ACOM 221: MEDIA STUDIES 1B

MEDIA, CULTURE AND SOCIETY

PART ONE

MEDIA AND THE SOCIAL WORLDCroteau and Hoynes, Chapter 1

WHAT IS THE “MASS MEDIA”?

The term “mass media” refers to print

and electronic means of mass

communication that carry messages to

widespread audiences.

The communication media are the

different technological processes that

facilitate communication between (and are

in the “middle” of) the sender of a

message and the receiver of that message.

MEDIA AND THE SOCIAL WORLDCroteau and Hoynes, Chapter 1

Everyday we are bombarded with messages from mass

media –television, radio, newspapers, and the internet.

In fact, in modern society, most of our knowledge,

understanding, and interpretations of the world are

mediated through mass media.

These media have profound cognitive, emotional, and

interactional effects on individuals, institutions, and

societies.

At the same time, individuals and institutions

are instrumental in shaping the nature and

character of the mass media.

With the pervasiveness of the media,

communication scholars have conducted

numerous studies to examine the effects of

media on audience and society.

Studies of mass media have demonstrated

that the media can be quite influential in a

number of ways, such as shaping public

opinion, setting the agenda, cultivating

salience, fostering learning and reinforcing

the spiral of silence.

FUNCTIONALIST PERSPECTIVE OF THE MEDIA

According to this perspective the mass

media performs FOUR FUNCTIONS in society:

1.Surveillance of the environment: through

the provision of news and information.

2.Correlation: correlating response to news

and information (editorial function); The

media coordinate and correlate information

that is valuable to the culture.

3. Cultural transmission: The media are

powerful agents of socialization. Through the

media, cultural norms and values are

communicated to the masses.

4. Entertainment: (diversion function). By

providing entertainment, the media act as

stress relievers for members of society, which

keeps social conflicts to a minimum.

RISE OF MASS MEDIASocial Construction of Reality

–While reality exists, media users negotiate the

meaning of that reality

–The same media product may mean very different

things to different people

–Example: A music video may elicit different

responses from a 15-year old fan and a parent

concerned about sexist stereotypes that may be

present in the video

Printing technology began in the 15th century

–Invention of the printing press promoted

literacy in Europe

Early 17th century – first newspapers in

Europe

19th century invention of telegraph and

telephone allowed instantaneous

communication over long distances

In the early 20th century radio became the

first broadcast media , followed by TV in the

1940s and 50s

The development of broadcasting

fundamentally altered life – communicators

could cast their messages broadly to the

masses in their homes

–The media experience became largely

privatized and individualized even as people

were becoming “massified” by mass

mediated homogenized messages about

beauty and even identity itself

RISE OF INTERNET AND NEW TECHNOLOGIES

Recent technologies resulted in a move away

from the mass broadcast audience toward

smaller, more specialized niche populations

–Narrowcasting

The distinction between separate media

forms is now blurred

Increased interactivity between media users

and contents

MEDIA AND SOCIETY

The commercial mass media serve as

a powerful socialization agent

–It aims particularly at children and youth

–It’s messages often contradict the parent

–It normalizes a way of life based on

privatization, individualism, capitalist

materialism, hedonism, ageism, sexism, and

status-conscious consumerism

–It introduces us to new and creative

messages and perspectives

–It asks people to accept the “normalcy” of

constant rapid social change

MEDIA IN SOCIAL RELATIONS

Media are bound up with the process of

social relations

–Media affect how we learn about our world

and interact with each other

Example: Our political system is now mass-

mediated by a commercial media that

charges hefty fees for political messages.

The result is a bias toward the political

viewpoints of the rich and their well-financed

politicians.

Media products are connected to the ways

we interact with others

STRUCTURAL CONSTRAINT AND HUMAN AGENCY

STRUCTURE

–Any recurring pattern of social behavior

–Example: family structure

–Structure limits human agency

AGENCY

–Intentional and undetermined human action

–Example: children in the family

–Structure limits agency, but agency can reproduce or

change the structure

STRUCTURE AND AGENCY IN MEDIA

Relationships Between Media & Other

Institutions

–Other social institutions set limits on the media

Relationships Within the Media Industry

–Internal workings of mass media – social roles and

practices

Relationships Between the Media and the Public

–Media content affects public perceptions

PART TWO: PRODUCTION

THE MEDIA INDUSTRY AND THE SOCIAL WORLD

THE ECONOMICS OF THE MEDIA INDUSTRY Croteau and Hoynes, Chapter 2

Media industries are in general profit-oriented.

–Profit concerns dominate considerations about content

and policy.

–Like other capitalist institutions, the media always

serves the private interest.

–The capitalist media content and its policies - may or

may not serve the larger public interest.

Generally the capitalist media is very entertaining, but

not very informative.

CHANGING PATTERNS OF MEDIA OWNERSHIP

Ownership is an important issue.

–Democratic societies require an informed

citizenry, and we rely upon the media to help

inform citizens about policies and platforms.

–Whoever owns a specific media controls the

content of that media.

Owners are not all of one mind, so it is too simplistic to

see Big Media as a conspiracy of like-minded powerful

owners.

CONGLOMERATION AND INTEGRATION IN THE MEDIA

Conglomeration: this is when media

firms become involved in a variety of

diverse business activities.

HORIZONTAL AND VERTICAL INTEGRATION

Vertical Integration: Cross-industry ownership, or the

degree a to which a single firm owns its upstream suppliers and

its downstream buyers. Here one firm engages in different

aspects of the process, from production to distribution. Eg: a firm

hires an artist, records them, distributes them on stations they

own and features them in clubs they own.

Horizontal Integration: Consolidation of many firms that

handle the same part of a production process. When a firm buys

out other firms doing the same thing, it is seeking horizontal

integration. It seeks to increase its share of the market.

CONSEQUENCES OF CONGLOMERATION AND INTEGRATION

1. HOMOGENIZATION.

–Today there are fewer and fewer locally

owned radio and TV stations.

–There has been an erosion of local culture as

national chain-media emphasize non-local

content.

–Homogenization threatens cultural diversity.

THE HOMOGENIZATION HYPOTHESIS

This thesis argues that concentration leads to a lack

of diversity in content.

