Acknowledgement

It is with a heart full of gratefulness that I wish to express my deepest appreciation first and foremost to the Almighty God for his enablement, sustenance and favour throughout my study programme.

My heartfelt and sincere gratitude also goes to my supervisor Søren Schmidt for his availability, honesty, critical mindset and his directives. Without him it would have been difficult to arrive at this point. His kind words were an encouragement in times of need.

To Aalborg University, I wish to thank the board of directors as well as all my lecturers . To the kingdom of Denmark, I have learned from you and I keep you in memory.

To my parents, I thank God for you.You gave your all to make sure I pursue the path of success.To my siblings, thanks for the encouragement.

Finally, to the love of my life(Ncheng) you have been a source of strength and inspiration.Thanks for being there.

Justice Tumasang

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TERRORISM AT THE GULFOF GUINEA: A CASE STUDY OF NORTHERN NIGERIA AND NORTHERN CAMEROON

Abstract

This research work is a case study in Northern Nigeria and Northern Cameroon with focus on socio-economic conditions behind Boko Haram terrorism. Based on historical developments and recent trends in Northern Nigeria and Northern Cameroon, it attempts to highlight similar and different socio-economic conditions which have acted as conditions behind Boko Haram terrorism in these areas. In analyzing socio-economic conditions behind Boko Haram terrorism, the theories of Human development and Frustration and Aggression were used to state how high rates of Unemployment, Poverty and inequality, educational related challenges in the form of low schooling rates , and also North/South Regional disparity have all to an extend acted as conditions behind Boko Haram terrorism in Northern Nigeria and Northern Cameroon.

In the course of its development, it depicted how Boko Haram terrorism started in Northern Nigeria as a socio-political movement in 2002 against official corruption and bad governance whereas in Cameroon Boko Haram started by kidnapping foreign tourist for ransom .It conclude by stating that to an extent socio-economic conditions contributed as condition behind Boko Haram terrorism but at the same time stated a long history of violence in Nigeria as a point worth of notice while threat of terrorism in North Cameroon is an external one coming from Northern Nigeria.

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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

AFP: Agence France-Presse

BH: Boko Haram

CFR: Council for Foreign Relations

DRC: Democratic Republic of Congo

F-A: Frustration and Aggression

FBI: Federal Bureau of Investigation

ISIS: Islamic State of Iraq and Syria

JTF: Join Task Force

MEND: Movement for the Emancipation of the Niger Delta

NBS: National Bureau of Statistics

UN: United Nations

UNDP: United Nations Development Programme

ECOWAS: Economic Community of West African States

ECCAS: Economic Community of Central African States

TRAC: Terrorism and Research Analysis Consortium

UNHCR: United Nations High Commission for Refugees

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TABLE OF CONTENT

Acknowledgement……………………………………………………………………………....2

Abstract…………………………………………………………………………………….........3

Table of Content…………………………………………………………………………………4

List of Abbreviation……………………………………………………………………………...5

(1)INTRODUCTION…………………………………………………………………………….9

1-1) Why study Boko Harm……………………………………………………………………..10

1-2) Why Nigeria…………………………………………………………………………………10

1-3Why Cameroon……………………………………………………………………………......11

1-4) Problem Formulation………………………………………………………………………..12

1-5) Methodology………………………………………………………………………………...12

2-1) Types of Data, Qualitative of Quantitative Data…………………………………………. ..13

2-2) How the Theories and Data Will Be Used………………………………………………….14

2-3) Human Development Theory……………………………………………………………......14

2-4) Frustration and Aggression Theory………………………………………………………….14

2-5) Criticism of the Theories……………………………………………………………………..14

2-6) Background Data of Boko Haram Terrorism in Northern

Nigeria and Northern Cameroon…………………………………………………………………..15

2-7) On the Analysis……………………………………………………………………………….15

2-8) Delimitation and Limitation…………………………………………………………………..15

(3) CONCEPTUALIZATION…………………………………………………………………….16

3-1) What isTerrorism………………………………………………………………………………16

3-2) Meaning Of Socio-economic………………………………………………………………….18

(4) BACKGROUND OF BOKO HARAM, NIGERIA AND CAMEROON…………………....20

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4-1) Brief Description of BokoHaram……………………………………………………………..20

4-2) Brief Description of Nigeria…………………………………………………………………..23

4-3) Brief Description of Cameroon……………………………………………………………….26

(5) THEORY……………………………………………………………………………………….28

5-1) Human Development Theory…………………………………………………………………28

5-2) Frustration and Aggression Theory…………………………………………………………...31

5-3) Criticism of the Theories………………………………………………………………………32

(6) ANALYSIS…………………………………………………………………………………….33

6-1) Unemployment, Poverty and Inequality…………………………………………………….33

5-2) Educational Related Challenges……………………………………………………………...38

5-3) North/South Disparity……………………………………………………………………….42

(6) CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION……………………………………………..46

6-1) Conclusion……………………………………………………………………………………47

6-2) Recommendations……………………………………………………………………………48

REREFENCE…………………………………………………………………………………….50

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Map of Cameroon US Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) Political Map of Cameroon

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Map of Nigeria US Central Intelligence Agency (CIA),political map of Nigeria

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INTRODUCTION

In recent times the Gulf of Guinea has attracted significant global attention as a result of it enormous desired natural resources of oil and gas reserves, combined with it strategic maritime transit route and also it huge forest reserve. This region which has been term geo-strategic by specialist engulfed countries such as Cote d’Ivoire, Ghana, Togo, Benin, Gabon, Sao Tome and Principe, Angola, Democratic Republic of Congo, Congo Brazzaville, Nigeria, Cameroon and Equatorial Guinea .The Gulf of Guinea produces about five million barrel of oil per day and has become one of the main provider of sources of oil and gas for US, Europe, China and India. Unfortunately, recent maritime insecurity perpetrated by pirates has summoned global attention prompting International Crisis Group (2012) to describe the region as a new danger zone.Prior to recent maritime crisis at the gulf of Guinea, most African States following independence in the 1960s ,had experience socio-political anarchy in the form of civil wars and military coups; cases of Nigeria and Zaire( today known as Democratic Republic of Congo or DRC) etc. Nowadays, one of the most alarming conflicts within Africa and the Gulf of Guinea has been Boko Haram terrorism in Nigeria and even going beyond its borders to countries such as Benin, Niger, Chad and Cameroon. At the beginning of Boko Haram activities in 2002, Mohammed Yusuf (a Moslem Malam, that is an Islamic scholar and its founder) together with his followers protested against the dreadful corruption within the Nigerian society. In short from 2002 and 2003 respectively, Nigeria was rated as the second most corrupt country according to research of Transparency International( an international non-governmental Organization which research and rate countries in terms of world corruptions standing).During it early activities at the beginning of the 21th century, Boko Haram was able to attract a good number of unemployed youths who were against the corrupt nature of the Nigerian society, its military and police authorities in particular. The turning point of Boko Haram to extremist and radical violence was in 2009 when the government of Nigeria decided to crackdown on the group taking Mohammed Yusuf into custody and killing him in an extrajudicial execution. According to reports, only in 2009 about 1000 members of Boko Haram were killed by Nigerian authorities who in return provoked and intensified Boko Haram extremism and violence under the leadership of Abubaker Shekau (successor of Yusuf). Under the leadership of Shekau, in order for Boko Haram to be more efficient and sustainable, its terrorism was later extended (mostly around ending 2012- beginning 2013) in states such as Chad, Benin and Cameroon adding to Boko Haram a transnational feature. Due to this transnational aspect which pave way for Boko Haram to unlawfully carry out some of it activities to the neighboring countries of Nigeria, the majority of these states will later on declared war on May 2014 against the Boko Haram .( Judit Barna, 2014)

Besides maritime insecurity which is a problem to the states of the gulf of Guinea, inland terrorism of Boko Haram has not only added trouble to this region, but also caused so much alarm that it seem to supplant the former offshore (maritime) criminal activities as the main threat within the geo-political region. As illustrated above, inland terrorism has mainly been promoted by the Boko Haram terrorist group which emerged from the Northern part of Nigeria and has spread beyond its national territories to neighboring states. Reasons behind Boko Haram terrorism range from socio-economic, political and religious factors (Onuoha, 2014:5)The phenomenon of terrorism is not a novel one, as a matter of fact it has always been part of human society since early epoch of recorded history. However, due to its diverse magnitude and nature, it has proven difficult for specialist to come out with a unique definition of terrorism. Nonetheless, the United Nations in 1992 defined terrorism as "An anxiety-inspiring method of repeated violent action, employed by (semi-) clandestine individual, group or state actors, for

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idiosyncratic, criminal or political reasons, whereby - in contrast to assassination - the direct targets of violence are not the main targets." Whereas the FBI defines it as:"the unlawful use of force and violence against persons or property to intimidate or coerce a government, the civilian population, or any segment thereof, in furtherance of political or social objectives.”. Given that there is no existence of an all encompassing definition, the above definitions have just been an attempt by the various institutions in order to approach the subject of terrorism.In the following paragraph; this thesis equally examines other definitions of terrorism in depth. However, one central issue with terrorism is the fact that it is an effective tactic for the weaker side in a conflict aim to instill fear, intimidation and violence (International Terrorism and Security Research, 2014).In order to effectively design this thesis for proper understanding, the following paragraphs will address reasons for choosing Boko Haram terrorism, why a case study of Northern Nigeria and Northern Cameroon.

1-1) Why Boko Haram Terrorism?

Within the demarcation of this thesis, focus will be on Boko Haram inland terrorist activities mainly in Northern Nigeria and Northern Cameroon. Reason for choosing Boko Haram terrorism is simply for the fact that it has attracted serious global attention following the shocking kidnapping of more than 200 girls on April 2014 in Chibok at the North of Nigeria. One major reason behind the kidnapping has been to inhibit these girls from acquiring western education which in return deprived these girls from their basic human rights obligations. In order words, by kidnapping these girls and preventing them from schooling, Boko Haram has infringed the right of these girls to acquire education as stated in the UN General Assembly Resolution 1386 in point seven which guarantee Child education (United Nations, 2014). Again, from 2009 till date, more than 3600 people have lost their lives following BH onslaughts; couple with countless destruction of properties such as the car bomb which destroyed the UN building in Abuja Nigeria in 2011 killing about 21 people. Furthermore, from 2013, the US department of state enlisted Boko Haram as one of the most agile terrorist group. Lastly, Boko Haram terrorism is no longer national, that is only within Nigeria but has spread across Nigeria to countries such as Cameroon, Benin, Chad and Niger creating a regional problem for both the Economic Community of Central African States (ECCAS), as well as for the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) and even to the Gulf of Guinea in general (Bureau of Counterterrorism, 2014).

1-2) Why Nigeria?

Meanwhile, Boko Haram terrorism in question will be dissected within the Federal Republic of Nigeria and the Republic of Cameroon. The choice of Nigeria is first and foremost because the activities of Boko Haram mainly proceeded and are concentrated within the North of Nigeria; the next reason is the fact that Boko Haram main object is or (was) to create a ‘pure’ Islamic state ruled by sharia law in Nigeria (Walker, 2012).Though the focus of this thesis is mostly base on socio-economic aspect, it will be interesting to understand why Boko Haram terrorism took off in North Nigeria and not in the South. In addition, another good aim for the choice of Nigeria is the fact that the government of Nigeria under the leadership of President Goodluck Jonathan has openly declared war against Boko Haram. More still, other than the aforementioned vital aspects, Nigeria has the following characteristic which makes it choice fascinating. For example, its attractiveness as the largest African economy with the largest population. According to the Economists, Nigerian economy worth about 510Billion USD with a population of about 170million (The Economist, 2014).Nigeria has both the largest population in West Africa and also in Africa as a whole. Nigeria

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also serve as both the political and commercial center of West Africa given that it is the main contributor in peace building operations and also because of the size of its economy respectively.

1-3) Why Cameroon?

On the other hand, this thesis will also attempt to diagnose Boko Haram terrorism mostly in Northern Cameroon. Just Like Nigeria, Cameroon is made up of Christians in the South and Muslims in the North of its territory, it also has the largest economy and population within the ECCAS (Economic Community of Central African States) with a GDP of 50.8 Billion USD and a population of 21.5 Million respectively (The Heritage Foundation, 2014). Arguably it is one of the main contributors in peace building within ECCAS, Cameroon host the Gulf of Guinea headquarter of the Inter-regional Coordination Centre for Strategic Maritime Safety, it shares border with Nigeria at the North West region of its territory and has been victim of a good number of Boko Haram terrorism. On like Nigeria, the activities of Boko Haram in Cameroon between 2012-2013 constituted mainly kidnapping of hostages for ransom (a good number of tourists, foreign workers and religious personnel have been victim of BH kidnapping mainly in the Far North Region of Cameroon), but from May 2014 BH terrorism shifted towards open confrontation which has led to killing of Cameroonians as well as BH terrorists. As from September 2014, Cameroon hosted about 39000 refugees from Nigeria according to UNHCR (United Nations High Commission on Refugees) reports which might increase further causing a humanitarian crisis couple with internally displaced People (IDP) (Umar and Faul, 2014).Lastly, Cameroon is the largest country in terms of population and economy other than Nigeria among countries which has declared war against Boko Haram.One of the major problem and challenge with Boko Haram terrorism is the fact that it increasing terrorism could jeopardize the role and positions of both Nigeria and Cameroon within the Gulf of Guinea (they are active members and major contributors) .In addition, it could also have serious consequences on their path towards national development. While BH terrorism has led to destruction of lives and to properties, it is this thesis aim to dissect the conditions of Boko Haram terrorism in Northern Nigeria and Northern Cameroon. It is true that much has been written about Boko Haram terrorism in Nigeria, however, not much has been written on a case study of Boko Haram terrorism in Northern Nigeria and any of the affected such countries as Cameroon, Chad, Niger and Benin. Meanwhile, Nigeria’s borders with Niger, Chad, Cameroon and Benin has more than 1000 border entry routes from these four countries and most are unmanned and uncontrolled (Oftedal, cited in Udeh 2011) .In Cameroon for example, on February 2013, Boko Haram claimed responsibility of the kidnapping of a French-family at the Nigerian-Cameroonian border, referring to “the president of France” and his “war against Islam” (New York Times February 25, 2013). Thus, except of Nigeria, not much has been written about conditions of Boko Haram terrorism in any other country. Based on the above explanations, there is no doubt that a comparative study of Boko Haram terrorism in Northern Nigeria and Northern Cameroon appear understudy. Therefore, lessons from this case study could aid both countries and other neighboring states in addressing core socio-economic issues which has contributed to Boko Haram terrorism in Northern Nigeria and Northern Cameroon. For this reason, this thesis will focus on Boko Haram terrorism in Northern Nigeria and Northern Cameroon. Haven expounded on the above, this thesis will now address the problem formulation.

