acquisition and manifestation of prejudice in children

Acquisition and Manifestation of Prejudice in Children

Clifford Carter C. Lynne Rice

Three major categories of prejudice have been identified in this article: Con- scious/Intentional, Conscious/Unintentional, and Unconscious/Uninten- tional. Prejudice plays a large role in the development of our children, and through exposure to and understanding of the development of prejudice, the strength that it holds can be understood and diminished.

Prejudice is both a rational and an irrational attitude. It is rational in the sense that it allows the person manifesting it to cover inadequacies by calling attention to another person or group. The targeted group is usually one that deviates from the criteria of appear- ance and behavior that the dominant group ranks as ideal. With these criteria, all other groups can be ranked by comparison with the dominant group. When the dominant group incorporates the devaluation of the lower ranking groups into religion, mass media, and the law, then that belief is viewed as morally correct. Therefore, anyone who deviates from the reference group is considered deserv- ing of maltreatment. In some cases, the proponent of prejudice even seems brave when reinforced by other groups who display similar behavior. Prejudice is also irrational because it is a conclusion about an entire group or race based only on observations of individuals within that group. The result of this generalization is an attitude of hostility for an individual, a group, sex, or race that results in different treatment based on other than individual merit. Allport (1979) defined prejudice as the following:

An antipathy based upon a faulty and inflexible generalization. It may be felt or expressed. It may be directed toward a group as a whole, or toward

Clword Carter is an associate professor and C. Lynne Rice is a graduate student, both in the Department of Counseling and Psychological Services in the College of Education at Georgia State University, At lanta Correspondence regardtng this article should be sent to Cltflord Carter, Georgia State University, Department of Coun- seling and Psychological Services, College of Education, CPS Dept., University Plaza, At lanta GA 30303-3083.

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an individual because he is a member of that group. The net effect of prejudice is to place the object of prejudice at some disadvantage not merited by his own misconduct. (p. 9)

Prejudice plays a role in developing children's self-concept or esteem, their socialization with peers, and ultimately their confidence to perform and succeed in the classroom. Children learn in their homes about animosity toward another group.

Richard Rogers and Oscar Hammerstein's (1949) poignant lyric sum- marizes this learning concept:

You've got to be taught to hate and fear You've got to be taught from year to year It's got to be drummed in your dear little ear You've got to be carefully taught You've got to be taught to be afraid Of people whose eyes are oddly made And people whose skin is a different shade You've got to be carefully taught You've got to be taught before it's too late Before you are six or seven or eight To hate all the people your relatives hate You've got to be carefully taught.

Young children assimilate the behaviors and attitudes of their environment. They mimic what they hear and see without understanding the implications to please the parent, guardian, or teacher whom they view as the provider of security and nourishment. Prejudice has its origins in the individual's group identity. As early

as 5 years of age, a child begins to understand that he or she be- longs to a particular group and by the age of 10 can distinguish differences between groups (Allport. 1979). The in-group's (group setting the criteria the culture ranks as ideal) views serve as a reference by which the out-group (group that deviates from the norm established by the in-group) is judged. Deaux and Wrightsman ( 1988) defined ethnocentrism as the rating of all others by comparison with their own group. Prejudice occurs when the in-group excludes others from the group process (Sherman. 1990). We have identified three major categories of prejudice (1995): Con-

scious/Zntentimud Conscious/Unintentional, and Unconscious/Uninten- tional. The first type, Conscious/Intentional prejudice, is manifested as a blatant antipathy for a group of individuals. Persons with this type of prejudice are aware of the hatred they have for a particular group and express these beliefs to perpetuate the hate, feel supe- rior, find a scapegoat, or humiliate others they have targeted as inferior. By drawing attention to another person or group they can cover up their own inadequacies.

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Conscious/Intentional prejudice is rooted in feelings or affect. Fear, hatred, and feelings of inadequacy serve as motivators. The affect that exacerbates the expression of Conscious/Intentional prejudice can only be sustained by playing on the fears of others. This occurs by exaggerating the negative qualities or the generalizability of those qualities to evoke fear of the unknown. Conscious/Unintentional prejudice, on the other hand, is likely

to be expressed only in socially acceptable venues. Those in this group are in an unresolved state with their belief system and are confused. These individuals have distanced themselves from re- acting predominantly on affect and realize cognitively that prejudice is harmful and unjustified. However, they resort to expressions of prejudice when the targeted group is too close for comfort. The reason this occurs is because on a cognitive level the individual gives some validity to the stereotypes that reinforce prejudice. Unconscious/Unintentional prejudice is the proverbial 'slip-up." Per-

sons in this category are unaware of their prejudiced beliefs and deny these feelings if questioned. They do not intend to hurt or to label with their comments but may, without being aware of it, express a concept or statement that perpetuates prejudicial beliefs. The slip-ups may be more deeply rooted in repressed prejudicial statements or beliefs. Without consciously intending to say these things, an individual may let them surface in his or her speech when least expected.