Research reveals that, while generally true, it

depends on the specific industry:

–In the newspaper industry, increased concentration does

not appear to change content very much.

–This is because newspapers have been concentrated since

the early 20th century and they’ve standardized content: a

front page, a sports page, a lifestyle page, etc, with

editorializing relegated to a page or two.

2. HIGHER PROFITS FOR BIG MEDIA.

–Stockholders benefit from conglomeration, but the public

doesn’t.

3. HORIZONTAL INTEGRATION.

–The loss of independence between films, TV, and music means

the same artist we see in the movies may also show up on an

album. Or visa versa. They will be cross-promoted, guaranteeing

success even if they aren’t very good. Example: Britney Spears.

–This also means “the look” matters. In the age of MTV, musical

artists who don’t look good generally don’t get promoted.

4. VERTICAL INTEGRATION.

When the same firm that produces a musical artist

also distributes the artist, it virtually guarantees they

will sell. Ex: Britney Spears.

5. A SHIFT TO THE RIGHT, IDEOLOGICALLY.

While anti-establishment content is sometimes

allowed – as long as it is profitable – Big Media

prefers artists who are friendly to their agenda, and

this agenda leans to the middle and right.

6. CORPORATE SELF-CENSORSHIP HAS INCREASED.

News that challenges the legitimacy of capitalism or the policies of

private corporations is more likely to be censored by corporate

media.

7. WITH CONCENTRATION, THE PUBLIC GETS LOCKED OUT OF

PARTICIPATION.

–Today, freedom of the press is limited to those who can afford to

own radio and TV stations – the millionaires and their corporations.

–Media corporations routinely use the rhetoric of freedom at the

same time that media oligopoly serves to reduce choices.

MEDIA CONTROL AND POLITICAL POWER

Can the concentration of media undermine

political system?

Yes. Corporate Media routinely lobbies and

“donates” funds to politicians in exchange

for favorable treatment. Many politicians are afraid to be openly critical of

Corporate Media policies because they have become

dependant on their “donations” to get re-elected.

CORPORATE CENSORSHIP

It is ironic that most discussion of censorship and

free speech focuses on government censorship, not

corporate censorship.

–Most media censorship is corporate

censorship. It is self-censorship.

–Corporations are reluctant to publish news that

reflects badly upon themselves.

Corporations use Public Relations firms to “spin” the

truth – a version of censorship.

PROFIT AND THE NEWS MEDIA

Capitalist media focus on one specific goal:

financial profit.

–News divisions are typically not as profitable as

Entertainment divisions.

Therefore, under pressure to increase profits,

news policies have shifted in recent years to

increase corporate profits.

RECENT CHANGES IN CORPORATE NEWS

Corporate news programs have found numerous

ways to increase profits:

1. Less investigative reporting.

2. Use fewer news sources.

3. Decreased news staffs.

4. Make the news more entertaining.

More emphasize on “if it bleeds, it leads.”

5. Focus on sensational or tabloid news stories

6. Include “soft” human interest stories that

reassure audiences with their “happy endings.”

Use upbeat styles.

7. Hire personalities rather than real journalists to

deliver the news. Place emphasis on these news

personalities as celebrities to worship.

8. Eliminate the news altogether and play re-runs

of former hit shows.

ADVERTISING AND THE PRESS

The press won their freedom from government

and party control as they shifted to an

advertising-driven press.

–This view claimed they achieved economic

independence, allowing them to become

“watchdogs” or “the fourth estate.” e.g. The

press should monitor the full range of state

activity and fearlessly exposé abuses of official

authority.

However, this argument obscures how advertising

led to new forms of self-censorship.

An advertiser-driven press is not a free press. It is

beholden to the advertisers’ interests in order to

sustain revenue.

To the extent the working class press criticized

capitalism, advertisers withdrew support and gave

it to the more conservative press.

–Ultimately, the ad-driven press led to:

the decline of the radical ideology

press;

the emergence of a press inclined

toward non-ideological coverage, such as

lifestyle pages;

more “balanced” coverage of events in

order not to offend paying consumers.

MARKET INFLUENCES ON JOURNALISM

Advertising driven, mostly. Therefore, it is

biased toward capitalist values. Most content

is ads.

–Radical ideology is almost totally censored.

Prefers safe or soft content that is non-

ideological over hard or controversial content.

Hence lots of sports, leisure lifestyles, local

news, tabloid, etc.

–Relegates politics and (controversial)

editorializing to the back page(s).

Tries to present relatively balanced

coverage in order not to offend different

constituencies.

ADVERTISING AND NEWS

Advertising exerts pressure on the news

media to:

–Avoid upsetting the sponsors, who are

typically major capitalist corporations.

–Use safe stories that won’t rock the boat.

–Present a world view consistent with that of

the advertisers.

Utilize subtle reassurance messages that the

status quo is just and orderly.

Self-censorship – no direct criticism of capitalism

is expected.

The news beat is biased toward the powerful –

especially capitalists – at the expense of balance.

POLITICAL INFLUENCE ON MEDIA Croteau and Hoynes, Chapter 3

The state is part of a system of news production

The state is a key part of the process by which the

very idea of ‘information’ is constructed.

The state establishes the forms of communication

that operate within its territorial borders and

regulate the content of those systems

At one level, the state is responsible for

creating the market value of knowledge. E.g.

copyright laws construct a regime of rights

around certain forms of knowledge or

expression.

The laws of libel can be viewed in a similar.

The ostensible purpose of these laws is to mark

out areas which are protected from journalistic

intrusion.

COPYRIGHT AND LIBEL LAWS

These laws like many other laws help to construct

the resources with which the mass media deal.

The state, in this sense, constitutes the raw

material which the mass media the process. But

the state does more than produce the crude oil of

publication, it also help to create the refinery.

All forms of mass communication exist within the

framework of law, regulations and rights.

MEDIA REGULATION DEBATES

Debates regarding media regulation

reflect competing interests.

The media industry promotes its interests

through a well-organized and powerful

political arm that—along with individual

media corporations— finances political

candidates and lobbies elected officials.

It is safe to assume that such efforts are

aimed at promoting legislation in which the

industry has an interest and at derailing

efforts it deems threatening.