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1-4)Problem Formulation

As regard the problem formulation, the goal of this thesis is to identify the different socio-economic conditions of Boko Haram terrorism in Northern Nigeria and Northern Cameroon. Therefore, the main research question for this thesis is

What are the socio-economic conditions behind Boko Haram terrorism in Northern Nigeria and Northern Cameroon?

For the purpose of this thesis, by socio-economic, it implies things such as poverty, unemployment, inequality, education related problems and regional economic, developmental, resource disparity between Northern and Southern Nigeria and Cameroon respectively. For better understanding, the concept of socio-economic has been elaborated in details in the following paragraphs. However, it is important to note that socio-economic conditions only constitute one of the reasons behind Boko Haram terrorism, political and religious reasons also explains Boko Haram terrorism (Onuoha, 2014:5)

In order to answer the above problem formulation, this thesis will discuss the following sub-topics in relation to Northern Nigeria and Cameroon:

1-1) Unemployment, Poverty, and inequality

1-2) The Education related challenges

1-3) The North/South discrepancy

To better understand how the above sub-topics will be addressed and analyze, below is how the methodology will be designed

1-5) Methodology

The main objective of this section is to account for the theories that will be used in this thesis; it also states which type of theories they are and why they are of relevance. As a matter of fact, the methodology chapter will go through the theories used and do this by the purpose of giving the reader a fair comprehension as to why these theories have been chosen when attempting to answer the problem statement outlined earlier. In addition, embedded within the methodology chapter is an account on what can be found in the thesis and what the nature of it is. For example, which data will be used and how will this be analyzed. In order words, the methodology chapter will have information on which kind of data that will be used, why is the data relevant and how it will be used. Finally, the methodology will also have a critical perspective of the theories in order that the reader will be conscious of the weaknesses and limitations of the theoretical frameworks in order to comprehend the arguments better, when reading the analysis later on.Before we go further, it is worth of notice to understand that this thesis is a case study of the socio-economic conditions behind Boko Haram terrorism in Northern Nigeria and Northern Cameroon.

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By case study method, this include the single case study method and also the comparative method, by which one can compare a relatively small number of cases by non-statistical means (Lijphart, George, cited in Kacowicz 2002).Haven explain this, it is vital to note that this thesis encompass both single case study as well as comparative method or approach. Whatever, name that shall be used in the course of this thesis, it is important to note that by case study, I mean both single case method as well as a comparative method. The reason for this choice is because most case studies involve both kinds of analysis due to the limits of either method used alone. As stated by Andrew Bennett, even single case studies usually draw implicit comparisons to wider groups of cases (Bennet 2002, p 29).

Given that one of the advantages of single case studies is the fact that it provides tests that might strongly espouse or attack as false theories in a single event, this thesis will also embark on theory testing. In order word it will consist of testing existing hypothesizes or what Bennett term as (‘the logic of confirmation’) (Bennet 2002, p 29).For this reason, this thesis will address three main sub-topics with aim to analyze socio-economic conditions behind Boko Haram terrorism in Northern Nigeria and Northern Cameroon. The first sub-topic will address how high rates of Unemployment, poverty, and inequality is one of the contributing factors behind Boko Haram terrorism, the second sub-topic will address Education related challenges in the form of low schooling rates, ignorance and high rates of illiteracy as contributing factors which Boko Haram have used to mislead mostly unemployed, poor and marginalized youths to adhere to terrorism. The final and third sub-topic will be on North-South Discrepancy where it will attempt to show that regional developmental, economic and resources imbalances between North and South Nigeria and Cameroon respectively, have all contributed as conditions behind Boko Haram terrorism within these areas.

The theories that will be used in analyzing the three sub-topics will be: Human development theory and frustration and aggression theory. The former will be the independent variable (cause or change) while the latter will be the dependent variable (effect of the former theory).Given that it is often difficult in real life to find two almost identical cases, this thesis will make use of Process Tracing (within-case analysis).In using process tracing, it will enable the analysis section to bring out similarities and differences of socio-economic conditions behind Boko Haram terrorism in Northern Nigeria and Northern Cameroon. In short, in the words of George and Smoke (1974) it will enable this thesis to be able to uncover similarities among cases that suggest possible generalizations; and to investigate the differences in a systematic matter.

Below are some of brief highlights that this thesis will make use of such as; types of data, how they theories and sources will be used etc

1-6) Type of Data, Qualitative Data or Quantitative Data

Throughout this thesis, I will mostly make use of qualitative data as the primary data .This implies for instance data such as academic book such as; Aggression: It Causes, Consequences and Control, by Berkowitz (1993), academic article such; Why do Youths Join Boko Haram, by Onuoha(2014) etc. Whereas news articles such as: Boko Haram Gathers New Recruits To Get Foothold in

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Cameroon, by AFP (2014) etc.In addition, other news article from Nigeria , Cameroon , international organizations and other foreign agencies will also be made used of. On the other hand, though I will make used of quantitative data, it will be to a lesser extend meaning it will not be in a prevalent manner as compared with qualitative data. Thus I will make used of some numerical and statistical data but not so much.

1-7) How the Theories and Sources will be used

This sub-part tends to explain how the sources will be used in this thesis. The theoretical frameworks, which are Human Development Theory and Frustration and Aggression theory. From these two theories will spring out how this thesis will epistemologically reach more certain knowledge on the subject matter. Their usage will be aim to create an explanatory framework around the subject matter in which they can strengthen my arguments put forth within the analysis. In line with this, Frustration and Aggression is important, it will be the dependent variable whereas Human Development Theory will be the independent stating how frustration and aggression emerged as a result of government lack to implement policies that would have address socio-economic conditions behind Boko Haram terrorism in Northern Nigeria and Northern Cameroon respectively.

1-8) Human Development Theory

Human Development Theory will be used alongside frustration and aggression theory. It is a theoretical framework derived from sociological, developmental and economist proponents who state that government must address the socio-economic issues .In this thesis for example, poverty and inequality is mostly visible in Northern Nigeria and Northern Cameroon .Consequently, from this point of view, reasons behind protest or violence can be attributed to government lack of meeting the socio-economic needs of its people. Nonetheless, just as Frustration and Aggression, this theory will be designed more under the theory section to suit the context of Northern Nigeria and Northern Cameroon respectively

1-9) Frustration and Aggression Theory

As earlier mention, Frustration-aggression model will be used as the dependent variable. It is a theoretical framework which is mostly drawn from a psychological standpoint which explains motivation and behavior. The theoretical framework provides explanation for violent behavioral disposition resulting from the inability of a people to fulfill their human needs. In the pages ahead, a chapter will be concentrated to explain the theory and its relevant facets, so that it can be used efficiently in the analysis chapter later on. In using this theory, this thesis aim to bring out the factor at play and conditions behind Boko Haram terrorism in Northern Nigeria and Northern Cameroon. In brief, Frustration and Aggression theory depict how basic human deprivation can bring about psychological reaction which can lead to serious crisis as is the case with Boko Haram terrorism

1-10) Criticism of Theories

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This chapter has the function of criticizing the theories that will be used throughout the thesis, and to explain the narrow use of some of them. The importance of this can be found in the premise that in making sure to point out shortcomings of a theory, and also state the narrow and concise usage of them, ensure that the subject matter, the argument and its premises stays on a clear path. In so doing, the argument and conclusion should hold stronger at the end of the thesis. At the end of elaborating on each theory, a small paragraph will be concentrated on criticism of the theory.

1-11)Background Data on Boko Haram Terrorism in Nigeria and Cameroon

This chapter is sub-divided into three sub parts. The first will be focus on the background of Boko Haram and its structure. Whereas part two and three respectively will be directed towards a brief history which highlight on the discrepancy between Northern and Southern Nigeria as well as Northern and Southern Cameroon. By so doing, it will shed light on the origins of Boko Haram, why and when it became radical first in Nigeria and also why it extended to Northern Cameroon. These details are pivotal because it will help the reader move into a framework which will guide the rest of the thesis especially the analysis section in order to comprehend the socio-economic conditions behind Boko Haram terrorism as well as better appreciate the historical development leading to Boko Haram terrorism.

1-12)On the Analysis

The aim of this sub-part is to briefly outline and explain how the features of the analysis together with its purpose will look like. Subsequently, one can state that the analysis is supposed to be the “meat” of the thesis whereas the theories of Frustration and Aggression and the Theory of Human Development, are the backbone. For this reason, the main role of the theories’ is to allocate a framework for the analysis. The framework in question will be utilized in the analysis section so as to determine the theoretical perspective that will be needed in the course of analyzing the subject matter. The characteristics of the analysis is to analyse and elaborate on the main subject and on its sub-topics outlined in the problem formulation with the theoretical frameworks as the apparatus to do so .In order to arrive at a conclusion of the problem formulation, the analysis will be structured in three sub-topics as earlier stated under the methodology part. Within this context, the main purpose of the analysis is to bring clarification to the problem that is to explain the problem theoretically and also to arrive at several sub conclusions, so that it brings out a possible answer to the problem formulation so that at the end the conclusion will be understood better.

1-13)Delimitations and Limitations

Delimitations

In terms of answer to the subject matter, it would have been good to also make use of the Islamic theoretical state theory but this might feed within the context of Nigeria but not Cameroon since there is yet no official “Boko Haram of Cameroon”. Again, a Political theory or even a Conspiracy theory will also feed to the subject matter but at the same time it might draw the thesis towards

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political causes which might also need to address political conditions behind Boko Haram terrorism in Northern Nigeria and Northern Cameroon. However, this is not the aim of this thesis which is mostly focus on socio-economic conditions behind Boko Haram terrorism in Northern Nigeria and Northern Cameroon.

Limitations

Unlike in the case of Nigeria where there exist much sources on Boko Haram terrorism in Nigeria, in the case of Cameroon there are very few. The reason is that very few have been written about Boko Haram terrorism in Cameroon and most often it is in French with nearly no official translation in English. In addition to this, there are different figures about rates of poverty, unemployment which makes it difficult to have a full picture of the dimension of poverty and unemployment within these two countries. It short, it is alleged that both government do not published real figures of poverty and unemployment in order to avoid much criticism both domestically and internationally.

Following limitations, it is the duty of this thesis to attempts to bring out the different conceptualization of terrorism, in order words the different definitions. In addition to this, this thesis will also address below the full meaning of socio-economic.

(2) CONCEPTUALISATION

2-1)What Is Terrorism

The debate about defining terrorism has been a difficult and complex one due to the nature of terrorism itself .In short according to Lord Carlile (2007), there is no universal acceptable definition of terrorism .It remains a subject of continous debate in international bodies. However, given the nature and dimension of terrorism, many authors, states and international bodies have attempted to define terrorism .Below are various definitions of terrorism by some prominent academics, states, and international organizations.

Definition Of Terrorism by Scholars

According to Bruce Hoffman (2006), “Terrorism is ineluctably political in aims and motives, violent—or, equally important, threatens violence, designed to have far-reaching psychological repercussions beyond the immediate victim or target, conducted by an organization with an identifiable chain of command or conspiratorial cell structure (whose members wear no uniform or identifying insignia), and perpetrated by a sub national group or non-state entity.”

Meanwhile, Schmid and Jongman (1988) stated that “Terrorism is an anxiety-inspiring method of repeated violent action, employed by (semi-)clandestine individual, group, or state actors, for idiosyncratic, criminal, or political reasons, whereby—in contrast to assassination—the direct targets of violence are not the main targets. The immediate human victims of violence are generally chosen randomly (targets of opportunity) or selectively (representative or symbolic targets) from a target population, and serve as message generators.”

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Whereas to Laqueur (1987) “Terrorism is the use or the threat of the use of violence, a method of combat, or a strategy to achieve certain target, it aims to induce a state of fear in the victim, that is ruthless and does not conform with humanitarian rule. Publicity is an essential factor in the terrorist strategy.”

States Definition of Terrorism

As regard the US, there has been no consistency in defining terrorism .For this reasons, the following are some few definitions of terrorism by prominent US departments.