Children who are exposed to Conscious/Intentional prejudice will continue to repeat the negative verbal expressions and behaviors as long as they are positively reinforced with either attention or praise. Perhaps more important than words are the actions of the role models toward individuals outside of their familial group. To be accepted, a child will imitate the behaviors that he or she sees accepted. By acting as the adults act, children receive a positive reaction from adults for the perceived compliment of imitation of conduct. Without understanding the results of their derogatory actions toward others, children will do that which follows the path of least resistance and brings maximal praise. From this perspective, prejudice is reinforced in the child's environment. Even in politically correct families in which adults, who practice

Conscious/Unintentional prejudice, would never say anything negative or stereotypical of a person of another ethnicity, sex, sexual preference, religion, or capability, a child will pick up on any hidden messages. The parents who tell their child that all people are cre- ated equal is verbalizing a positive belief promoting harmony. How- ever, when that same child asks his parents if a friend, who is of a darker shade, can spend the night at his or her house, he or she

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receives a very different nonverbal message. The mixed message received is that 'those people" are all right to socialize with outside the home, but they should not be brought home. This message is confusing to the child, but trust has been placed in the perception and experience of the adults in his or her life. A child reasons that the parents must know what they are talking about, even if he or she cannot understand, because parents are "older and wiser." This reasoning is compounded by the ambiguity of the expression of racial prejudice in American society. Overt prejudice has become more subtle than in the past (Sherman, 1990). Conscious/Unintentional prejudice is particularly damaging to a young child who receives a reward-punishment message from parents. The child is rewarded for making friends with others from outside of the group but is pun- ished through rejection when he or she wants to bring this new friend home. So, the child learns not to embrace others fully because this acceptance brings punishment and unhappiness from the adults. The confusion felt by the child and the mixed messages he or she

receives are reflected in interactions with the outside world. There, one must decide to accept the message and continue to be reinforced at home or break from the prejudicial notions and develop a perception of others based on personal interactions and experiences. The child who has a base of beliefs from a prejudiced family life will act in accordance with these beliefs as he or she deals with others. If the majority of the people in the outside world feel and act as his or her family did, with prejudice toward those who are different, the child will do the same. If one has little contact during early childhood with outside groups, then erroneous beliefs will not be challenged. A defining moment in the development of prejudice is in the child's

first encounters with the targeted groups. Prejudice is often a feeling toward a person or group that may not be based on actual experience. Therefore, if the first experience reinforces the stereotype in the child's mind and he or she continues to have limited contact with the group, it is very likely that he or she will maintain these negative generalizations on the basis of interactions with only a few individuals. The child may actually be mentally prepared to view this initial encounter in a way that will fit with the negative stereotype regardless of the actual encounter. This stagnant thought process allows the child to eliminate contradictory information that will challenge his or her perception.

Prejudice affects both the bearer of the hostility and those it is directed toward. Allport (1954) deflned five stages in acting out prejudice. Assessing the expression of the following five forms of preju-

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dice can help school personnel understand the severity of racial conflict they observe.

1. Antilocution refers to racist literature or verbal assaults and may be the first overt symptom of prejudice.

2. Avoidance occurs when prejudice intensifies and individuals actively avoid contact with the disliked group. Esteem based on pride in the homogeny of the dominant group is strength- ened through group support when challenged.

3. Discrimination is the power held by the majority group. This person will exclude members of the targeted group from social privilege.

4. Physical attacks may occur. 5. Extermination is uncommon.

Physical attack and extermination are the ultimate expressions of prejudice. In today’s society many prefer to believe these extreme forms of prejudice are foreign and predominantly historical. Most individuals will never move past antilocution and thus believe that they are distanced from discrimination, physical attack, and extermination. However, as Allport (1954) would point out, participation in any stage makes escalation to the next stage easier. By condon- ing or ignoring antilocution as a benign expression, one plants the seeds for further prejudice. By contributing on even the lowest level of acting out prejudice, one is supporting the highest levels. If the child’s first encounters with the targeted group are positive or do not fit with preconceived notions, that individual child is confused. When one’s prejudiced beliefs are confronted with contrary religious teaching or education, an internal conflict arises. Allport (1954) acknowledged four ways people deal with such conflict:

1. Repression: One refuses to believe there is a contradiction in the way he or she thinks versus the out-group’s perspective.