Politicians courting favourable media

coverage for re-election are likely to be

highly conscious of legislation that can

affect the media industry.

THE “PUBLIC INTEREST” AND THE REGULATION DEBATE

Supporters of some deregulation generally

assert that the “free-market” system is

adequate for accommodating the needs of

both media producers and media

consumers.

They argue that consumers have the ultimate

power to choose to tune into or buy media

products and that there is no need for government

interference in the form of media regulation.

The marketplace serves as a quasi democratic

forum in which consumers, not government

agencies, get to decide the fate of media.

In contrast to the deregulation approach,

support for media regulation is usually

based on a desired outcome.

The most common standard for assessing

this outcome is the “public interest.”

WHAT IS THE “PUBLIC INTEREST”?

Diversity: the range of views and

experiences present in society

Innovation and creativity in content and

medium

Substance: importance and depth of

coverage

Independence / decentralization

REGULATING MEDIA CONTENT AND DISTRIBUTION

While the regulation of the ownership and control

of media outlets, programming, and technology

raises basic questions about the relationship

between government and media, a different set of

issues is raised with respect to the regulation of

media content.

However, the basic dynamic of structure and

agency remains.

REGULATING FOR MORALITY

According to Dole (1995), “One of the greatest

threats to family values is the way our popular

culture ridicules them. Our music, movies,

television and advertising regularly push the

limits of decency, bombarding our children

with destructive messages of casual violence

and even more casual sex.”

RATINGS AND WARNINGS

One way content is regulated is by

industry self-regulation, rather than formal

government involvement.

The rating and warning systems devised

for different media fall into this category

OUTLAWING AND CONTROLLING DISTRIBUTION

The suggestion that stores should not sell recordings

with explicit lyrics to minors is an example of a more

active approach to regulating the media industry for its

moral content.

It is an approach most often associated with obscene

material. Obscene material is different from both

pornography, or sexually arousing material, and

indecent material, or material morally unfit for general

distribution or broadcast.

Pornography and indecent material are legal,

although the government may regulate their

broadcast or distribution.

The government outlaws only obscene

material. (The major exception is that the

government also outlaws sexually explicit

materials involving children, regardless of

whether it judges such material to be obscene.)

THE CASE OF PORNOGRAPHY

Pornography is defined as display of

explicit, sexual nudity or activity, where

the display is the end in itself rather than a

means to a different end.

Some commentators argue that

‘pornography incites and causes sexual

violence.

The UN Committee on the Elimination of all

forms of Discrimination Against Women has

argued that ‘pornography and the depiction

and commercial exploitation of women as

sexual objects contribute to gender-based

violence’.

In certain circumstances, there are grounds to

believe that the production of pornography

causes harm when the pornographic material

depicts a criminal act.

There is a very broad consensus that the main

objective of the laws regulating pornography

should aim at protecting members of public

from nuisance of offensive material in places to

which normal life happens to take them.

THE ISSUE OF VIOLENCE

Violence in the media is another area of

content regulation that has received a great

deal of attention

Violence on television is usually at the center

of this debate because it is so accessible to

children.

An enormous amount of research studies has

been done on the effects of media violence.

Some researchers contend that for some

children, violent programming can lead to

more violent behaviour (aggressor effect),

increased fearfulness about violence

(victim effect), or increased callousness

about violence directed at others

(bystander effect).

Although various studies showed different

degrees of influence, there is “a positive and

significant correlation between television

violence and aggressive behaviour.”

Producers of violent media products often

argue that they are merely reflecting the

violence that already exists in society.

However, polls repeatedly show that most

people believe violence in the mass media

contributes to violence in society.

As a result, there has been fairly

widespread popular support for the

regulation of violent programming,

especially on television.

REGULATING FOR ACCURACY: ADVERTISING

Another area of content regulation worth

noting is regulation that affects advertising.

A number of different agencies regulate

the advertising industry because of its

broad and varied commercial dimensions,

which encompass all forms of mass

communication.

The collection of regulatory agencies addresses

two basic concerns.

First, the agencies protect the public against

fraudulent or deceptive advertising.

The second major area in which government

regulations affect advertising involves ads featuring

potentially dangerous products, especially when

the ads are targeted at children and minors.

Thus, the government regulates

advertising for products such as alcohol

and tobacco. Cigarettes, for example,

cannot be advertised on television.

REGULATING IN THE “NATIONAL INTEREST”: MEDIA AND THE MILITARY

The relationship between the news media and the

military has been an evolving one.

The natural tension which exist between an

institution which depends on the secrecy of plans

and operations designed to protect the country from

foreign enemies and another which is given special

constitutional protection in order to be free to call

attention

to tyranny and which endeavours to

expose all manners of operations

engaged in by any arm of government

is most intense during times of conflict.

The are uncontroversial example

where press freedom causes a clear

and present danger to national security.

Revelations about military secrets and counter-

intelligence work could directly endanger lives and

would be irrecoverable after disclosure.

The right to freedom of expression/ press may,

therefore, legitimately be limited to allow prior

restraint on the ground of ‘national security’

CONSTITUTIONAL GUARANTEE OF FREEDOM OF EXPRESSION IN SOUTH AFRICA (SECTION 16)

The law state that: Everyone has the right to

freedom of expression, which includes-

(a) freedom of the press and other media;

(b)freedom to receive or impart information or ideas;

(c) freedom of artistic creativity; and

(d) academic freedom and freedom of scientific

research.

LIMITATION OF FREEDOM OF EXPRESSION

The right in subsection (1) does not extend

to-

(a) propaganda for war;

(b) incitement of imminent violence; or

(c) advocacy of hatred that is based on race,

ethnicity, gender or religion, and that

constitutes incitement to cause harm.

MEDIA REPRESENTATION OF THE SOCIAL WORLD

PART THREE: CONTENT

THE NEWS MEDIA AND JOURNALISTIC FIELDCroteau and Hoynes, Chapter 4

In this part we explore how professionals create

media products, the ways in which media work

is organized, the norms and practices of several

media professions, the social and personal

networks that media professionals cultivate, and

the ways the organizational structure of media

outlets shape the methods of media work.

THE LIMITS OF ECONOMIC AND POLITICAL CONSTRAINTS

Economic and political forces can be powerful

constraints.