The US Department of Defense

The US Department of Defense defines terrorism as the calculated use of violence or the threat of violence against individuals or property, to inculcate fear, intended to coerce or to intimidate government or societies in the pursuit of goals that are political, ideological or religious(Department Of Defense,2014)

The Federal Bureau (FBI)

Terrorism is the unlawful use of force or violence against persons or property to intimidate or coerce a government, the civilian population, or any segment thereof, in furtherance of political or social objectives .Furthermore, the FBI define the activities of terrorism beyond its boundaries by stating that, terrorism can either be domestic or international, depending on the origin, base, and objectives of terrorism. They also suggests that terrorism refers to activities that involve acts dangerous to human life that are a violation of the criminal laws of the United States or of any state; appear to be intended to intimidate or coerce a civilian population; to influence the policy of a government by mass destruction, assassination, or kidnapping; and occur primarily within the territorial jurisdiction of the United States. (FBI, 2002-2005)

United Kingdom Definition of Terrorism

Terrorism is the use or threat of action that is designed to influence the government or an international governmental organization or to intimidate the public or a section of the public, and the use or threat (of action) made for the purpose of advancing a political, religious or ideological cause. Action falls within this subsection if it (a) involves serious violence against a person, (b) involves serious damage to property, (c) endangers a person’s life, other than that of the person committing the action, (d) creates a serious risk to the health or safety of the public or a section of the public, or (e) is designed seriously to interfere with or seriously to disrupt an electronic system (Lord Carlile, 2007:5-6)

France

In France where the term terrorism originates from, defines terrorism as intentionally committed by an individual entity or by a collective entity in order to seriously disturb law and order by intimidation or by terror. The French law un like others equally precise that acts of terrorism, include: attempted murder, assault, kidnapping, and hostage taking on airplanes, ships, and all

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means of transport; theft, extortion, destruction, and crimes committed during group combat; the production or ownership of weapons of destruction and explosives, including the production, sale, import, and export of explosives; the acquisition, ownership, and transport of illegal explosive substances; the production, ownership, storage ,or acquisition of biological or chemical weapons; and money laundering.(Truman,2010:9)

International Organizations Definitions of Terrorism

The United Nations (UN)

The UN(1992) defined terrorism as "An anxiety-inspiring method of repeated violent action, employed by (semi-) clandestine individual, group or state actors, for idiosyncratic, criminal or political reasons, whereby - in contrast to assassination - the direct targets of violence are not the main targets."

European Union

The EU defines terrorism as intentional acts, by their nature and context, which may be seriously damaging to a country or to an international organization, as defined under national law, where committed with the aim of seriously intimidating a population, or unduly compelling a Government or international organization to perform or abstain from performing an act, or destabilizing or destroying the fundamental political, constitutional, economic or social structures of a country or international organization.(Dumitriu,2004:592)

Given the diverse nature in defining terrorism and also couple with the fact that there is no single agreed definition of terrorism, this thesis will make use of the FBI’s definition of terrorism. The reason behind this choice is because embedded within this definition are trends to instill fear, violence and intimidation. At the same time, it incorporates destruction of properties, kidnapping etc which are all incidence that have occurred in Northern Nigeria and Northern Cameroon.

The following is the meaning of socio-economic as conceived in this thesis.

2-2) Meaning of Socio-economic

The word socio-economic is also known as social economics .It origin can be said to be connected in the investigation of the social economy itself, which the latter is considered as the third sector in mixed market economies different from public and private sectors but based on voluntary, cooperative (non-profit) operating within communities, at national economies level as well as internationally. According to Davis and Dolfsma (2008) “the social economy is variously referred to as the non-profit sector, the economie-sociale, the Gemeinwirtschaft, and the cooperative economy, and has a long history.”

Meanwhile, socio-economic connotes in general the usage of economics in the study of society .It mainly focus on the behavioral interactions of groups, communities and individuals via social

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capital and social markets .In order words, it is concerned with the functioning of the mixed market economy as a whole from the perspective of the role that social values and social relationships play in the economy as well as in economics' representation of it. (Davis and Dolfsma, 2008:1)

The focus on social aspects has mostly derived from the original concern of social economics with the social economy, given that social relations and social norms are deemed to be of importance economic relationships and values. Even though the former is considered mainstream, social economists such as Finn (2006) accentuated that economic values cannot be divided from social values, and that economic relationships are designed by a wider social relationships. In this regard, socio-economic is aim to approach the whole economy as a social economy and also to approach the economy as basically social. Social economics in this wider sense investigates the market economy as a social economy; with respect to economics it emphasizes the connection between economics and ethics, where ethics concerns how values are inescapably intertwined with social relationships (Davis and Dolfsma, cited in Wilber, 1998, 2004).

Advocates of socio-economic or social economics such as Dolfsma (2004) saw Economics of self-interest as only too orthodox because it did not focus on the social effect of some sort of economic change. Although socio-economic was not in conformity with orthodox standards of Economics, yet it was different it that in focus on social impact to an extend when compared to mainstream economics. For example, changes such as market manipulation, closing of a company, signing of international agreement etc could have widespread effect to communities and an entire state. For example this has been the case in Northern Nigeria where following the discovery of oil in the south of Nigeria in the 1970s, deindustrialization follow thereafter. Such changes evidently may have an impact on individual’s consumption attitude, in the distribution of wealth, incomes and standard of living in general.

With this in mind, the aim of socio-economic study is mainly to propel and address socioeconomic development, mostly in the enhancement of levels of employment, literacy, GDP, life expectancy, etc. Changes such as personal safety, personal dignity, the degree of participation in civil society, although deemed as less-tangible factors, are also of importance. Meanwhile, public and private organizations are also spurred to play their role in promoting equality and meeting needs of people (Barrett, 2005)

Following the above description of the term socioeconomic, this thesis shall diagnose how the inefficient implementation of socio-economic policies by the governments of Nigeria and Cameroon have contributed towards frustration and aggression(in the form of Boko Haram terrorism).Thus, the ill effectiveness to address key socioeconomic components such as employment , poverty and equality, educational related problems and also regional developmental imbalances for example, have all contributed as conditions behind Boko Haram terrorism in Northern Nigeria and Northern Cameroon respectively. Therefore, the aim for choosing the above components is simply because the main goal of socioeconomic is to enhance the above components within a society or a country.

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Sub-conclusion

This thesis will make use of the FBI’s definition because it highlights on trends to instill fear, violence and intimidation. At the same time, it incorporates destruction of properties, kidnapping etc which are all incidence that have occurred in Northern Nigeria and Northern Cameroon. Meanwhile, components of socio-economic such as employment, poverty, inequality, educational related problems and regional developmental imbalances are all contributing factors behind Boko Haram terrorism in Northern Nigeria and Northern Cameroon. Haven address the different conceptualization of terrorism and socio-economic, it will be worthwhile to look at the third part of this thesis which is on background of Boko Haram and trends which contributed towards its terrorism in Northern Nigeria and Northern Cameroon.

(3) BACKGROUND OF BOKO HARAM, NIGERIA AND CAMEROON

3-1)Brief Description of Boko Haram

What is Boko Haram?

In normal Islamic and official terms, Boko Haram is called Jama'atu Ahlis Sunna Lidda'awati Wal-Jihad, which in the Arabic language connotes People Committed to the Propagation of the Prophet's Teachings and Jihad. In the local Hausa (one of the local language in Northern Nigeria) term, the group is known as ‘Boko Haram’ and later became transformed into a Salafi-jihadist terrorist organization after 2009 following the death of its leader Mohammed Yusuf. Boko Haram is mainly predominated by the Kanuri people and it is based in the northeast of Nigeria and also operate in other Northern states in Nigeria .When translated from the local Hausa language, Boko Haram means in English that Western education or civilization is a sin(Walker,3:2012)

The origin of Boko Haram

The origins of Boko Haram are somehow difficult to trace. However, today’s Boko Haram can be said to have be pioneered by Mohammed Yusuf who as from 2002 at the Northern city of Maiduguri, structured the organization and made it his headquarter. Yusuf later on established a religious structure which in tandem was an Islamic school and a mosque where many poor families throughout Northern Nigeria and even from neighboring countries enrolled their children. At the onset, the centre had already premeditated political goals and thereafter it embarked recruiting future jihadists to fight against the state of Nigeria as a whole. At this stage it was also made up of members from neighboring Niger and Chad who could only speak Arabic .Boko Haram was successfully implanted in states such as Katsina, Kano, Bauchi, Gombe and Yobe. It was later on in 2004 that Yusuf relocated his religious project to his home town of Kanamma in Yobe state near the Nigerian-Niger border (Liolio, 65:2013)

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Ideology and belief

At the onset, Boko Haram was an indigenous Salafist group which only transformed into a Salafist Jihadist group in 2009. ( a school of thought often associated with jihad) It was heavily clout by Ibn Taymiyyah, who was a 14th century legal scholar known for Islamic fundamentalism and considered a major theorist for radical groups in the Middle East. One of the major propaganda of Boko Haram has been the fact that interaction with the Western World is forbidden. In addition, the group has been very critical of the government of Nigeria as regard it weakness in handling corruption and judicial matters which according to them has contributed towards the current socio-economic ills of poverty, unemployment, inequality etc in Northern Nigeria. In order to remedy the situation of corruption and judicial weaknesses in Northern Nigeria, Boko Haram believed that in establishing a Sharia government, this would remedy the situation of bad governance. For this reason, in 2009, their aim was directed towards the Islamisation of the whole of Nigeria.

In order to display protest against westernization (against education and civilization), Boko Haram fostered a non-western lifestyle approach by not wearing western cloths for example but ate and worship only at the local mosque in Maiduguri. This was in order to be separated from other Muslims in the North. In effect, members of Boko Haram do not intermingle with the local Muslim population and at times they carried out killing of anyone who criticizes them without refraining from killing Muslim clerics.(Liolio,66:2013)

Organization and Area of Operation

Prior to 2009 there was no clear structure of the group. However, after 2009 and following the public execution of Mohammed Yusuf, Abubakar Shekau became its main leader. As from 2011 and 2012, members of Boko Haram became organized in Complex cell structures from where they operated both domestically and as well beyond Nigeria’s borders. Boko Haram operates about 26 cells during 2012 and these cells were under the command of regional commanders who in return were under the leadership of Abubakar Shekau. It is for this reason that the Nigerian security forces have found it difficult to dismantle and stop the activities of the group. Among its structures are departments which are headed by trained personnel who manufacture bombs, organized suicide bombers, intelligence, research, welfare and healthcare and logistics needed so as to carry out their pre-planned objectives. It has also been said that the highest decision making body of Boko Haram is called the Shura Council. (Liolio, 67:2013)

Regarding the areas of operation, Boko Haram has most of its supporters in Northern Nigeria which constitute mostly of Muslim states .Boko Haram operates and has supporters in states such as Borno, Gombe, Bauchi, Kano, Katsina, and Yobe. In short the majority of Boko Haram onslaught took place in Maiduguri which is the Capital of Borno .Nonetheless, following 2009, Boko Haram terrorism extended to Abuja (Bombing of the UN building), Lagos and virtually any part of Nigeria.

Additionally Boko Haram now boasts of about 540,000 members to which included militants from neighboring Chad, Niger and Cameroon. (Red 24, NA).In the case of Northern Cameroon, Boko Haram has mostly focus her operations within the Far North region of Cameroon where they have

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carry out raid in areas such as Fotokol, Makary, Kousseri, Dabanga but they remained isolated cases. Meanwhile, in Fotokol the wife of the vice-Prime Minister of Cameroon and some few members of the family where abducted (AFP, 2014)

Strategy and Tactics of Boko Haram

In order to promote its goals as well as reach internet users, Boko Haram operates the following blog:

http://yusufislamicbrothers.blogspot.com/ and also maintain an email at; nigjihadist@yahoo.com to communicate with intending members. (Islamic, 2011).In addition, Boko Haram also makes use you tube where she releases videos online.

Prior to 2009, local weapons and tactics such as machetes, Molotov cocktails as well as drive-by and ride-by killings mostly with small. Nonetheless, following 2009 with the emergence of Abubakar Shekau as leader, the group became sophisticated and made used of bombs and improvised explosive devices (IEDs) on strategic places. As from 2011, one of their main tactics is suicide bombings like the UN suicide bombing where 18 people lost their lives.(Tran,2011)Within its arsenal ref Ak-47 style rifles, grenades, rockets propelled grenade, automatic rifles, surface to air missiles, vehicles mounted anti aircraft machine guns, machine guns with anti aircraft visor, and explosive such as semtex, all of which has been smuggle into the Sahel from Libya during the 2011 war.(Liolio,69:2013)

Who are the Target?

At the onset, Boko Haram primary targeted Nigerian policemen and later killing traditional leaders who were considered as state informant’s .Apart from this, Boko Haram terrorism has been directed in the destruction of properties and killing of Christians and Muslim who are against their believed in Northern Nigeria and even to other parts of Nigeria respectively. In addition, the group suicide bombing of 2011 was also evident that Boko Haram also target international organizations .Meanwhile, in the case of Cameroon, Boko Haram targets was first of all in kidnapping of foreign workers, tourist and religious workers for ransoms. However, following the government of Cameroon declaration of war against Boko Haram in the second phase of 2014, civilians as well as military forces have been targeted .Nonetheless; this has solely been within the region of Far North in Cameroon. (Dorie, 2014)

Group Affiliations and Training

As regard affiliation, there is no clear cut evidence between Boko Haram and other foreign terrorist groups .However, it is alleged that the group is connected with terrorist groups such as Al Qaeda in the Islamic Maghreb (AQIM).This first came lamp light when Foreign Minister of Niger, Mohamed Bazoum, on 25th January 2011 stated that Boko Haram received weapons and trainings

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from Al-Qaeda’s North African wing. In addition, it has been alleged that Boko Haram has training base in the north of Mali as well as strong ties with the Tuaregs of Mali. (Liolio, 71:2014)

Recruitment

Boko Haram usually target to recruit youths between the ages of 17 to 30 years old. This is because youths within this year range in Islamic communities, are usually passionate and excessively enthusiastic for Islamic knowledge. Unfortunately, most of these youths are often illiterate, poor, frustrated and without employment. Again, Boko Haram recruits members by breaking into prisons and setting prisoners free. In return, most of these prisoners become part of the group. This thus paves the way for successful recruitment based on “indoctrination."(Liolio,73:2013).In Northern Nigeria, most of the youths were recruited in areas such as Katsina,Kano,Bauchi, Gombe and Yobe were the group successfully implanted itself within the early stages. Meanwhile, in the Far North of Cameroon, based on an interview from AFP to a Cameroonian Police Officer, Boko Haram has recruited many young people from Cameroon's Far North region. Still according to the interview, about 200 youths from the ages of 17-19 years were recruited just within two months in Kolofata and most of these youths in Northern Cameroon are appealed by the financial rewards (AFP, 2014).