2. Defense: One who uses defense will alter his or her experiences to justify faulty thinking.

3. Compromise: One compromises and uses the belief system that is the best option for his or her purposes.

4. Integration: One may decide to open thought patterns and experiences to true integration and practice respect for all groups.

School is a time for learning and socialization. However, for the child who is the target of prejudice, it can be a time filled with feelings of worthlessness and confusion. Children are vulnerable to criticism and are especially sensitive to the views of their peers. For


many children, school is the first environment in which they can explore the world with others their own age. One seeks to be in- cluded as part of the new group and is easily influenced by any sug- gestion that he or she is different or does not belong. For the targeted child, esteem can be greatly affected. Characteristics that seemed normal before are now seen in a devastating manner when exaggerated by the cruel teasing that one may experience as a result of being different. When the child is focusing on those qualities that he or she has come to feel are different or inferior, he or she is unable to focus on learning. In the child's mind, he or she is strug- gling with characteristics that have been singled out. The child reasons that if one or two children have pointed out this negative com- ponent he or she possesses, then everyone must be aware of the deficit. When bombarded with self-consciousness, it is not surpris- ing that many children cannot focus on the concept of learning. The impact of learning is minimal compared with the current rejection and pain. Children that feel different or rejected will want to fade into the background in the hope that they do not stand out and make themselves a target for attack. By withdrawing from being the focus of attention, the child chooses not to excel in a manner that will make others notice. Therefore, the child will fail to achieve full potential academically in an attempt to blend into the background. Teachers have.a tremendous role in determining the outcome. In- structors must be familiar with what prejudice means and how it is manifested in the classroom.

Semons (199 1) found that in one high school, "Negative comments about Asians were overheard in the presence of teachers, who did nothing to interrupt them. Students could therefore infer that prejudice against Asians was acceptable" (p. 147). The teacher who ignores or denies the problem will only serve to give quiet approval to the prejudiced behavior. The teachers may serve to preserve prejudice in the classroom by practicing Unconscious/ Unintentional prejudice. Benign comments that serve to reinforce stereotypes are frequently made. Most of the time, these comments are not intended to single out an individual or group but are said out of frustration or from ignorance of what constitutes prejudiced comments or behavior. The teacher who tells the energetic students to "stop acting like a bunch of wild Indians" may not intend to further a negative stereotype, however many children will absorb such comments as literal. Although negative stereotypes have some obvious implications,

teachers also need to be aware of the effect that positive stereotypes have on a child's development. Positive stereotypes are also a form of prejudice, because they are based on a faulty and inflexible gen-

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eralization of a particular group. "All boys can excel at sports." "All Asians are good at math: it is easy for them." These blanket statements serve to reinforce a child who does exhibit these qualities. However, a child who does not have these attributes will inevitably feel that he or she is not adequate. These expectations create unfair pressure on the developing child. Teachers serve as role models to students by manifesting accep-

tance through interactions with the children. The child that is taught all persons of the majority race are bigots or are "out to get them" experiences a break in the prejudice chain when he or she encounters a teacher of this race who embraces all children equally. In- structional programs can be implemented to include multicultural education, which fosters the appreciation and understanding of others. Many of these programs have their focus on (a) teaching multicultural understanding and (b) assisting minority students in maximizing academic potential. These goals are ideal, but one must be careful not to simply accelerate acculturation rather than teach respect and appreciation for cultural differences. Semons (1991) stated the following:

When culture is understood to mean one's system for perceiving, evaluat- ing, belleving, and acting, the impact of ethnicity on school performance becomes more evident. Research has indicated that the kind of interaction that a learner has with a school varies significantly by ethnic and cultural background. (p. 145)

Masking ethnic identity restricts learning opportunity through cul- turally linked learning styles and can result in negative self-esteem, which negatively affects learning (Semons, 199 1). Sensitiv- ity training for teachers and administrators is also effective in mini- mizing misinterpretation of comments. Research shows that minorities will interpret ambiguous behaviors as prejudice and that minorities and women show strong negative reactions to ethnic jokes and demeaning language (Triandis, Kurowski, Tecktiel. & Chan 1993) Training that promotes awareness of these behaviors can reduce negative reactions.