Media personnel actively respond to these

constraints when making decisions, often

limiting their impact.

WORKING WITHIN ECONOMIC CONSTRAINTS

Economic forces identify the goals and shape the

terrain of the decision-making process, but human

actors must assess both program and audience in

their effort to deliver the “correct” product.

They adopt certain rules or conventions to

smooth out and routinize the decision-making

process.

RESPONDING TO POLITICAL CONSTRAINTS

Political forces, particularly government regulations,

also play a significant role in shaping the

environment within which media organizations

operate.

Sometimes media organizations comply with

government regulations, but sometimes the media

preempt, ignore, reinterpret, or challenge

regulations.

Compliance is the easiest strategy for media

organizations because it avoids conflict with

regulators, thereby enabling them to shape the

actions of media organizations.

A second strategy used by the media in dealing

with government regulation is preemption.

Media industries can preempt external regulation

by engaging in a public form of self-regulation.

A third often-used strategy is rooted in the fact

that government regulations are almost always

subject to interpretation, giving media

organizations the power to read regulations in

ways that match their broader agendas.

Fourth, media industries can simply ignore

regulations. Passing laws is one thing, but

enforcing regulations is another.

Finally, media organizations can challenge

regulations to try to alter them or rescind them

altogether. Media organizations can adopt legal

strategies, challenging the constitutionality of

specific regulations, or they can use political

strategies, lobbying potentially supportive

politicians and threatening opponents in an

effort to win new legislation more to the liking

of the industry.

THE ORGANIZATION OF MEDIA WORK

In a classic study, sociologist Howard Becker

(1982) observes that “producing art requires

elaborate cooperation among specialized

personnel”.

Some researchers have argued that the

behaviour of media personnel is shaped by

the “needs” of an organization (Epstein 1973).

In other words, maintaining the existence

of the organization points different

individuals within that organization in the

same direction.

NEWS ROUTINES AND THEIR CONSEQUENCES

News is information about recent important events.

The processes of news gathering and news

reporting is rationalized because news

organizations cannot start afresh each day.

In other words, news organizations must be able to

anticipate where news will happen—before it

happens—and structure their reporters’

assignments accordingly.

Within news organizations, reporters

follow routines that tell them where to look

for news and how to gather it efficiently.

WHAT ARE THESE JOURNALISTIC ROUTINES?

News outlets cannot report on all the

things that happen; only some

“happenings” are defined as important

enough to be news.

Tuchman (1978) adopts the metaphor

of the “news net” to explain the

standard practice for gathering news.

News organizations cast a ”net”— made up

of wire services, full-time reporters, and

stringers— to catch newsworthy happenings.

The “net”, however, does not catch

everything; like all nets, it is full of holes and

catches only the “big fish.”

The netlike nature of news gathering serves as

an initial filter, sorting out those happenings

that do not meet the standard criteria for news.

The organization of news gathering shows

which criteria determine how the news net is

constructed.

Newspapers will have staff or bureaus in places

they define as important.

News organizations also establish “beats” at

prominent organizations where news can be

expected to occur.

In practice, this means that a series of

official locations —police stations, court-

houses, city halls, state houses, Parliament—

become sites where reporters are stationed.

The news we get needs to be understood as the end

result of these professional routines, which generally

focus on the activities of legitimate, bureaucratic

institutions.

Finally, areas such as sports, business, and the arts

are topical beats that are expected to produce news

each day, so reporters establish relationships with

key players in these areas to guarantee a regular

supply of news.

THE ROLE OF NEWS WIRE SERVICES

A news agency is a news organization

designed to supply news reports to other

media outlets that subscribe to its services.

News agencies can be considered the

backbone of modern journalism.

They scout and produce the news that we read

daily in newspapers and watch on television.

They are the fundamental source of

reporting on national and international news

for the large majority of local and regional

media outlets, which largely reproduce or

rebroadcast news agency products.

As a result, news agencies have a significant

impact on the selection of what constitutes

relevant news.

But like all newsgathering organizations,

news agencies themselves follow

standardized news routines, and staff-

recognized beats that ensure they produce

sufficient material to supply to subscribing

news outlets.

SELECTING FRONT-PAGE STORIES

Selecting news for the front page is shaped

by economic constraints and the

organization of news gathering.

Front-page assessments are not haphazard

but are governed by norms that routinize

potentially conflict-ridden daily decision.

One way to identify these norms is to list

the specific criteria that make a story front-

page material, such as timeliness, impact,

geographic or social proximity, the

prominence.

THE CONCEPT OF OBJECTIVITY

The belief in objectivity is a faith in ‘facts,’

a distrust of ‘values,’ and a commitment to

their segregation.

Objectivity can be seen as a set of

practices or conventions that the

professional journalist is trained to follow.

WHAT PRACTICES MAKE UP THIS METHOD?

(1)maintaining political neutrality;

(2) observing prevailing standards of decency and

good taste;

(3) using documentary reporting practices, which rely

on physical evidence;

(4) using standardized formats to package the news;

(5) training reporters as generalists instead of

specialists; and

(6) using editorial review to enforce these methods.

OBJECTIVITY AS ROUTINE PRACTICES

News accounts have a tendency to look similar

because all reporters follow the same basic

routines.

They talk to the same people, use the same

formats, observe the same basic dos and

don’ts, and watch one another closely to make

sure that they are not out of step with the rest

of the profession.

THE POLITICAL CONSEQUENCES OF OBJECTIVITY

News-gathering structure includes certain

happenings as news and excludes others.

In particular, things that happen in and around

established institutions, especially official agencies,

are defined as news.

Happenings outside of these boundaries are likely

never to be detected by professional journalists.

News, therefore, is the product of a social

process through which media personnel

make decisions about what is newsworthy

and what is not, about who is important and

who is not, about what views are to be

included and what views can be dismissed.

None of these decisions can be entirely

objective.

The ideal of objectivity—separating values from

facts— is ultimately unobtainable.

The reliance on “appropriate,” available, and

preferably authoritative sources means journalists

mostly talk to government and corporate officials

and end up reproducing their view of the world.

Thus, “objective” journalism, by highlighting the

views and activities of officials, can be seen on

balance to favour those in power.