Classification and Group Types of Boko Haram

There are two types of Terrorist groups who all have claim terrorism in Nigeria and even Cameroon. There are known as the Boko Haram and its other group Ansura which separated in 2001(York,2013).For the sake of this thesis, we shall only address the term Boko Haram signifying so as to best address conditions of Boko Haram terrorism in Northern Cameroon and Northern Nigeria.

3-2) Brief Description of Nigeria

Geographical Location and its People

The Federal Republic of Nigeria is located at the Atlantic Coast of Central Africa and bordered by Chad and Niger to the North, Benin to the West and Cameroon to the south. With a population of about 174 million, Nigeria is the most populated country in Africa and covers an area of 923,678km square. It has a diverse and wide range of climatic variations. For example, in the North, are the arid plains which paved way to savannah in the central hills and plateau, merging into tropical rain forests in the southern lowlands and mountains to the south-east.

With the most populated inhabitants in Africa, Nigeria is divided into 36 states. The three main large ethnic groups are the Yoruba, Igbo and the Hausa-Fulani, who together constitute about 70 percent of the population. Meanwhile, 10 percent is composed of a good numbers of other groups which are more than 1 million members each, made up of the Tiv, Ibibio and Kanuri. Whereas as the remaining 20 percent constitute more than 300 smaller ethnic groups .On the other hand, in Nigeria, 45 percent of the population is Christian, 45 percent are Muslim and the rest remaining 10 percent is a mixture of quite a few indigenous religions . Other than English, 400 native Nigeria

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languages are also spoken, out of which some are being threatened with extinction. (Federal Republic of Nigeria, 2014)

Nigeria and Impact of Colonialism

Before the British colonization of Nigeria, Northern Nigeria has often been deeply influenced by politics and religion .As early as in 1903 when Nigeria was under British control, the Borno Sultanate and the Sokoto Caliphate( who were Muslims) of which ruled parts of what is now Northern Nigeria, had since been strong resistance to Western education .For this reason, Western schools that were operated by Christian missionaries escalated in the south, meanwhile Muslim authorities were hesitant to allow Christian mission schools to open in the northern areas The explanation behind this reluctance was simply because Western leverage in the administration and government in general was deemed as the spread of Christianity in a Northern Nigeria where Islam was the dominant religion .Besides, early Christian missionaries who used Western education as a tool for evangelism, were viewed with misgiving by the local Northern population (Owolade, 2014).For this reason, the British colonial authorities were compelled to rule Nigeria separately, that is between Northern (where most Muslims live) and southern Nigeria (where most Christians live) separately.

Furthermore, the British colonial authority had often gamble in their administration of Nigeria .This was done through the following two policies ;The Lord Lugard's amalgation policy of 1914 and Arthur's Richards Constitution of 1946.As regard Lord's Lugard's amalgation policy, it was described as a coerced merger between northern and southern protectorates which has contributed to reduced Nigeria to more or less a geographical entity in diversity .In short, Many experts in Nigeria have continued to blame the 1914 amalgamation policy for the divisive troubles that confront Nigeria .Fabiyi (2012) argue that the country is likely to disintegrate if a quick resolution to correct the mistakes and heal the divisive wounds of the 1914 amalgamation policy is delayed.

Meanwhile, the Arthur Richards Constitution of 1946 further deepened ethno-religion dichotomy. This was in the sense that the 1946 constitution recognized the Hausa/Fulani in the northern region, the Igbo in the eastern region, and the Yoruba in the western region as the three main regions in Nigeria (Maiangwa,cited in Onuoha, 2008: 17).This contributed towards enmity among tribes as well created regional political rivalry which is a reality in Nigeria today. Consequently, this kind of entrenched ethno-regional and religious politics impeded the development of a national ideology and consciousness that would have given Nigeria some sense of national cohesion at the time of independence such that despite the euphoria that accompanied the celebrations of Nigeria’s independence from British rule on October 1, 1960, many people in the country still remained Igbo, Yoruba or Hausa, and saw themselves as Nigerians only in a less fundamental way (Maiangwa, cited in Jackson, 2007: 587).

Therefore, as a consequence of regionalism as described above, most of the Northern territories or states in Nigeria upholder social institutions and structures which were enshrined on principles of

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fundamental Islamism? To worsen matters, British colonial authorities gave excessive power to the Hausa/Fulani aristocrats and in order to prevent any form of confrontation from the Northern Muslim leaders at the time, the British accepted Islam as the official and dominant religion within the region. In fact, under the agreement between the colonial administration and the northern aristocrats, Christian evangelism was stymied in the north, and except for outsiders living there, almost the entire population was at least nominally Muslim (Mainagwa, cited in Aborisade and Mundt, 2002: 62).In effect, the above consonance, made Northern Nigeria a stronghold for Islam in such a way that the Northern aristocrats and their children became Northern elites (Bøås, 2012: 2-3)

Given that, Christian’s schools were hindered to operate in Northern Nigeria, the British colonial authorities allow education in Northern Nigeria to be in connection with Islamic civilization. What became widely accessible to the people were the Quran schools. For most northern parents, the Qur’an schools served as a moral panacea to the socioeconomic conundrums that overwhelmed the country at that time (Maiangwa, cited in Thomson, 2012: 51).Nevertheless, the curricula of these Islamic schools had no direct link to the secular state, Baba (2010: 10) argues that they offer their students little by way of preparing them for the social challenges and economic life of the emerging modern economy. (Maiangwa, 2012:38)

Economically, most of Nigeria's wealth and natural resources such as oil are mainly in the south in areas such Niger Delta and Akwa Ibom states. Thus, there exists an economic inequality in the form of oil. In his book Nigeria: Dancing on the Brink, Campbell writes that the "formal politics" of northern Nigeria are "overwhelmingly dominated by Muslim elites, who have, like their counterparts across the country, benefited from oil wealth at the expense of regional development."He says that the central purpose of the Nigerian state is to divide up the country's oil wealth among elites, making Nigeria's politics a "zero-sum game." The Niger Delta -which is an oil producing state, for example, via groups like the Movement for the Emancipation of the Niger Delta (MEND), had deliberated demanded that the south should get more revenue than it already does.

Nigeria and Boko Haram

The present day Boko Haram was founded by Mohammed Yusuf who was an Islamic cleric. In 2002, Yusuf created Boko Haram at the Northeastern State of Borno precisely in the city of Maiduguri. At the onset it was a socio-political movement against corruption, injustices and abandonment by the Northern politicians .It also saw western education as a sin at this stage reason why at this level one of the major objectives of Boko Haram was to establish a fully Islamic state across the whole of Nigeria .It is worthwhile to note that from 2002-2009 when Mohammed Yusuf was killed following an extra-judicial judgment, the group(Boko Haram) was less radical as compared to Boko Haram as from 2011 under Abubakar Shekau .Reason why we have Boko Haram I under Yusuf and Boko Haram II under Shekau.

Meanwhile, following 2011, Boko Haram terrorism moved to an upsurge as a result of the dispute of presidential elections results. According to experts, many northern Nigerians view the presidency

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of Goodluck Jonathan, a Christian, as illegitimate, arguing that he ignored an informal power-rotation agreement that should have kept a Muslim as president this round. (Muslim president Umaru Musa Yar'dua died in 2010, two years into his four-year term.).In addition, due to deep seated socio-economic (such as high unemployment) and political grievances like corruption and bad governance, Boko Haram has attracted many youths of Northern Nigeria. It is vital to note that the primary areas of focus of Boko Haram terrorism in Nigeria has been in the northern states of Yobe, Kano, Bauchi, Borno and Kaduna, although recent trends suggest that activities are moving southwards, with attacks being recorded in Plateau state, Abuja and Lagos (one suicide bombing incident) (TRAC,2014). Thus Boko Haram activities in Northern Nigeria span to about five Northern states in Nigeria meanwhile in the case of Northern Cameroon it is just in the Region of Far North (which is equated to a state given that Cameroon is divided into ten regions and Nigeria divided into thirty-six states).

3-3) Brief Description of Cameroon

Geographical Location and its PeopleThe Republic of Cameroon is situated on the west coast of Africa between west and central Africa. It is bordered by Congo, Gabon and Equatorial Guinea, Gabon to the south, Chad and the Central African Republic to the north and East, and Nigeria to the west respectively. It covers an area of about 475,000 square kilometres and is divided into 10 regions. The three regions of Adamawa, North and Far North regions respectively are commonly grouped together and referred to as northern Cameroon. The remaining 7 regions - East, Central, Littoral, Southwest, Northwest, West, and South regions – comprise what is known as today’s southern parts of Cameroon. (KPMG, 2012).According to UN estimate in 2009, Cameroon’s populations were around 19, 522, 000.Cameroon’s ethnic diversity is colossal and has about 200 various ethnic groups with different types of languages, cultural, and social values. Unlike many other African countries, however, none of the ethnic groups dominate in terms of size or power. If one might compared it to the other largest group in Africa, the Beamlike ethnic, is made up of roughly 15 percent of the population. The three main religion are Christianity, Islam, and Animism, practiced by roughly 60 percent (20 percent Roman Catholic) , 35 percent and 5 percent of the population, respectively. Christianity is mostly practiced in the southern part of Cameroon, whereas Islam is in northern part of the country, and animists are found throughout the country with the majority being in the southern part.The Southern part of Cameroon which constitute mostly of Christians contains a wide range in agro climatic conditions of high rainfall, tropical forests, volcanic soils, and fertile hilly regions. Whereas the Northern part of Cameroon, firstly, in the region of Adamawa, the land levels out into a vast savannah while upwards to the North and Far North regions, the grasslands of the savannah are supplanted by semiarid desert which has been affecting agricultural productivity.

Cameroon and the Impact of ColonialismFollowing the 19th and 20th centuries and by virtue of the location of the Northern part of Cameroon, the region had remained somewhat isolated from colonial penetration of the Germans, British, and French. Consequently, it had the following two main outcomes. To begin with, a greater proportion of economic development during the previous century took place mostly in southern Cameroon,

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which was mostly within the triangle formed by Yaoundé, Douala, and Bafoussam. In the course of time, migration, increased trade, and economic growth facilitated in linking the other regions in the Southern parts through new economic ties and infrastructure (roads, schools, telecommunication, etc.)Unfortunately, the Northern parts with its three different regions were mostly isolated from this development. To exacerbate matters, while air and rail connect the North and South, there are no paved roads linking the two regions. Secondly, while Christian missionaries penetrated the southern part of Cameroon, this was not the case with the same degree as they did in the former where they implanted primary and secondary education system for southern Cameroonians. For this reason, the Northern region has lacks the strong tradition of education as is the case in southern Cameroon. (Lynch, 1991)The roots of radical Islam in Cameroon may be traced to the period of Islamic revivalism in northern Nigeria, which took concrete institutional form with the establishment of the Sokoto Caliphate (1804–1903). Until the arrival of the German colonial powers, most of northern Cameroon formed part of Nigeria’s Adamawa Emirate, populated by the same people – mainly the Hausas and Fulanis – and administered by the British from Lagos. It was only after the 1893 agreement between Great Britain and Germany that Adamawa was split between Nigeria and Cameroon with a formula that did not respect ethnic boundaries. As a result, the religious activism that animated the Sokoto Caliphate and particularly the Adamawa Emirate continued in Cameroon, and to some extent took a more radical turn as Muslims in those territories vehemently opposed the split and the subsequent secular regimes in Cameroon. (Institute for Security Studies, 2013)

This historical and ethnic affiliation is vital to understanding the cross-fertilization of jihadism in Cameroon and Nigeria For example, the Cameroonian Muhammad Marwa, who moved to Nigeria from northern Cameroon, is believed to be the founder of the Maitatsine Doctrine, an extremely radical form of Islam that spread throughout northern Nigeria and culminated in the Kano uprising of December 1980, in which over 4 000 people died (meanwhile, there have been no such Islamist uprising after independence in Cameroon). Boko Haram, which today has many Cameroonian members, espouses the Maitatsine Doctrine, which rejects Western forms of education and other aspects of Western life consider to be corrupting. In this context it is important to ask why radical Islam has been so violent in Nigeria and not in Cameroon, especially given their geographical proximity, and historical and ethnic affinities.

Indeed, the split of Adamawa and the end of the Sokoto Caliphate were met with same violent reactions in Nigeria and Cameroon. The colonial approach to Islam and the role that the latter played in the nation-building projects of the two nations are however, different. From the beginning of the German colonial administration, Islamic militancy was identified as the greatest threat to the construction and governance of the Cameroonian nation. This view was upheld by the subsequent British and French administrations, as well as the country’s post-independence regimes.(Institute for Security Studies,2013).