Cooperative teaching methods also have shown a positive effect on interethnic behavior and academic learning in school children (Rmney- Rebeck & Jason, 1986). Members of a cooperative learning group work toward a common goal and are more motivated to help all group members. Cooperative learning increases cross-race friendships equally for students of different sexes, races, and achievement levels (Singh, 1991).

If teachers and administrators are trained to demonstrate sensitiv- ity to the different ways other groups communicate and behave,

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they can convey that understanding to their pupils. How the teacher introduces the concept of acceptance and respect for others is important. When a teacher recognizes a prejudiced comment from a child, it should be second nature to demand that the child stop and apologize for such an insensitive remark. Many children, however, view rules as those things to be broken. Thus, the child who made the comment learns simply not to make the prejudiced comment in front of the teacher. One who enjoys the feeling of superiority associated with making comments that reflect Conscious/Intentional prejudice will also enjoy the power that is associated with breaking rules behind the teacher’s back. Now the targeted child is confronted out of the reach of disapproving adults. A long-term approach to reducing prejudice in the classroom is through modeling. In one example, classmates were teasing a child who spoke English as a second language. A caring teacher acknowledged how lucky this child was to speak not only one language, but two. The little boy was asked to teach the class a few words in his native language. This demonstration of respect for the child for being “positively different,” was emulated by his classmates. This is an important concept to remember in implementing change in our society-a concept that can be used positively or negatively (as in the case of Conscious/ Intentional prejudice). One of the most important components in reducing prejudice is

contact with other groups. Prejudice is rooted in generalization of experiences with individuals to the entire group. I t makes sense that the more exposure one has with members of that group, the less strength the stereotypes will hold. Allport (1954) described two types of interaction in his contact theory. Casual contact is superficial (e.g., briefly interacting). These contacts seem to increase prejudice. On the other hand, acquaintance lessens prejudice. When members of different groups are well acquainted with each other, attitudes improve. Contacts that result in knowledge and acquaintance are likely to produce more sound beliefs about the out-group and thus reduce prejudice. In addition, recent research shows that prejudice is present in children as young as 5 years old, but that it declines as a function of social-cognitive development by age 8 or 9. Decreases in prejudice were associated with the developmental perception that different races are more similar, that people of the same race are more different, and that racially different perspectives are acceptable (Doyle & Aboud. 1995). In the schools, programs can be developed that include contact

resulting in positive relationships. Ponterotto (199 1) believed it was important to have four precursors to promote these meaningful positive

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relationships: (a) all individuals must be given equal status, (b) contact should not be just superficial, (c) relationships revolve around a group goal, and (d) there should be some form of social norms associated with positive relationship development.

If generational prejudice is not stopped, it will continue to prosper with each generation. Prejudice does not originate with an individual, but rather through society and the family. Therefore, prejudice needs to be addressed in these settings. By intervening in the school system, school personnel can combat prejudice. Exposure to other groups of individuals challenges the prejudicial concepts by which many children are conditioned in their home environments. When a school- mate who is of a different color, ethnicity, religion, sex, or ability does not fit the preconceived notions in the young child’s mind, he or she is forced to process this information. If the school is simul- taneously promoting acceptance and understanding of other groups, the confusion is more easily explained. Education and positive role models can reduce prejudice. Prejudicial thoughts will not disap- pear quickly: however, interventions can weaken the strength they have. Children who are reinforced and accepted for their lack of prejudicial thought at school will be better able to deal with prejudicial thoughts at home. Perhaps children can turn the tables and teach their parents how

abhorrent prejudice is and what effect it has on others. Influencing parents to accept others is an ideal goal that is infrequently ful- filled. A scenario that can occur more often, however, is sibling in- fluence on other siblings. If the acceptance of others can be taught through words and actions to siblings, then the chain of prejudice can be weakened in the place it started. Allport (1954) reported that although prejudice may seem heredi- tary. “the course of transmission is one of teaching and learning, not heredity” (p. 291). Therefore, one reasons, the very same tools used to transmit prejudice can be used just as effectively to block its transmission. The difference is merely on the focus of the teaching and learning. Prejudice is learned and taught at home and in society at large, but the acceptance of these thoughts and behaviors is what reinforces the behavior. Lack of exposure to other groups and flxed stereotypes allow prejudice to thrive, but teaching acceptance and understanding of differences can weaken its strength. The same child that learns through erroneous beliefs at home can bring enlightened beliefs back into the very environment that fostered the growth of prejudice. Finally, a clay link in the chain of prejudice!


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acquisition and manifestation of prejudice in children

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