MEDIA AND IDEOLOGYCroteau and Hoynes, Chapter 5:

What Is Ideology?

“Ideology,” means the belief systems that

help justify the actions of those in power

by distorting and misrepresenting reality.

Ideology is related to concepts such as

worldview, belief system, and values.

IDEOLOGY

There are numerous ideologies used to explain

and justify specific social relationships: sexism,

feminism, racism, egalitarianism, capitalism,

communism, individualism, collectivism,

classism, etc.

Ideologies are inherently political. They justify

how power should be allocated and which

groups, if any, deserve more power than others.

DOMINANT IDEOLOGY

Within any society, some ideologies will be

more widespread or dominant than others.

The dominant ideologies are those that are

most accepted and visible in mainstream

society.

Dominant ideology stems mainly from elites.

They have the most power to spread their world

views and to censor alternative or competing

ideologies.

Dominant ideology tends to be taken for granted

by members of society as the “normal” way to view

people.

Dominant ideology is rarely challenged. It tends to

be accepted as Truth.

MEDIA AND DOMINANT IDEOLOGY

Most corporate media producers argue that their images

are merely reflections of our society, and that they are

not purveyors of an ideology.

This argument is inaccurate. By selecting some images

and ideologies over others, they cannot help but promote

specific world views at the expense of others.

The media are at the center of modern culture wars over

how various categories of people should be portrayed.

THEORETICAL ROOTS OF IDEOLOGICAL ANALYSIS

The major strain of research within this critical

perspective may be loosely termed a Marxist

tradition, which regards society as rooted in

conflict along class lines between dominant

and subordinate groups.

The major effect of the media is considered

ideological.

The point of departure from the pluralist

view is the following famous quote from

Marx: “the ideas of the ruling class are in

every epoch the ruling ideas: i.e., the

class which is the ruling material force in

society is at the same time its ruling

intellectual force”.

The class which has the means of material

production at its disposal has control at the same

time over the means of mental production, so that

thereby, generally speaking, the ideas of those who

lack the means of mental production are subject to it.

"The role of the media here is that of legitimation

through the production of false consciousness, in the

interests of the class which owns and controls the

media"

NEWS MEDIA AND THE LIMITS OF DEBATE

The news media produce ideological visions of the

nation and the world.

The news focuses on powerful people and

institutions and generally reflects established

interests.

The news supports the social order of public,

business and professional, upper-middle-class,

middle-aged, and white male sectors of society.

The news pays most attention to and upholds

the actions of elite individuals and elite

institutions. With its focus on elites, news

presents images of the world that are

significantly lacking in diversity.

The “insider” nature of political news means

that a small group of analysts are regular

commentators and news sources.

The “debates” we see in the news, therefore, are

often between insiders who share a common

commitment to traditional politics, to the exclusion

of those outside the constructed consensus.

The result is that contrasting perspectives in the

news frequently represent the differences—

generally quite narrow—between establishment

insiders.

This approach to the news does little to inform

the public of positions outside this limited range

of opinion.

More important, it implicitly denies that other

positions should be taken seriously.

Ultimately, one principal way the news is

ideological is in drawing boundaries between

what is acceptable—the conventional ideas of

insiders—and what is not.

ECONOMIC NEWS AS IDEOLOGICAL CONSTRUCT

The capitalist media rarely portray corporate

takeovers and mergers as a “social problem.”

Instead, they often let the corporate

executives define the meaning of their own

behavior.

–The executive will typically call it healthy

progress, despite the fact that it is harmful to

competition, consumers, and workers.

Similarly a workers strike is often portrayed

through the lens of the corporate executive more

than the strikers. The striker is often branded a

trouble maker.

MOVIES, THE MILITARY, AND MASCULINITY

Two film genres, action-adventure and military/war films

are worth exploring for their underlying ideological

orientation because of their popularity.

With action-adventure movies such as Raiders of the

Lost Ark and Romancing the Stone and military movies

such as Rambo and Top Gun attracting large audiences—

and inspiring sequels and seemingly endless imitators—

scholars have used an ideological framework to

understand the underlying messages in these films.

ACTION-ADVENTURE FILMS

These are stories about good and evil – heroes

and villains.

One underlying theme of the action-adventure

genre is the drawing of rigid lines between “us”

and “them,” with the villain representing the

dangers of difference.

–The hero typically represents the forces of

civility and goodness, while the bad guy

represents uncivilized, debased society.

Ultimately the hero kills or domesticates the

bad guy, restoring security.

VIETNAM FILMS

In essence, these films provide a mass-mediated

refighting of the war, in which Americans are both the

good guys and the victors.

The films serve as a kind of redemption for a country

unable to accept defeat in Vietnam and still struggling

with the shame of loss.

In these stories, there is no longer shame or defeat but

instead pride, triumph, and a reaffirmation of national

strength.

The masculine/military films of the time both

reflected the fears and desires of American men

and helped reproduce a new brand of toughness.

The films were part of a political culture that

created the conditions for the popular 1989

invasion of Panama and the even more popular

1991 war in the Persian Gulf.

TELEVISION, POPULARITY, AND IDEOLOGY

TV is central to our mass mediated culture.

TV mediates reality in seemingly realistic images,

but they are not that realistic.

–Because most TV seems real, the viewer routinely

suspends disbelief.

The ideological work of TV lies in the ways it

defines normalcy.

–Portrayals of sex, race, class, age, etc generally

reinforce dominant ideologies

TV producers have adopted the strategy of

“least objectionable programming.”

–Programs are intended to avoid controversy

and remain politically bland in order to please

sponsors and gain the widest array of viewers.

–The result has been an emphasis on

stereotypes (i.e. simplistic generalizations about

different categories of people).

–They tend to emerge from dominant groups to

affirm dominant ideology. The dominant ideology

reassures people that the system works.

–They are not true, but are believed because they

are taken for granted as “common knowledge.”

–TV ideology is mostly determined by the strategy

of using conventional images, dominant ideologies,

and stereotypes as the backdrop to most programs.

-Television ideology is mostly determined by

the strategy of using conventional images,

dominant ideologies, and stereotypes as the

backdrop to most programs.