As a result, policies were developed to pacify, coerce and integrate Muslims into the nation-building project. This began with the dismantling of the religious edifices that underpinned the Sokoto Caliphate. For example, the power of Islamic theocracies, clerics and local chiefs or lamidos was reduced and made subordinate to secular institutions. Other policies have included

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direct negotiation and preferential treatment, as well as the monitoring and strict regulation of Islamic affairs, including state oversight of mosques. Central to these efforts has been the creation of a unitary republican state that recognizes plurality but does not define Cameroon on the basis of any ethnic or religious creed. In addition, Cameroon traditionally has fared better, Ewi argues, because its German colonizers and subsequent independent governments introduced a more centralized form of government than the federal structure the British adopted (Dorie, 2014)

Cameroon and Boko HaramThus, current radical Islamist threat comes from sources external to Cameroon – primarily from neighboring countries. The pressure Boko Haram and Ansaru face from Nigerian military operations has forced the groups to look for safe havens outside the country. Cameroon is one of the countries in which Boko Haram has regrouped following the massive military crackdown in Nigeria as from 2009. It was believed that the group established a comfortable berth in northern Cameroon, by making use of porous borders, false identity cards and kinship ties to infiltrate the country. Although it traditionally used its Cameroonian bases only for resources, recruitment and planning attacks, it recently started to carry out attacks in the country, including assassinations, murders, armed robberies and kidnappings. (Institute for Security Studies, 2013).Within the context of this research, it is vital to note that Boko Haram terrorist operations in Northern Cameroon has been precisely within the Far North Region In fact the main areas which have suffered from Boko Haram attacks are Fotocol, Kolofata, Waza etc all of whom are in the Far North Region .It is alleged that Fotocol has been used by Boko Haram as a hiding and resourceful base .Meanwhile Kolofata and Waza are towns where the wife of the Vice Prime Minister of Cameroon were abducted and 27 seven people including 10 Chinese were kidnapped respectively.(Kindzeka,2014).Thus, this thesis when looking at socio-economic conditions behind Boko Haram terrorism in Northern Cameroon(Far North Region precisely), it will examine the conditions leading to Cameroonian recruitment and also how government failure has also contributed to this.Sub-conclusionIn brief, Boko Haram under Mohammed Yusuf started as a socio-political movement that was against corruption, bad governance, and deeply seated problems such as unemployment, poverty, inequality in Northern Nigeria. It reject and blames western education in replacement of Islamisation of Nigeria etc.Nonetheless, Nigeria has always been influence by politics and religion whereas policies were developed to pacify, coerce and integrate Muslims into the nation-building project of Cameroon. Following, 2009 Boko Haram radicalism was able to recruit unemployed and poor youths in Nigeria and it was only when Nigeria forces intensify crackdown that Northern Cameroon was used as a hiding, resourceful and recruit based.

(5) THEORY

5-1) Human Development Theory

One of the theories that will also be used in this thesis is the theory of Human Development. According to Welzel, Inglehart and Kligemann (no date), socio-economic development, cultural

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change and democratization (or Political Institutions) are the three components of human development theory which main theme is to broaden human choice. Within the framework of this thesis, I will make use of rather two components of human development: socio-economic development and political institutions or democratization. The reason for these choices are first of all, in order to be focus solely on socio-economic related issues which is this thesis main concern, again because this thesis espouse the two assertions which state that socio-economic development assist to establish or sustain democracy(Welzel & al, cited in Lipset, Seong & Torres,1993) and secondly because democracy (or at least “ effective democracy”) tend to promote political stability, provides better economic policies and thus is conducive to socioeconomic development( Welzel &al cited in, Olson, Sarna & Swamy 2000)

Before we proceed further, it is vital to note that Human development is the process of enlarging people’s choices including living a long and healthy life, being educated, and having access to resources that are essential to achieve decent standard of living (Yang cited in ,Human Development Report, 1990).In many cases, societies most often will function better and more effectively when they are administer by effective governments .Effective government on the other hand is the capacity of the government to formulate and implement sound policies, and by social and economic interactions between the people and the state(Kaufmann, Kraay and Zoido-Lobaton,1999).Thus, for government to be effective, they need to take into consideration socio-economic development and also for socio-economic development to be a reality it demands sound political institutions.

Meanwhile, looking at socio-economic development as one of the component that will be used in this thesis, economic development brings about social mobilization, urbanization, and occupational differentiation. In addition to this, socioeconomic development enables people to have greater intellectual and physical resources by increasing incomes, skills and information levels and by establishing the welfare state( Welzel & al,cited in Boix 20000).Morestill, Socioeconomic development reduces restrictions on human autonomy, providing the objective means that enable people to pursue self determination. In short, socioeconomic development provides individual resources that constitute the means component of human choice. (Welzel, Inglehart & Klingemann, no date: 6) .

Whereas as for democracy(political institutions), it does not only represents the institutional component of human choice, but also provide a legal structure that guarantees fundamental individual rights in a society’s private and public life. For example, according to the UN Human Right declaration in Article23-1, it state that everyone has the right to work, to free choice of employment, to just and favorable conditions of work and to protection against unemployment and article 23-2state that everyone, without any discrimination, has the right to equal pay for equal work(UN,1948). In addition, it is the role of sound political institutions to ensure equality among people and regions. In order words, Democracy (political institutions) provides effective rights to human choice and thus represents its rules component. This notion can be traced to Mill and Dewey, who saw legal guarantees for “individual self development” (Welzel & al, cited in Macpherson 1977:44-76) as the core value of democracy.

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Applicability

The relevance of the theory of human development to Northern Nigeria and Northern Cameroon lies on the fact that societies will mostly function better and more effectively when they are administer by effective governments .A good case in point is the fact that according to Geohive(2014) based on human development report from 2013, both Cameroon and Nigeria ranked 152 and 153 out of 183 countries simultaneously in terms of Human Development Index(HDI).HDI is a summary measure of average achievement in key dimensions of human development: a long and healthy life, being knowledgeable and have a decent standard of living. The standard of living dimension is measured by gross national income per capita. The goalpost for minimum income is $1 (PPP) and the maximum is $75,000 (PPP) per day. (UNDP,2014)

In addition, inequality is both high in Northern Nigeria(where the highest rates of inequality are in the Northern states such as Bauchi,Yobe,Jigawa which were among the highest in terms of inequality)(Save the Children,2014) and Northern Cameroon where in the Far North and North regions in 2007,these regions were among the first three highest region in terms of inequality (Fambon, 2014:10-11).The truth is that where there is high socioeconomic development , it enables people to have greater intellectual and physical resources by increasing incomes, skills and information levels and by establishing the welfare state which in return foster equality.

The reasons for high unemployment within Northern Nigeria and Northern Cameroon(Far North specifically within this thesis) has been as a result of the governments of Nigeria and Cameroon unwillingness to implement sound policies which need to take into consideration the much needed socio-economic development of the people. Unemployment within Northern Nigeria and Northern Cameroon as compare to the regions of southern Nigeria and Cameroon are very high respectively.Inshort even among the educated youths, to have a job is not easy. Reason why a good numbers of these youths have adhered to Boko Haram as a result of (dependent variable)frustration and also because of Government lack to implement sound socio-economic policies(independent variable).

Morestill, to carry out human development related policies, democratic political institutions are widely perceived to have positive effect on human development (Yang,2010).According to Vollmer and Ziegler (2009) the effective functioning of democracy contributes significantly to human development regardless of GDP level. Political institutions govern the rules of the political game. How policies are made and enforced is determined by the quality and performance of political administrations. In short, human development enhancement most often will be more efficient with in places where there is an effective political institution. As a matter of fact, there is a strong positive outcome of human development where the existence of an effective government is a reality .However, this has not been the case of Nigeria and Cameroon where political institutions are weak ( case of Nigeria which is a weak state) couple with massive corruption practices to the detriment of the masses .In fact, according to Transparency International (2014) Nigeria and Cameroon were ranked both 144 out of 177 countries.

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Consequently, formal democracies such as Nigeria and Cameroon tend to guarantee basic civil and political rights on paper, but their legal codification does not necessarily make these rights effective. It is for this reason why formal democracies can be ruled by corrupt elites (such as Nigeria and Cameroon) who make a mockery of formal rights. It tends to undermine the legitimacy of autocracies that restrict basic human rights such as human security, equality, good living standards of its citizens.(Welzel, Inglehart & Klingemann, no date).It is for this reason why most inhabitants at the Northern regions of Nigeria and Cameroon are ensnared by survival values which has made them to be adhered to Boko Haram terrorism against their respective regions.

4-2) Frustrations and Aggression Theory The ideas of the theory of Frustration and Aggression were first published in 1939 by Dollard, Doob, Miller, Mowrer, and Sears. According to Berkowitz (1993), Dollard and associates, are the most famous proponents of the general ideas of how frustration frequently produce aggressive reactions. For many years, the theory of Frustration and Aggression (F-A) in many forms have directed a greater proportion of experiment or research based on human aggression. As from 1962 and 1963, Yate and Berkovitz later expanded and modified F-A hypothesis by mainly drawing from the psychological basis of motivation and behavior respectively.The theoretical framework of F-A attempt to expound that every aggressive action could ultimately be traced to a latter frustration (Berkovitz, 1993).In order words, the concept of being frustrated connotes that an individual access to a legitimate need is trammeled by another party, or possibly by circumstances. In reaction to this, this paves way to aggressive reaction from the person whose access to necessary legitimate needs have been defied. In this sense, frustration can lead to an aggressive outburst, although it cannot be said that it is a necessary condition for aggression. Nevertheless, frustration can be said to instigate a number of responses, one of which is an expression of aggression (Maiangwa, cited in Der Dennen, 2005).Thus, the general tendency is that all humans have basic needs which they seek to derive and any impediment to the fulfillment of these needs by individuals or groups of people will lead to enraged violent reaction. When faced with this status quo, a person or group of persons become liable to indulge on violent destructive endeavor, in some cases become readily available armies who can be used to perpetrate a conflict (the case of Boko Haram). Furthermore, when the lawful aspirations or needs of a group of people are defy indirectly or directly as a result of the way a society is organized, the feeling of frustration can coerce such group of persons to protest their frustration via means of violence. At this stage, violence (aggressiveness or terror) can be directed to those deemed responsible for their hardship or to others who are related indirectly to those frustrating their expectations.

ApplicabilityWhen applying F-A theoretical framework in relation to Boko Haram terrorism, it is of importance to take into consideration the high rates of poverty in Northern Nigeria and Northern Cameroon (in this case Far North Region) .It is true that poverty rates are somehow high in both countries with Nigeria 61 percent (living on less than One Dollar a day) in 2010 according to NBS (2012) while Cameroon had around 39.9 percent in 2010 according to a report of IMF (2014). Poverty in Northern Nigeria was average around 66.4 percent in 2010 (Aiyedogbon and Ohwofasa, cited in National Bureau of Statistics, 2012) whereas the Far North Region of Cameroon had the highest poverty rate at 65.9 percent in 2014(Cameroon web, 2014).

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In Nigeria, three northern regions have the highest incidence of poverty having an average poverty incidence of 70.1% compared to 34.9% of the three geo-political (South-south, south west and the south East) regions from Southern Nigeria.(Amadjohwoefe,cited in Lukeman 2012). According to the World Bank (2013) poverty rate in Cameroon increase in the three Northern Regions of Adamawa, North and Far North Regions, while at the same time in the Southern Regions, poverty declined significantly. In addition, unemployment, lack of health related facilities, and corruption by senior states officials or elites etc, have all contributed towards a scenario of frustration where a good number of Northern youths from both Nigeria and Cameroon feel abandoned and betrayed by their authorities. Consequently, the unemployed youths within these regions are not only lured by financial rewards but also embark on terrorism as a sign of frustration and there by become aggressive. Therefore, when citizens find themselves with dire socio-economic difficulties and corrupt elites, they often turn to religious or radical extremist groups as is the case in Syria where the ISIS is fast becoming a national, regional and even international threat.Furthermore, in situations where group aggressiveness (violence) cannot reach the target, this will be directed towards innocent citizens (terrorism) in order to create attention and awareness of their grievances. In fact, terrorist do not target the desired audience of their message directly, but they used violence against civilians who then become just medium for transmitting the message.(Kenolova,cited in Schmid and Jongman, 1988).Nevertheless, it is of utmost importance to note that the above explanations does not aim to make Boko Haram appear as blameless. Rather, it aims to espouse the fact that Boko Haram terrorism is a symptom of some major concerns bedeviling (Roberts, 2006) Northern Nigeria and Northern Cameroon.Consequently, Boko Haram has been able to recruit and also gain some popularity and support in these areas as a result of deplorable socio-economic situations in Northern Nigeria and Northern Cameroon. Nevertheless, in Northern Cameroon, Boko Haram terrorism has only been felt in just one region (Far North Region) compared to Nigeria where its terrorism has spread across many Northern States.

Sub-conclusionIn a nutshell, as regard Human Development this thesis has made used of basically two components of Human development theory which are socio-economic development and Democratization or Political institutions. The main idea is that societies function better and more effectively when they are administer by effective governments who will aid to limit corruption practices and in return focus on the allocation of socio-economic needs of its people. Meanwhile, as regard Frustration and Aggression theory, it arises from a psychological standpoint where it state that States incapacity to address key socio-economic issues such as unemployment, poverty and inequalities etc, individuals will likely indulge on aggressive violence actions as a result of frustration .

4-3)Criticism of The Theories

With regard to human development theory, the first criticism is based on the assertion that socio-economic development assist to establish or sustain democracy(Welzel & al, cited in Lipset, Seong & Torres,1993) and secondly because democracy(or at least “ effective democracy”) tend to promote political stability, provides better economic policies and thus is conducive to socioeconomic development( Welzel &al cited in, Olson, Sarna & Swamy 2000).While this is true and is the case with many western European, Nordic countries and the US, the case of China seems

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to defy this assertion. China for example, has witnessed unprecedented economy growth while being non-democratic. The reason for this success has been as a result of its political institution or regime type (not democracy) which enables the Chinese government to plan effectively with ease without being hinder by planning regulations in order to implement sound conceived policies. However, the case of China is unique whereas it has been proven that democracy( strong democracy and not formal) is a prerequisite for economic growth( Arsenault,2008) .In order word there is a need for strong political institutions in Nigeria and Cameroon to conceived and implement sound policies which will improve the Human development index.