–Hence, television “normalcy” is

disproportionately White, Male, Upper middle

class (affluent), Relatively young, Trim and fit,

Eurocentric definition of beauty

This approach is, itself, ideological; blandness

favours certain images and stories and pushes

others to the margins or off the air entirely.

In striving for popularity, the television producers

have often adopted the strategy of “least

objectionable programming,” whereby programs

are intended to avoid controversy and remain

politically bland.

RAP MUSIC AS IDEOLOGICAL CRITIQUE?

According to Tricia Rose, rap music should be

understood as a mass mediated criticism of the

dominant ideology of racism within the power

structure.

Rap criticizes traditional institutions like the police,

the justice system, education and the job system

because these systems are seen as oppressive to

blacks and the goal of equality.

Rose argues that much rap music rejects

dominant ideological assumptions.

–Rap affirms the experiences of inner city black

youth while criticizing the social institutions that

contribute to their ghettoization.

–Rap music has been empowering to black youth by

providing them a way to express themselves and

their critical ideologies.

Yet at the same time, rap is full of ideological

contradictions. While some rap challenges

racism, the lyrics and imagery are often

misogynistic, depicting women in degrading

ways.

Thus rap music may challenge some oppressive

dominant ideologies (racism) while affirming

other oppressive dominant ideologies (sexism).

ADVERTISING AND CONSUMER CULTURE

What kinds of stories do advertisements tell

about ourselves and our society? Certainly, on

one level, ads are specific to their product or

service. They tell us that

1.if we drink a particular brand of beer, we will

meet attractive women;

2.if we wear the right makeup, we will meet

handsome men;

3. if we purchase a certain automobile, we will gain

prestige;

4. if we use specific cleansers, we will save time; and

5. if we wear certain clothes, we will find adventure.

6. Ads may also tell us that a particular item will save

us money, that a specific service will make us

healthier, or that a new product will make a great

gift for a loved one.

Despite the diversity of advertising messages and

their frequent use of irony and humour, there is an

underlying commonality to almost alladvertisements:

They are fundamentally about selling.

They address their audiences as consumers and

celebrate and take for granted the consumer

capitalist organization of society.

This perspective is, of course, decidedly ideological.

Ads tell us that happiness and satisfaction can be

purchased, that each of us is first and foremost an

individual consumption unit, and that market

relations of buying and selling are the appropriate—

perhaps the only—form of social relations outside

the intimacy of the family.

Our culture of consumption, then, is intimately

connected to advertising, which helped create it

and continues, in new forms, to sustain

consumerism as a central part of contemporary

ideology.

WOMEN’S MAGAZINES AS ADVERTISEMENTS

The “women’s magazine” is one medium that is

particularly advertising oriented and consistently

promotes the ideology of consumerism.

The magazines promote the consumer lifestyle

by showing how beauty, sexuality, career

success, culinary skill, and social status can be

bought in the consumer marketplace.

Social problems, from the standpoint of

consumer ideology, are redefined as

personal problems that can be solved by

purchasing the appropriate product.

In addressing a specific social group,

women’s magazines, identify women as a

consumption category with special product

needs.

Women’s magazines use both direct and

covert advertising to sell magazines and

promote an ideology that celebrates the

consumption of gender-specific products as a

means to identity formation and personal

satisfaction

ADVERTISING AND THE GLOBALIZATION OF CULTURE

The dreams that advertisements sell within the

United States are also exported all around the

globe.

The images on global display, like much

domestic advertising, are about dreams. America

is portrayed as a kind of dreamland where

individuals can fulfil (or buy?) their desires.

The images of the dreamland do not require a rigid

uniformity, because central to the ideology on display

are the notions of individuality and freedom, which

merge into the concept of consumer choice.

The world portrayed in television programs such as

MTV displays images of attractive people living

comfortable lives surrounded by contemporary

consumer goods.

Both advertisements and entertainment media

promote a commitment to the latest styles—for

example, in clothes, cars, leisure activities, and

food— that requires continuous consumption to

keep up with stylistic changes.

The focus on style is directed particularly at

youth, who are increasingly the most coveted

market and who are particularly avid media

users.

The international advertising, television,

and music scenes have helped generate an

emerging cross-national, global youth

culture in which teens in different countries

adopt similar styles in clothes and

appearance; consume the same soda,

cigarettes, and fast food; and listen to and

play the same kind of music.

The international teen market may cross

national boundaries, but, with the help of

American media products, youth style is

based to a great degree on American

images and consumer goods.

MEDIA IMAGES AND THE SOCIAL CONSTRUCTION OF REALITY

Croteau and Hoynes, Chapter 6

The mainstream media do not reflect the

social diversity that characterizes our

society.

To a certain extent, the mainstream media

present images that are consistent with

stereotypes and the dominant

ideological portrayal of society.

This is at the cost of women, people of color, the

poor, and others who have been historically

marginalized in our society.

It is unrealistic to expect the media to accurately

mirror the real world, because the media can only

feature representations of that world, and these

images involve at least some filtering.

But there is great significance in how the media

portray the world, because these portrayals

influence our perceptions of the real world.

THE SIGNIFICANCE OF CONTENT

1. As a reflection of media producers and

their ideologies.

2. As a reflection of audience preferences

and desires.

3. As a reflection of society in general,

including social norms, beliefs and values.

4. The way media content influences

audiences and our society.

5. Content as self-enclosed text whose

meaning is to be de-coded on its own terms,

independent of society and audiences.

RACE AND MEDIA CONTENT

Race is a socially constructed category

whose meaning varies across time. There

is no biologically valid difference in the

genetic makeup of different “races.”

–Nevertheless, perceived racial

distinctions have powerful social meaning

with profound real-world consequences.

Historically, the media have taken “whites” to

be the norm against which all other racial

categories are compared.“White” is normalcy.

For example, we speak of “the black

community” when referring to blacks, but we do

not say “the white community” when referring

to whites.

–Using terms like “the black community” or “the

black man” signifies race as an important trait to

notice – it is a racial signifier.

–Racial and gender signifiers are common in

the media, and highlight how we call attention to

our differences, thus providing covert fuel for racism

and sexism.

Historically when racial minorities have been

portrayed in the media they have been

stereotyped into such roles as the Black

mammy, the Black coon, etc

–These stereotypes are the product of whites

and their dominant ideology of white racism.