Whereas as regard Frustration and Aggression theory, it should be noted that not all individuals (or group of people) faced with frustration of non-provision of their basic need will tend to respond aggressively. According to social learning theories such as Bandura (1983) individual or group of people acquire aggressive responses just as the same way they learn other complex forms of social behavior. Thus social learning highlight on the importance of observable learning processes which state how one learn from what he or she has observes within and without his community .It is for this reason why one can find alternative measures in dealing with frustration such as open dialogue, protest, or see a psychologist and not necessarily being aggressive .A case in point in connection to this thesis is the fact that most sub-Saharan countries faces similar situations of low human development but not all have tend to aggressive measures as is the case in Northern Nigeria.The case of Nigeria is because of the negative effect of social learning where for many times, Nigeria has witnessed incidence of violence and political instability in the form of civil wars in the 1970 and also a good numbers of coup d’état. Haven explained the two theories, next phase of this thesis will consist to address the analysis section.

(5) ANALYSIS

This section aims to analysis the following question; what are the socio-economic conditions behind Boko Haram terrorism in Northern Nigeria and Northern Cameroon? In order to address this question properly, I will use three sub-topics within this section of analysis. They are: Unemployment, Poverty and Inequality, secondly, Education Related Challenges and lastly North-South Discrepancies respectively. In each of the sub-topic, an analysis will first be made in the case of Northern Nigeria then following by Northern Cameroon (Far North Region precisely) and I will round up with a sub-conclusion after the three sub-topics have been analyzed. 5-1) Unemployment, Poverty and Inequality

To begin with, The World Bank (2014) defines Unemployment as the share of labour force that is without work but is available and seeking employment. Meanwhile, it defines Poverty as whether a household or individuals have enough resources or abilities to meet their daily needs which are usually measure in terms of One Dollar per day .Whereas Inequality is the distribution of income, consumption and other attributes across the population.

Northern Nigeria

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With regard to Northern Nigeria, one of the main points which have contributed to the emergence of Boko Haram terrorism is the disparity in socio-economic conditions between Northern and Southern States of Nigeria. With focus on unemployment, for many years Northern Nigeria has experience high rates of unemployment when compared to some Southern States. Following the beginning of oil exploration in 1970, economic focus in the North (cotton industry) was shifted towards the south where it experiences an oil boom. (Khadkiwala and Mishra, 2014). This contributed towards high rates of unemployment which is still a reality till date. In 2011 for example, unemployment was mostly high in Northern Nigeria in States (North East precisely, where Boko Haram is operate) such as Bauchi 41.4%,Kaduna 30.3%, and Yobe 35.6%, whereas Southern States such as Lagos had 8.3%,Osun 3%, Oyo 8.9% unemployment rates respectively(, Aiyedogbon and Ohwofasa, cited in National Bureau of Statistic,2012). These high rates of unemployment have acted as one of the contributing socio-economic conditions behind Boko Haram terrorism.

The point is that, it is the duty of government to create employment to its citizens because the allocation of employment is a universal right as stated by the UN Human Right Declaration (1948).In order words, it is the duty of all effective government to formulate and implement sound policies which will enable creation of jobs for their inhabitants (Kaufmann, Kraay and Zoido-Lobaton, 1999) .However, in Northern Nigeria, high rates of unemployment have lured most of the youths and underprivileged to Boko Haram radical Islamism who are fighting for implementation of an Islamic state in Nigeria to replaced westernization as a remedy of their socio-economic conditions. In fact in 2010, there were about 9.5million Islamic students throughout Nigeria with the majority being in the Northern states. One major reason for this appeal to Boko Haram has been credited to the populace dissatisfaction (frustration) of state official corruption as well as government incapacity to provide employment (Barna, 2014:6).Therefore, unemployment is evidently one of the conditions behind Boko Haram terrorism in Northern Nigeria where a good numbers of youths have join the ranks of Boko Haram.

Meanwhile as regard Poverty, it is relatively high in Nigeria with 61 percent living with less than a Dollar per day according NBS (2012). Nevertheless, average poverty rate in Northern Nigeria is higher than that of the Southern part of Nigeria where poverty rates are 66.4% and 55.13% respectively.

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Source: National Statistical Bureau

The above graph depict that except of North Central region where Food poor is lower compared to the South East of Nigeria, Absolute poverty,Relative Poverty and Dollar per day poverty are higher in the three Northern regions as compared to the Southern Regions.

As a result of this poverty, has mostly reduced the livelihood alternatives of most of the youths and even adults in Northern Nigeria. Based on a US Peace Institute sponsor survey in 2013 in the States of Kano and Kaduna,( aim to determine factors behind youths radicalization and recruitment in Boko Haram), it found that 92% and 83% of the youths in these respective areas agreed that unemployment and poverty were among the main reasons why they engaged in religious based violence.(Onuoha,2014:4).

It is true that for the past decade Nigeria has enjoyed an economic growth average at 7% per year, however, this growth had rather worsen regional inequality than to ease them where it has benefited the Christian majority South to the disadvantage to the Muslim majority North. Furthermore, owing to a history of educational disadvantage in the Muslim North, the region has been perversely affected by economic restructuring, leaving it less able to seize the new opportunities created by Nigeria’s economic resurgence. To exacerbate matters, public sector retrenchment have all affected the Northern rural and Urban economy while the more educated southern zones of Nigeria have been able to take advantage from liberalization and diversification into high value services (Meagher,2014:2).For this reason, the government of Nigeria has not been able to enlarge the choices of the unemployed and poor inhabitants of Northern Nigeria.(Yang cited in ,Human Development Report, 1990).

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Nevertheless, one cannot simply blame unemployment, poverty and inequality as main reasons behind Boko Haram terrorism in Northern Nigeria. The fact here is that West African Muslim States such as Niger and Senegal equally encountered high rates of unemployment and poverty than Nigeria couple with a larger share of Muslim population yet they are peaceful in nature. According to Meagher(2014), “ more extreme inequality in Nigeria is part of the problem: while Senegal and Niger have an inequality profile similar to Eastern Europe, Nigeria’s approximates that of Latin America. Escalating inequality is accompanied by severe religious polarization at the national level”. In addition, the negative effect of social learning is another point where Nigeria has witnessed civil war, several coups d’état and also the conflict like the Niger-Delta against the State of Nigeria where the former was requesting more financial reward for it state due to oil exploit in her territory.

Boko Haram has taken advantage of high unemployment and poverty rates in Northern Nigeria to use as a mobilizing instrument so as to find support and recruits for terrorist violence. The majority of the unemployed and poor have been frustrated as a result of government incapacity to meet their basic needs (Olojo, 2012:6).As a result of this, they have adhered to Boko Haram where they have indulged in aggressive measures such as killing of innocent citizens and suicide bombing of UN building in Abuja in 2011.For this reason, unemployment, poverty and inequality are all one of the socio-economic conditions behind Boko Haram terrorism in Northern Nigeria.

Northern Cameroon (Far North Region)

In the case of Northern Cameroon, the conditions behind Boko Haram terrorism are to an extend similar yet with a large degree of difference as compared to Northern Nigeria. Unlike in Northern Nigeria where Boko Haram terrorism started as early as 2002 as a socio-political movement against corruption, injustices and abandonment by the Northern politicians to address poverty, unemployment, equality etc, in Northern Cameroon it was only in 2013 following the kidnapping of a French Family for financial ransom that Boko Haram terrorism began on the Cameroonian soil (Far North Region). Beside, while Boko Haram operates in more than six States in Northern Nigeria, in Northern Cameroon, Boko Haram terrorism is just in one region-Far North Region. In addition, unlike Nigeria where Boko Haram has a strategy and seeks to establish an Islamic State in the whole of Nigeria, in Northern Cameroon Boko Haram has no clear strategy (Durrie, 2014) .It was only around mid 2014 that the Far North Region became a combat zone following an open declaration of war against Boko Haram by Cameroonian authorities (AFP,2014).Nonetheless, just like Nigeria, Cameroonian youths have been lured into Boko Haram as a result of frustration, that is high rates of unemployment, poverty and inequality as stated below.

With regard to unemployment, it is also one of the socio-economic conditions behind Boko Haram terrorism in Northern Cameroon. Just as in Nigeria, unemployment has been one of those key factors which have prompted many Cameroonians in the Far North regions to be appealed by Boko Haram terrorism. Unemployment rate is Cameroon is high with a national average 38% whereas the Far North Region has the highest unemployment rate in Cameroon of 67%.( Cameroonweb,2014) . The reason behind this high rate of unemployment is because just like

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Nigeria, Cameroonian government has been unable to create sufficient employment in the Far North Region. Though unemployment is higher in Northern Nigeria than Northern Cameroon, yet it has proven that the governments of Cameroon and Nigeria ineffectiveness to deal with its high rates. The existence of very few employment opportunities in the Far North Region has lured many of the frustrated youths within the Region to be part of Boko Haram terrorism (aggressiveness) against their territory. In short, according to an AFP (2014) intelligence sources, Boko Haram pays a hiring bonus of about 750 euros and a monthly salary of about 150 euros compared to a 60 euros monthly salary if at all youths find a job in their area .

In effect, Cameroon government in capacity and lack of sound policies to create jobs within the Far North Region, has paved way contributed towards youth frustration due to unemployment .In reaction, these youths have tend to be aggressive by being part of Boko Haram terrorism against their own territory where in July 2014 for example they assisted to kidnapped the wife of the Vice Prime Minister of Cameroon alongside nine of his family members. In an undisclosed interview to a police official in 2014, it is alleged that Boko Haram has recruited and trained about 450 young Cameroonians just within two months to carry out onslaught in the Far North region.(AFP,2014)

Other than unemployment, high rates of poverty are another point as condition behind Cameroon adherence to Boko Haram terrorism in Far North Region. According to the World Bank (2013) average poverty rate in Cameroon is around 30 percent. Poverty rate in Cameroon increase in the three Northern Regions of Adamawa, North and Far North Regions, while at the same time in the Southern Regions, poverty declined significantly. In the Far North Region of Cameroon alone where Boko Haram operate, poverty is high to up to 65.9 % of Cameroonians in the area who live in less than a Dollar per day (Cameroonweb, 2014).Consequently, just like their Nigerian counterparts, most of the inhabitants in these areas have been victim of government incompetence to create jobs and provide better standing living. In frustration, most of the inhabitants of Far North Region have been appealed by Boko Haram who is paying much for their duties as stated above.

Mores till from 2007 up till date, inequality has been very high in the Far North Region as compared to the other Southern Regions such as Littoral or (Coastal) and Centre Regions. For example, according to Fambon (2014) the average household consumption expenditure was higher in the Centre and West (Southern Regions in Cameroon) Regions respectively whereas the Far north and North Regions were among the most unequal Regions in Cameroon and are still till date. For this reason, inequality has also contributed as a socio-economic condition which has appealed Cameroonians recruitment into Boko Haram terrorism against their own territory.Therfore, government lack to address inequality has contributed towards youth’s frustration and aggressiveness in adhering to Boko Haram terrorism.

However, with regard to Far North Cameroon, is vital to note that when compared to the inhabitants in Northern Nigeria, Cameroonian recruitment into Boko Haram terrorism is rewarded with monthly salaries of around 150euros whereas in Northern Nigeria they have been promised an Islamic State will remedy the deplorable socio-political and economic situations in their area. Besides, there is no official Cameroon Boko Haram version.

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However, with regard to unemployment, poverty and inequality as conditions behind Boko Haram terrorism in Northern Nigeria and Northern Cameroon, both Nigeria and Cameroon governments have fallen short of strong democratic expectation and mission which have contributed to an extend towards youth’s frustration and aggression. Reason being that socio-economic development assist to establish or sustain democracy (Wetzel & al, cited in Lipset, Seong & Torres, 1993) and also because democracy (or at least “ effective democracy”) tend to promote political stability, provides better economic policies and thus is conducive to socioeconomic development( Welzel &al cited in, Olson, Sarna & Swamy 2000).The fact that both Nigeria and Cameroon ranked in 2013 153 and 152 out of 183 countries with a low human development index(UNDP,2014) support the above fact.

Sub-Conclusion

In sum, both Nigeria and Cameroon governments incapacity to implement policies which will enable sufficient employment creation, reduce high rates of poverty and inequality in their respective Northern areas, have propelled most of the youths in these areas to adhere to Boko Haram as a result of Frustration and in return have express grievances by adhering to Boko Haram terrorism t in the form of killing, destruction of properties and also kidnapping. While in Cameroon Boko Haram offered hiring bonus and monthly salaries to Cameroonians recruits, in Nigeria Boko Haram has promised an Islamic State in replacement to “ Westernization” in the whole country as solution to official corruption and government incapacity to meet their basic needs.(Process Tracing in play).

Haven analysis Unemployment, Poverty and Inequality as conditions behind Boko Haram terrorism in Northern Nigeria and Northern Cameroon (Far North Region), below will be addressed Educational Related challenges as another condition behind Boko Haram terrorism in the aforementioned areas.

5-2) Educational Related Challenges

John F. Kennedy(1961) once stated that “Let us think of education as the means of developing our greatest abilities, because in each of us there is a private hope and dream which, fulfilled, can be translated into benefit for everyone.”Education is define as the process or act of imparting or inquiring knowledge, developing the powers of reasoning and judgment, and generally of preparing oneself or others intellectually for maturity life(Dictionary.com, 2014).Based on the above quotation and definition, it is clear that education does not only give hope but also is a great ability to develop critical reasoning.

With regard to Nigeria education discrepancies between Northern and Southern Nigeria date as far back during the British colonial rule in Nigeria. Prior to the British colonization of Nigeria, Northern Nigeria has often been deeply influenced by politics and religion .As early as in 1903 when Nigeria was under British colonial rule, the Borno Sultanate and the Sokoto Caliphate( an Islamic institution) ruled parts of what is now Northern Nigeria while strongly resisted Western education .For this reason, Western schools operated by Christian missionaries escalated in the

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south, in contrast to the North where Muslim authorities were hesitant to allow Christian mission schools to operate in their areas .The explanation behind this reluctance was simply because Western leverage in the administration and government in general was deemed as the spread of Christianity in a Northern Nigeria where Islam was the dominant religion. (Owolade, 2014).For this reason, the British colonial authorities were compelled to rule Nigeria separately, that is between Northern (where most Muslims live) and southern Nigeria (where most Christians live) separately.

Yet, till date rate of education between Northern Nigeria and Southern Nigeria are still high visible. For example, primary school completion ratio in Northern States of Yobe, Bauchi, Adamawa, and Taraba was less than 10 percent as compared to Lagos State (Southern Nigeria) with a net primary school completion ratio with 70.6 percent. This same trend persists at secondary level of education. Unfortunately, Nigeria poor education indicator in the North has also deterred investors who seek skilled labour (Nwabobo, 2013) and have therefore tend to invest more in the South than in the North of Nigeria.

While it is true that Nigeria’s educational history affected Northern Nigeria tremendously due to resistance in western education, yet it is the role of government to envisage policies that will foster most Northern Nigeria citizens to be educated. It is widely agreed that any true democracy or strong political institutions (such as Nordic countries) have positive effect on human development such as education .However, this is not the case with Nigeria were it previous and recent government have been unable to promote education in most of the Northern States which is made up mostly of Muslims. Due to a history of socio-political instability in Nigeria such as historical resistance to education compounded with civil war in the 1970s, and with a good numbers of Coup d’états, Nigeria has been described as a weak State (Uzonwane, 2013)

Consequently, Nigeria’s poor Human Development report( 153 out of 183) is just a prove that Nigeria’s political institution has been unable to provide quality and a performant political administration which will promote education .(Vollmer and Ziegler, 2009) and acceptable levels of literacy in Northern Nigeria. For a example, according to reports by the National Bureau of Statistics (2010) overall adult literacy rate was 71.6 per. Most of the southern States such as Lagos maintain high literacy rates of 87.7 per cent, while Kwara and Yobe Northern State had literacy rate of 42.6% and 48.9% respectively .In addition, it was stated that about 50 millions Nigerians were still illiterate out of 61.3% who were estimated as literate. Out of this number, the majority is in Northern Nigeria States owing to the fact that Western Education-style was prohibited because Muslim religious leaders did not want Christian missionaries to interfere with Islamic traditional education (Liolio, cited in Abayomi and Orakpo, 2012)

Given that socioeconomic development enables people to have greater intellectual and physical resources by increasing incomes, skills and information levels, ( Welzel & al,cited in Boix 2000), ignorance and high rates of illiteracy in Northern Nigeria has contributed as a condition behind Boko Haram terrorism. According to a report by Onuoha (2014) who is head of the Department of Conflict, Peacekeeping and Humanitarian Studies at the centre for Strategic Research and Studies of Nigeria’s National Defense College in Abuja, he stated that Boko Haram has been able to recruit

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youths as a result of lack of knowledge of what really the Qur’an teaches about Islam. Ignorance of religious teaches and lack of education has made recruits to be victim of Boko Haram terrorism. In his own words, “the reasons a young boy agrees to spy on police may be completely different to the reasons other members abduct two hundred schoolgirls. The boy who carries out a suicide bombing at a police station certainly has different motivations to the one who makes a little money helping the organization out.”(Onuoha, 2014:5)In short, the reason behind this is as a result ignorance and high illiterate rates in Northern Nigeria as seen above.

Therefore, the weak political institution of Nigeria (weak State) has not done much to promote education in Northern Nigeria though with it acceptable controversial history of defying western education. Consequently, most of this unemployment, poor and educated youths found themselves frustrated, easily recruited by Boko Haram and have been aggressive or terrorism their respective areas. One major reason behind aggressiveness ( in the form of Boko Haram terrorism) is due to the fact that bad governance by politicians and corrupt officials have fail to meet up with their basic human needs. Below are the educational related challenges which has contributed as a conditions behind Boko Haram terrorism in Northern Cameroon

Northern Cameroon

Northern Cameroon due to its geographical location and proximity with Northern Nigeria share to an extent similar historical education experience. Prior to the German colonization in 1884, Northern Cameroon was part of Adamawa Emirate and the Sokoto Caliphate .For this reason, Northern parts of Cameroon (which mainly consist of Fulani’s and Hausa Muslims )with its three different regions were mostly isolated from educational development compared to the Southern parts of Cameroon . While Christian missionaries penetrated the southern part of Cameroon, this was not the case with the same degree as they did in the former where they implanted primary and secondary education system for southern Cameroonians. For this reason, the Northern region has lacks the strong tradition of education as is the case in southern Cameroon. (Lynch, 1991).Meanwhile, according to the World Bank (2012) Cameroon’s secondary and primary educational systems have improved significantly. In 2009 about 3.4 million children were enrolled in primary school compared to 2 million in 1991 whereas at secondary school levels about 1.3 million were enrolled which had double compared to enrollment in 1991.Nevetheless, regional disparities in education makes children and youths to be vulnerable and disadvantage in life opportunities.(World Bank,2012).This is mostly true in the case of Northern Cameroon Regions were literacy rates are at the lowest as the following map highlights.

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Literacy rate in Cameroon by region in 2013. Source: Institut National de la Statistique du Cameroun.

The map above depict literacy rate in 2013,where literacy are lower in the three Northern Regions of Cameroon compared to the other Southern Regions where average from 70-90% of the inhabitants were literate whereas in the Northern Regions it average 50-70% p .In short in the Far North Region less than 40% of the inhabitants are literate. One of the major reasons behind this is due to the Cameroon political institution which is a centralized system of administration. For example, the manner in which the central government determines regional allocations does not reflect actual needs at the regional or school levels. It systematically underfunds all regions by the same percentage, regardless of regional budget proposals. Several weak points in the system facilitate the potential misuse of funds across Cameroon and promote inequality among regions.

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Thus inefficiency of operation of education at regional levels (World Bank, 2012) and in the Far North is a reality.

In addition, similar to Northern Nigeria, the highest rate of illiteracy is in the Far North Region and Northern Regions in general .Following an interview by AFP (2014) to an unnamed Muslim Leader in the Far North region, the latter stated conditions behind Cameroonian youths adherence to Boko Haram terrorism was due to ignorance. According to the unnamed source, due to few schooling opportunities, high rates of poverty and unemployment youths have been compelled to join Boko Haram without an outstanding of Islam and even Boko Haram radicalism. Meanwhile the anomaly here is that the reason for joining Boko Haram is due to the financial of 150 euros a month with a hiring bonus of around 750 euros (AFP, 2014) because there is no strategy by Boko Haram to create an Islamic state in Northern Cameroon as is the case with Nigeria.(Dorie,2014)

Cameroon government lack to address not only educational imbalances but also unemployment and poverty at the Far North Region have lured most of these youths to Boko Haram terrorism in the form of kidnapping or open fighting against Cameroon military authorities. Meanwhile, a sound development of education would have enable inhabitants of Far North to have greater intellectual and physical resources in order not to be lured by Boko Haram terrorism (Welzel & al, cited in Boix 2000).In frustration due to high rates of unemployment, poverty couple with ignorance, about 200 youths from the ages of 17-19 years were recruited just within two months in Kolofata at the Far North Region for financial reward (AFP, 2014).Therefore, educational related challenges ,low literacy rates couple with ignorance have been one of the conditions behind Boko Haram terrorism in the Far North of Cameroon.

Nevertheless, unlike Nigeria, there is no open rejection of western education in the Far North Region and Northern Cameroon in general. Thus, the advert of terrorism in Cameroon has been external coming from Boko Haram in Northern Nigeria who has taken advantage of ignorance, unemployed and poverty of the masses in Far North Cameroon. ( Dorie,2014)

Sub-conclusion

Following the high illiterate rate in Northern Nigeria and Northern Cameroon as compared to their southern territories respectively, ignorance has been one of the main factors that have lured youths into Boko Haram radicalism .In addition couple with, ignorance is the fact that most of these youths are unemployed, and witnessed high rates of poverty which makes them susceptible to be lured by Boko Haram terrorism in their respective areas .Both, Nigerian and Cameroonian governments lack to address educational challenges in the form of low rates of literacy, compounded with ignorance have constituted as one of the socio-economic conditions behind Boko Haram terrorism.

Haven addressed unemployment, poverty and inequality and educational related challenges as conditions behind Boko Haram terrorism in Northern Nigeria and Northern Cameroon, I will now analyze the North/ South Disparity which is the third and last point.

5-3) North/South Disparities

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Under this section, the key differences between North/South shall be in three fold: historical perspective, Religious, Political and socio-economic. Other than socio-economic, the other factor will only be mentioned in order to highlight how they have contributed to some extend to socio-economic factors.

Northern Nigeria

As earlier mentioned, North/South disparity in Nigeria is a phenomenon which date as right back prior to British rule in Nigeria. Up till date it is still visible and these are one of the factors which have made Nigeria to be a weak state .As early as 1903 during British rule, the Borno Sultanate and Sokoto Caliphate (Muslims rule and dominion) ruled what is now part of Northern Nigeria. Northern Nigeria for many decades have been a scene of strong resistance to “western” education and, the area have a deficiency of educational structure compared to the south of Nigeria (Owolade, 2014).Faced with this resistance of Christian missionary school and colonial administration, the British colonial authorities were compelled to rule Nigeria separately, that is between Northern (where most Muslims live) and southern Nigeria (where most Christians live) separately.

Politically, following independence, Nigeria has witnessed high numbers of military military coups( seven in number) and civil war such as the Biafra civil war in the mid 1960s-1970 .For example, in 1993, General Sani Abacha overthrew the President Ibrahim Babangida through a coup d’état. Transition to a democratic regime only became a reality in 1999 while prior to this, elections organized in 1993, witnessed rigging of elections against a civilian from the South( a Christian –Yoruba named Abiola) won elections .The latter was finally imprisoned and died incarcerated by Sani Abacha( a Muslim from the North) who had banned all political activities by November 1998.It was only following 1999 that a transition ensure formal democracy in Nigeria .(Forest,2012:24)Nonetheless, the above situations have contributed towards tension between North( mostly Muslim) and south(mostly Christian) Nigeria making Nigeria a weak state.

In addition, as regard regional disparity, the southern states of Nigeria are more prosperous economically than the Northern regions. Economic shift from the North to the south of Nigeria began following oil exploration in 1970s in the south of Nigeria where about 80 percent of oil is at the southern River State territory .In addition, remittances from the Igbo, Yoruba and other small southern tribes who lived abroad (Nigeria in the Diaspora) has also contributed significantly to the economy of southern States to the disadvantage of the Northern parts of Nigeria. To exacerbate matters for the North, government abandoned pastoral and agricultural economy of the North and focus rather on oil revenue .In the course of this, the North of Nigeria witnessed de-industrialization and enterprises that existed in the region closed down due to government neglect and competition from abroad. (Khadkiwala and Mishra,2014).For this reason, the above regional disparity as a result of government neglect and failure to implement sound policies for economic growth and sustainability in Northern Nigeria have contributed as condition behind Boko Haram terrorism in Northern Nigeria where in frustration, a good numbers of youths have join Boko Haram

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terrorism(aggressive) with hope that an Islamic state in Nigeria will remedy their socio-economic problems.

Furthermore, GDP per capita of Southern Nigeria is almost two times that of the North. For instance Khadikiwala and Mishra (2014), state that the GDP per capita of the South West and South East of Nigeria was 1436US Dollar and 933 US Dollar whereas the North-East which is the heart of Boko Haram operation was around 718US Dollar respectively. In addition, in 2013, the seven of the ten largest State economies where in Southern Nigeria and the majority of investment has been executed mostly in the South .For example, on April 2013 the Dangote group (owned by a Muslim Nigerian) negotiated loans of 4.25 Billion from banks to build a refinery located in the South West of Nigeria with a capacity to process about 400,000 barrels of crude oil per day. (Nwabobo, 2013).This contributes towards regional disparity because no major invested with the above magnitude have been carry out in the North part of Nigeria, (Nwabobo, 2013) thereby creating a sense of destitute to the Northern inhabitants who in frustration have embark on Boko Haram radical Islamism as a solution.

More still, according to a story from Olisakwe (2014), fear and religious fanaticism such as Boko Haram terrorism is nothing new in Northern Nigeria. According to her story it is a fate that has been accepted long ago by the inhabitant of the North where in the 1980s Muslim fanatics were against “westernization” where clashed with Christians saw the demise of about 200 people. (Olisakwe, 2014). Thus, Northern Nigeria has been characterized by violence which has contributed towards a negative social learning behavioral approach (Bandura, 1986) where violence has become a normal routine in most States in Northern Nigeria compare to Cameroon where there is no such clash between Christians and Muslim and no major traditional incidence of violence compared to Northern Nigeria.

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Purple states have full sharia law, yellow have partial sharia, and green have no sharia. Source:  TUBS

See all the purple and yellow at the top, and green at the bottom? Yep, the poorer and less well-governed regions also tend to be Northern Sates. This have contributed to set the stage for Boko Haram's emergence as a major force in Northern Nigeria( Beauchamp, 2014)

The map above show that the poorer and less govern states are in Northern where sharia laws are executed. Consequently, regional disparity in the form of regional resources, government neglect to implement sound policies to foster socio-economic have witnessed more invested done in the south of Nigeria as compared to the North. Thus, regional disparity have contributed towards frustration and aggression because of high rates of unemployment, poverty and inequality of most Northern states as compare to southern states. Therefore, regional disparity of the above mentioned points have contributed as conditions behind Boko Haram terrorism. Below is regional disparity in the case of Northern Cameroon.