–They bear little resemblance to the real world.

HISTORICAL FORMS OF RACISM

Historically, society has gone through several

phases of racist ideology.

1640-1865: The capitalist version of

slavery (extremely harsh) brought intense

versions of paternalistic racism to justify

the complete colonization and de-

humanization of blacks.

Paternalistic racists viewed blacks as

simple minded, lazy, ugly, happy servants

who were perhaps even likeable (as long as

they were obedient and knew their place).

In this view, slaves “needed” to be put to

work in order to be productive, but could

only do menial work.

1865-1920s: violent racism emerged, especially

in the South, to contain newly freed black slaves

who now “threatened” whites (especially poor

whites) with competition for jobs, land, women,

and other resources.

Violent racists stereotyped blacks as ugly,

angry, beastlike savages who were out of control.

This view portrayed young black males as

instinctually inclined toward rape and other savage

behaviors.

GENDER AND MEDIA CONTENT

The media’s history of portraying women parallels

its history of portraying racial minorities.

Women have typically been stereotyped as

submissive, passive, overly emotional, nurturing,

and dependent.

Conversely men have been stereotyped as

dominant, active, rational, aggressive, and

independent.

These depictions are consistent with the dominant

ideology of sexism, which supports the social

system known as patriarchy.

The media has historically depicted women in a

narrow range of social roles: love interest,

housewife, mother, virgin, and whore.

Capitalists have exploited sexual themes to

emphasize the image of young women as sex

objects.

Today if a woman is applying for a TV role, the

single most important consideration, given the

capitalist media obsession with sex and violence

formulas, is her physical appearance.

SOCIAL CLASS AND MEDIA

Most advertisers (sponsors) aim for the middle class

consumer, ignoring the poor and working class.

–They want to reach people with spending money.

Consequently they push the idea that media

content emphasize the middle or upper middle class

lifestyle as “normalcy.”

Result: the poor and working class are largely

ignored by the capitalist media.

When the poor and working class are found in

the media, they are typically stereotyped in

negative ways.

–It is important to remember that media

producers and owners rarely come from the poor

and working classes. They tend to subscribe to

mainstream stereotypes about the lower and

working classes, just as other do.

Thus when they depict them, they portray them as

less civilized, uglier, somewhat incompetent,

and dumber than average.

The commercial media generally favours' classist

ideology, because they favour consumers over non-

consumers.

MEDIA INFLUENCE AND THE POLITICAL WORLD.

PART FOUR

AUDIENCE: MEANING AND INFLUENCE

MEDIA INFLUENCE AND POLITICAL WORLDCroteau and Hoynes, Chapter 7

The media system is presumably animated by

certain democratic principles. These principles

can be summarized into three basic

relationship:

media and government; the proposition that,

acting on behalf of the citizenry, the media

should monitor the full range of state activity,

and fearlessly expose abuses of official

authority.

media and diverse opinion sources; the

proposition that the press should provide a

robust, uninhibited, and wide-open marketplace

of ideas, in which opposing views may meet,

contend, and take each other’s measure.

media and the public at large; the propositions

that the press should serve the public’s right to

know and offer options for meaningful political

choices and nourishment for effective

participation in civic affairs.

MEDIA AND POLITICS

The media have fundamentally changed the way we

view politics.

Today politicians rely on the commercial mass

media to get the word out.

Given the capitalist nature of the commercial media,

politicians must garner massive amounts of money

to purchase media space.

–Much of this money comes from Big Media and

other large corporations, who expect “special

favours” in exchange for these “donations.”

Aside from incumbency, one of the best

predictors of which politician will get

elected involves which candidate raises the

most money to spend on media ads.

The media also play an indirect role in

influencing politics.

The news media, for example, helps set

the agenda of modern debates and issues.

MEDIA AND POLITICAL ELITES

The most profound and direct influence of the

commercial media on politics involves which

politicians are covered by the mainstream media.

–The commercial media selects which politicians to

cover – and which to ignore.

–Those politicians most likely to get media attention

are the insiders – those already in power – and

those with the most money to purchase commercial

time.

In both cases the direction of media

favoritism is toward the political elites –

who are almost all wealthy and supportive

of the status quo.

MEDIA AND INDIVIDUAL CITIZENS

Citizens in any democracy require adequate information

to make informed decisions. There are four theoretical

models of media influence:

1. The Hypodermic Model.

2. Limited Effects or the Social Influence Model

(1940s to 1960s)

3. Agenda setting model.

4. Priming Model

5. Framing Model

THE HYPODERMIC EFFECT

The press is a powerful force in

shaping public opinion.

Messages were conceived as being

‘injected’ into the mind where they

changed feelings and attitudes.

THE SOCIAL INFLUENCE MODEL

The period of strong advances in the psychological

studies. In this period the foundations of the media

effect were established.

Surprisingly, the general conclusion was that the

media don’t have as strong effect as it was thought

before.

The media don’t have a direct impact, but are filtered

by the community, by the opinion leaders.

AGENDA SETTING HYPOTHESIS

This model argues that the media, while not so

successful in telling people exactly what to think,

are successful in telling people what to think

about (Cohen 1963).

The media set the agenda for discussion of

public issues and debates by directing people’s

attention to some issues while censoring other

issues

By seeing certain subjects more often we are

becoming convinced that they are important.

Further, we evaluate other news in terms of

what is important

PRIMING EFFECTS

The ability of the media to affect which issues or

traits individuals use to evaluate political figures.

Individuals base their vote choice more on

issues covered by the media than on issues not

covered by the media

The media's content will provide a lot of time

and space to certain issues, making these issues

more accessible and vivid in the public's mind

FRAMING EFFECTS

Framing effects result from the media’s

description of an event or issue that emphasizes

potentially relevant considera-tions to help

individuals make sense of the issue (e.g.,

suggesting causes)

Individuals view policy issues consistent with

how they are portrayed by the media

POLITICS AND ENTERTAINMENT MEDIA

The commercial media tend to emphasize

form over substance in their political

coverage.

This is partly due to the nature of

television itself, with its emphasis on the

image.