Northern Cameroon

Prior to European colonization in Cameroon, Northern Cameroon was under the influence of radical Islam revivalism from northern Nigeria, which led to the establishment of the Sokoto Caliphate (1804–1903). Until the arrival of the German colonial powers, most of northern Cameroon formed part of Nigeria’s Adamawa Emirate, populated by the same people – mainly the Hausas and Fulani’s. Although, the Maitatsine ( a doctrine which rejects western forms of education and life style) Doctrine was founded and promoted by a Cameroonian Muhammad Marwa, who moved to Nigeria from northern Nigeria (Institute for Security Studies, 2013), following independence Northern Cameroon have not witnessed similar scenario of violence as is the case with Northern Nigeria.Unlike in Nigeria, colonial approach to Islam and the role that the latter played in the nation-building projects of the two nations are however, different. From the beginning of the German colonial administration, Islamic militancy was identified as the greatest threat to the construction and governance of the Cameroonian nation. This view was upheld by the subsequent British and French administrations, as well as the country’s post-independence regimes. (Institute for Security Studies, 2013) For this reason, policies were developed to pacify, coerce and integrate Muslims into the nation-building project. This began with the dismantling of the religious edifices that underpinned the Sokoto Caliphate. For example, the power of Islamic theocracies, clerics and local chiefs or lamidos was reduced and made subordinate to secular institutions. Other policies have included direct negotiation and preferential treatment, as well as the monitoring and strict regulation of Islamic affairs, including state oversight of mosques. Central to these efforts has been the creation of a unitary republican state that recognizes plurality but does not define Cameroon on the basis of any ethnic or religious creed. According to Ewi (2014), Cameroon traditionally has fared better system of administration than Nigeria, reason being the German colonizers and subsequent independent governments introduced a more centralized form of government than the federal structure the British adopted (Dorie, 2014).Thus, following independence till date when Boko Haram terrorism started in Cameroon, Cameroon has enjoy relative peace and stability compared to Nigeria. (Azah, 2014)Nevertheless, just like Northern Nigeria, during colonial rule Northern Cameroon were to an extend isolated from socio-economic development as it was the case in the West, Centre and Littoral Regions in the southern Cameroon. Secondly, while Christian missionaries penetrated the southern part of Cameroon, this was not the case with the same degree as they did in the former

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where they implanted primary and secondary education system for southern Cameroonians. For this reason, it has contributed to regional developmental imbalances. According to Azah (2014) “Boko Haram menace may just be a manifestation of more profound threats to peace and security. The vulnerability of Cameroon’s Northern region to violent extremism is due to the region long history of neglect, marginalization, poverty and social exclusion.”Thus, Boko Haram easily penetrated these communities, recruit and train young people due to government neglect of the region which have pave way for frustration and aggression leading Cameroonian youths to be lured and recruited for financial rewards. Regional disparity in terms of operation of companies and natural resources has also disfavored the Northern part of Cameroon. Cameroon had about 93 969 companies according to the results of the 2009 General Enterprise census. The majority of these companies were are mainly operating in the cities of Yaoundé and Douala (Centre and Littoral Regions respectively in the southern parts of Cameroon) .The majority of major socio-economic development are concentrated in the south such as Timber companies, cocoa, oil companies, rubber etc whereas just a few economic activities are in the North of Cameroon. (African Economic Outlook, 2012:5).Therefore, the vulnerability of Northern Cameroon region (Far North) to violent extremism is due to the region long history of government neglect, marginalization, poverty and social exclusion (Azah, 2014) which has lured many Cameroonian youths due to financial reward. Nonetheless, this confirms the assertion that the Current threat of Islamism in Northern Cameroon is external coming from Northern Nigeria. (Dorie, 2014). Sub-conclusionBased on the above analysis state that regional disparity between Northern and Southern Nigeria and Cameroon have all to an extend contributed towards conditions behind Boko Haram terrorism in Northern Nigeria and Northern Cameroon respectively.In the south of Nigeria where there exist an oil boom, major investment have taken place place whereas Northern Nigeria has witnessed deindustrialization and government neglect of agro-pastoral activities as a source of income to the inhabitants. Consequantly, due to high unemployment, poverty and inequality created as a result of regional disparity between North and south, a good numbers of youths in frustration have join Boko Haram with the hope that an Islamic state in Nigeria will remedy their socio-economic situations . Whereas in Northern Cameroon, youths vulnerability to violent extremism is due to the region long history of government neglect, marginalization, poverty and social exclusion (Azah, 2014) .Thus, some hundreds of youths in the Far North Region(Northern Cameroon) have been appealed to Boko Haram terrorism due to financial reward (AFP,2014) .Government lack to implement sound socio-economic policies in the Far North region has contributed towards youths frustration and aggression to an extend but current threat of terrorism in Northern Cameroon external coming from Northern Nigeria. I will now move to the final section which is on conclusion and recommendation.

6) CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

Under this section, this thesis will address a summary of what has been dissected so far while also it will attempt to answer the problem formulation. In addition, a brief sub- section of recommendation will also be outlined as suggestion for to both Nigeria and Cameroon which if implemented might help relax the advert of inland terrorism not only within their territories both also at the Gulf of Guinea in general.

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6-1) Conclusion

The current Boko Haram terrorism in Northern Nigeria and Northern Cameroon has been alarming so much it seems to replace maritime off shore piracy as one of the main security threat at the Gulf of Guinea. At the beginning of Boko Haram activities in 2002, Mohammed Yusuf together with his followers protested against the dreadful corruption within the Nigerian society. (Judit Barna, 2014).Though it is widely accepted that the reasons behind Boko Haram terrorism range from socio-economic, political and religious factors (Onuoha, 2014:5), our focus has been specifically on socio-economic conditions behind Boko Haram terrorism in Northern Nigeria and Northern Cameroon.

Focus on Boko Haram terrorism in Northern Nigeria and Northern Cameroon has been simply for the fact that, Boko Haram has attracted serious global attention following the shocking kidnapping of more than 200 girls in 2014 in the North of Nigeria. Other than this, the US enlisted BH as one of the most agile terrorist group (Bureau of Counterterrorism, 2014), where its activities are concentrated in Northern Nigeria but proceeded to Northern Cameroon by kidnapping foreign tourist for ransom .Though there are a good number of reasons which explain Boko Haram terrorism, the goal of this thesis has been to identify the different socio-economic conditions of Boko Haram terrorism in Northern Nigeria and Northern Cameroon as stated above.Thus, this thesis addressed three main sub-topics of Unemployment, Poverty, and Inequality, Education related challenges and also North-South Discrepancy as socio-economic conditions behind Boko Haram terrorism in Northern Nigeria and Northern Cameroon. However, while Boko Haram operated and was active in Katsina, Kano, Bauchi, Gombe and Yobe, etc in Northern Nigeria, in Cameroon Boko Haram operated only in the Far North Region. A background of Boko Haram in Northern Nigeria proved that at the onset it was a socio-political movement against official corruption and, bad governance couple with deplorable socio-economic conditions in Northern Nigeria. Consequently, Nigeria has been term a weak state also because of its long history of resistance to “western” education in the North, coup d’états and civil war. For this reason, British colonial authorities were compelled to rule Nigeria separately from Northern and Southern Nigeria due to Muslim rejection of colonial administration and missionary schools. On the other hand, in Cameroon, the German, British and French colonial administration, identified Islamic militancy as the greatest threat to the construction and governance of the Cameroon.(Institute for Security Studies, 2013).For this reason, they adopted policies to pacify, coerce and integrate Muslims into the nation-building project of Cameroon.(Dorie,2014)

In analysis the three sub-topics, as socio-economic conditions behind Boko Haram terrorism, two theories of Human Development and Frustration and Aggression was applied where the former acted as the independent variable and the latter as the dependent variable. With regard to Human development theory two components of socio-economic development and Democratization or Political institutions were applied whereas Frustration and Aggression theory which proceeded from a psychological standpoint was used to explain how unresolved expectation could lead to frustration and aggression. With regard to Northern Nigeria and Northern Cameroon, both governments incapacity to implement policies to create sufficient employment , reduce high rates of poverty and inequality in their respective areas, propelled most of the youths to adhere to Boko Haram as a result of Frustration where their aggressiveness were displayed in the form of killing, destruction of

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properties and also kidnapping. In short both of their HDI standing 153 and 152 for Nigeria and Cameroon respectively (UNDP, 2014) have been evident of the weakness of their political institutions which are merely formal democracy. While in Nigeria Boko Haram has promised an Islamic State in replacement to “Westernization” in the whole country as solution to official corruption and government incapacity to meet their basic needs, in Cameroon Boko Haram has offered hiring bonus(750euros) and monthly salaries(150euros) to Cameroonians recruits (AFP,2014)In terms of educational related challenges, low rate of literacy and ignorance have also been a condition behind Boko Haram terrorism where a good number of youths in both Northern Nigeria and Northern Cameroon were lured into Boko Haram radicalism due to the above reason .Ignorance has been a result of low schooling rates in Northern Nigeria and Northern Cameroon and also because most of these youths are unemployed and victims of high rates of poverty which makes them susceptible to be lured by Boko Haram terrorism in their respective areas. Thus, both Nigeria and Cameroon governments have neglected to address educational challenges in the form of low literacy and schooling rates. For this reason, educational related challenges have been one of the socio-economic conditions behind Boko Haram terrorism.

Meanwhile regional disparity was the third and last socio-economic condition behind Boko Haram terrorism in Northern Nigeria and Northern Cameroon. While the southern States of Nigeria experienced economic and oil boom in the form of huge investment, Northern Nigeria witnessed deindustrialization and (government) neglect in agro-pastoral activities as a source of income to the inhabitants. Thus, high levels of unemployment, poverty and inequality have all proceeded from regional disparity between North and south. For this reason, a good number of youths frustrated by these circumstances adhered to Boko Haram terrorism (aggressiveness) with the hope that an Islamic state in Nigeria will remedy their socio-economic situations. In Northern Cameroon, youths vulnerability to violent extremism was rather credited due to the region long history of government neglect, marginalization, poverty and social exclusion (Azah, 2014) .Thus, hundreds of youths in the Far North Region (Northern Cameroon) were appealed to Boko Haram terrorism due to financial reward (AFP, 2014) and also because the government of Cameroon felt short to implement sound socio-economic policies in the Far North region which would have addressed regional disparity.

Based on the above analysis, it is clear that high rates of unemployment, poverty and inequality, educational related challenges and North-South regional disparity no doubt contributed as socio-economic conditions behind Boko Haram terrorism to an extent. However, the current terrorism in Northern Nigeria has been as a result of long history of violence in Nigeria because States such as Senegal and Niger also face similar socio-economic conditions (with a large Muslim population) like Northern Nigeria, yet there is no conflict as such. Whereas the current terrorism threat in Northern Cameroon has been external coming from Northern Nigeria. (Dorie, 2014)

6-2) Recommendation

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Firstly, as regard to governance both Nigeria and Cameroon need to build strong political institutions which will be accountable to the populace. They need to move from formal democratic institutions to real democratic institutions as Nordic countries where basic universal needs of its people such as provision of free education, low unemployment rates and a fair sense of regional equilibrium is a reality. The truth is that both Nigeria and Cameroon have the necessary financial resources to do this because they are all rich in natural resources such as oil etc.However; a prerequisite for success is that both governments need to be transparent financially and also to sanction severely all culprits of corruption. Only by doing this that it will enable to build trust between both governments and their populace.

Again, there is need for both Nigeria and Cameroon to strengthen their borders with more security men so that they can patrol their borders, check on transportation of weapons, prevent any recruitment and resourceful ground for any terrorist activities. In addition, regional governments and local governments need to work with communities and religious leaders so as to report any case of suspect as well as to sensitize population regarding the ills of radicalism. At the international level, both Nigeria and Cameroon (first and foremost), neighboring States and State members of Gulf of Guinea Commission need to share vital information as regard any future uprising or security threats because a threat to one might be a threat to the other .

There is also an urgent need to implement a 5-10 year emergence regional development plan. This should have a focus on employment creation because it has been identify that high rates of unemployment have lured and misled most youths to Boko Haram. The truth is that job creation will reduce high poverty and inequality rates to an extent.

The success of the 5-10 years development plan can only be successful if there is security in these areas .For example, in order to attract investment, there is need to create an atmosphere of security and peace in Northern Nigeria and Northern Cameroon. To best do this, an official public pardon guarantee to all Boko Haram members or former members should be passed. The next step will be to integrate them, and to best do this both governments should offer free training in programmes to prepare them for employment opportunities.

Meanwhile, there should be an emphasis in IT training. This will impact communities of Northern Nigeria and Northern Cameroon with IT knowledge. The advantage with IT training is that it will have a multi-facet dimension in the sense that it will educate, prepare them for 21th century IT related employment and also contribute towards enlightenment since they will be open to the internet and global world. Therefore, there is need to invest in IT technology in these areas.

Nonetheless, it is vital to implement a strategic in order to foster Northern Nigeria youths to register to the so call “western education”. Reason being that it would be difficult for them to have jobs and have many opportunities if they have no “western” education. Education is key to success in life and it also brings enlightenment and develops a critical mindset. Therefore, a general sensitization campaign be launch to explain the advantages of “western” education. Parents should mostly be targeted and a house to house campaign should not be negligible

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