In effect, the commercial media have chosen to

censor substantive issues of national importance

in order to provide more escapist entertainment

for the masses – and in order to maximize

corporate profits.

It is the entertainment value rather than the

substantive value that matters most to media

corporations.

This blurring of tabloid coverage with social

relevance reflects one of the contradictions of

the post-modern commercial media.

–The public becomes unable to separate fact

from fiction

–Today we live in a media culture saturated

with infomercials – where the line between

truth and fiction has been deliberately blurred.

As the mass media have become more

important in political campaigns, political party

organizations have become less important.

Parties used to rely on grass roots organization

– which pulled people into the political system.

Conclusion: Candidates rely mostly on TV ads

to “sell” their agenda, and the political system

has been greatly cheapened.

MEDIA AND SOCIAL MOVEMENTS

The civic media sector supports organisations that

are the life force of democratic democracy. These

are political parties, new social movements, interest

groups and sub- cultural networks that relay the

concerns of society and propose policy initiatives for

consideration by political system.

The civic media sector has three main segments:

The first consist of media (such as party

controlled newspapers) which provide a link

between civic organisations and wider public.

They are generally adversarial, and seek to

build support for a partisan understanding of

society and set of objectives.

The second segment consist of sub-cultural

media (such as gay or lesbian magazines)

which relate to a social constituency rather

than an organised group. These can have an

important ‘constitutive’ function; they can

promote a sense of social cohesion and

common identity, and clarify values and goal

through internal processes of discussion.

The third segment consists of intra-organisational

media (such as trades union journals) whose

purpose is to reinforce the loyalty of its members,

hold leadership to account, assist in the sharing of

relevant information and experience, and provide

a forum for developing new ideas and initiatives.

GLOBAL MEDIA AND GLOBAL POLITICS

The emergence of a global media has been

controversial. This is because some people

fear that the media products of the West will

become the dominant products of the rest of

the world, thus robbing the world of its

diversity.

Their concern involves the issue of cultural

imperialism: the imposition of a dominant

culture and its cultural forms upon a weaker

culture.

The basic argument is that Western media

products introduced to other nations,

especially developing nations, contribute to a

decline in the local values, traditions, and

cultures of these societies.

ACTIVE AUDIENCES AND THE CONSTRUCTION OF MEANINGCroteau and Hoynes, Chapter 8

While it is true that the media influence what we

think, it is not true that the media determine what

we think.

–Audiences are active interpreters.

Mass society theorists tend to argue that the

emergence of a mass society and the forces of

massification have led to mass indoctrination into

dominant ideologies and myths.

–These dominant ideologies serve the interests of

elites.

–This view downplays audiences’ ability to think for

themselves.

The idea of audiences as “active” interpreters rather

than “passive” receivers emerged out of several

forces:

1. Recent research.

2. Rising populism (“power to the people!”)

associated with the 1960s.

THREE BASIC WAYS IN WHICH AUDIENCES ARE ACTIVE:

1. Through individual interpretation of media products.

–Individuals have their own filters and perceptions linked to their

unique lives.

2. Through collective interpretation of media products.

–Membership in social categories influences how we collectively

see issues.

–Interpretations are socially constructed.

3. Through collective political action.

–Audiences make demands upon and give feedback to media

producers.

MEANINGS: AGENCY AND STRUCTURE

The notion of an active audience points to a central

insight:

–Media texts do not have a singular meaning. They have multiple

meanings, depending on who produces them and who interprets

them.

–Everyone uses filters to interpret meanings, so the same program

or song may mean different things to different people and

audiences.

Polysemy: having multiple meanings or interpretations.

–Media are polysemic.

WHERE DO MEANINGS COME FROM? THEY COME FROM A MIX OF AGENCY AND STRUCTURE.

1. Dominant ideology, core values, stereotypes,

language, and cultural myths provide mainstream

ways to interpret. We all learn and understand

these mainstream interpretations, which are

reinforced by the mainstream media. This is an

aspect of social structure.

2. Personal experience. (An aspect of agency).

3. Subcultural and social category memberships,

such as learned in family and among friends,

peer groups, subcultures, etc. This is an aspect

of both social structure and agency, because

these meanings are negotiated.

4. Authority and structural institutions like

school, church, government, media, etc.

SOCIAL STRUCTURE CONSTRAINS MEANINGS

Given the notion of (1) active audiences, and (2)

polysemy, does this mean that audiences are free

agents who can derive any meaning they want, or

that the meaning of texts is limited only by the

number of people reading the text?

John Fiske tends to push the envelope here, but

even he concedes that there are structural limits

to how people are likely to interpret a media text.

Social structure limits the ways we are likely to

interpret a media text.

The social landscape of daily life influences how we

interpret media messages.

Our personal filters are shaped by our social

identities. These social identities include age, race,

sex, social class and other social characteristics.

–People tend to interpret media messages in ways

that are consistent with their social locations in

society.

ONE’S SOCIAL LOCATION MATTERS

Social location refers to age, race, sex, social

class, and other matters of social status. It

matters because it helps shape our personal

interpretive filters.

The task, then, is to be aware of the ways in

which meanings are socially constructed – by

socially located audiences under specific social-

historical circumstances.

DOMINANT IDEOLOGY MEANINGS ARE EASY TO GRASP.

Some meanings are easier to grasp than others.

–The easier ones draw upon widely shared values,

stereotypes, and dominant ideologies – aspects of

society we are all exposed to.

Other meanings are harder to grasp because they

are not mainstream interpretations or they do NOT

draw upon dominant myths and ideologies.

Note: This helps explain why advertising is a

fundamentally conservative phenomenon. Ads must

draw upon wider meanings (like stereotypes) to be

successful in reaching mass audiences.

PLEASURE AND FANTASY

What explains why a woman might get

pleasure from a TV show that depicts

women as subservient to men?

One pleasure she might get is

hegemonic pleasure. This pleasure is

achieved if she believes in the patriarchal

order that is reinforced by the TV show.

Another possible pleasure she might get

involves fantasy. If the TV show is read as

fantasy, then she is likely to suspend its real-

world ideological implications.

In fantasy, we are permitted to imagine that

we are different and therefore we suspend

real-world judgments. Fantasy is intrinsically

fun because it liberates us from traditional real

world structures.