Viewpoinrirlcross ihe ocean blur

agers of tourism in developing na- tions. Not only should a tourism prog- ramme have a sound philosophical foundation along with multidisciplin- ary professional courses, but it also should meet the challenge of provid- ing well-trained graduates who will enter the travel and tourism field with a long-term professional commitment.

R. Howell Associate Professor and M. Uysal Assistant Professor

Clemson University

Parks, Recreation and Tourism

Management

Clemson

SC 29634- 1005, USA

Notes:

‘Richard Howell. ‘Trends in tourism educa- tion’, Journal of Recreation and Leisure, Vol 5, No 1, 1985, pp W-53. ‘David Bianton, ‘Tourism training in de- veloping countries: the social and cultural dimen&‘, Annals of Tourism Research, Vol 8, No 1, 1981, pp 116133. 3Donald E. Hawkins and John D. Hunt, ‘Travel and tourism education: the George Washinqton Universitv aooroach’. Travel Research: Its lmpaci on’ the M&keting Process, Proceedings of TTRA 14th Annual Conference (June 12-15), 1985, pp 323-329. 4Jafar Jafari and J.R. Brent Ritchie, ‘To- ward a framework for tourism education: problems and prospects’, Anna/s of Tour- ism Research, Vol 8, No 1, 1981, pp 13-34. ‘Jafari and Ritchie, op tit, Ref 4. %.L. Jenkins, ‘Education for tourism policy

makers in developing countries’, Tourism Management, Vol 1, No 4, December 1980, DD 238-242: and M. Kutluata. ‘The measu’res that should be taken in Turkish tourism’, Journal of Turkish Economy and Tourism, Vol 2, No 12, 1984, pp 41-44. 7N. Leiper. ‘Towards a cohesive curricu- lum in tourism: the case for a distinct discipline’, Annals of Tourism Research. Vol 8, No 1, 1981, pp 69-84; and N. Leiper, ‘The framework of tourism: towards a definition of tourism, tourist and tourist industry’, Anna/s of Tourism Research, Vol 6, No 4, pp 390-407. %.A. Gunn, Tourism Planninq, 1979, Crane Russah. New York, 1979.- ‘R.W. McIntosh and C.R. Goeldner. Tour- ism: Principles, Practices, Philosophies, 4th ed, Wiley, Chichester. UK, 1984. “Richard Howell, ‘PRTM 342: introduction to travel and tourism’, unpublished class notes, Clemson University, South Caroli- na, 1982.

Across the ocean blue Imagine an extra-terrestrial mission that began to observe our planet from a base on Mars in the days of Caesar Augustus, when Quirinus was gov- ernor of Syria. For some 1 500 years their time-lapse cameras would go on recording the ever denser patterns of maritime activity along the great arc of the European coastline. During those long centuries, as the ports grew in size and numbers throughout the 30 degrees of latitude from Trondheim to Gibraltar, there was never the slight- est trace of traffic across the still trackless western ocean. That signifi- cant emptiness was unmistakeable evi- dence of a civilization confined within its own coastal waters for want of an adequate marine technology.

And then, quite suddenly, about 500 years ago there came clear indica- tions of major advances in the design and rigging of European ships - a succession of navigations down the west coast of Africa and the begin- nings of a regular, growing system of communications with the Americas. Thanks to their new ocean-going ves- sels, the Europeans had started to move out from their continental isola- tion and into the vast, unknown re- gions of planet Earth. First, there

64

were the Portuguese caravels with their triangular lateen sails that allowed them to sail obliquely against tlie wind. Next, came the Spanish carracks and the English galleons, square-rigged craft which had an even greater sailing efficiency on the long oceanic routes where they could make good use of the trade winds.

Three hundred years ago the special requirements of the European colon- ists and the opportunities of a most lucrative oriental trade established the specifications for a new kind of vessel. The East Indiaman had a capacious hold for cargo, was able to journey 10 000 miles a year without unloading, carried a spread of canvas divided into many sails for easier handling, and had armament enough to protect itself against marauders. It was the work- horse of the expanding European empires, a marvel of wind power and human muscle. In good weather it could make the Atlantic crossing in six weeks. With good luck it might reach India in six months.

And then, once again, it was all- change with the coming of steam. During the first quarter of the 19th century, as the new steamships ran through a rapid evolution, the world

rejoiced in a prime mover more powerful and far more reliable than anything seen before in human his- tory. So, the new age in oceanic transportation began on 19 July 1537, when a crowd of 50 000 people watch- ed Brunel’s Great Western as it moved out on tow from Patterson and Mer- cer’s dock in Bristol. The many in- novations in that famous vessel in- cluded: a distilled water system. bells in all the main cabins, a grand saloon adorned with 50 large painted panels, berths for 128 passengers, and the promise of the fastest-ever crossing of the Atlantic at a cost of 35 guineas a person. At loam on 8 April 1838. the huge paddle wheels of the Grent LVest- ern began to turn as Captain Claxton headed westwards out of Bristol on the historic non-stop voyage to New York.

After an uneventful passage they dropped anchor off Sandy Hook ex- actly 1.5 days and five hours later. The excitement was immense. ‘A new epoch in history! Annihilation of time and space!’ - so the New York papers announced - ‘There is an assured future for regular steam navigation between the Old World and the New.’ The message came through loud and

TOURISM MANAGEMENT !‘vlarch 1987

TOURISM MANAGEMENT March 1987

66

By the 1870~5, the tourists saw London from the river steamers

TOURISM MANAGEMENT March 1

clear to Samuel Cunard in Halifax, Nova Scotia. That astute and most capable ship-owner decided that there would be a most profitable future in the new trans-Atlantic steamship busi-

ness. Within two years everything was

ready for Cunard’s new venture - vessel, crew. captain, and detailed sailing instructions. On -t July 1840 the first of the great Cunard fleet, Britnn- nia, sailed out from Liverpool on its way to Halifax and Boston. Samuel Cunard was on board, well pleased with the rapid progress, eating steak and drinking Hock to settle his sto- mach at breakfast. When they reached Halifax after a voyage of 13 days. not even the sanguine Cunard knew that his Britannio had inaugurated a steamship service that was to domin- ate the North Atlantic for more than a

century. Throughout the 19th century, as

populations increased and the indust- rial nations grew more and more prosperous. there were parallel adv- ances in the size, speed and carrying capacity of the transatlantic liners. From the lS4Os onwards, new ship-

ping companies - Norddeutscher

Lloyd, Oceanic Steam Navigation. Hamburg Amerikanische Packetfnhrt - found there were large profits to be made in the new trade of conveying emigrants to the New World. For instance, there was the British entrep- reneur, William Inman. who founded the Inman Line. He was the first to

offer cheap, regular passages for emig- rants: three meals a day, soap and clean towels. water and mirrors. and all for $30 a head. ‘Three thousand miles at a halfpenny a mile’, as the publicity pamphlets promised. And at the end of the voyage the fortunate voyagers could expect to go ‘to the railway depot, enter the cars and - Go West! In a few brief months the almighty dollar rolls across the pond, and the dear ones left behind follow in the footsteps of the pioneers.’ Who could resist the propaganda?

On the eastward voyages more and more wealthy American visitors came to see the cities and the sights of the Old World. At first most of them passed rapidly through Liverpool and London on their way to the more certain attractions of France. One reason was that until the 188Os, British hotels were well below US standards,

Across the ocean b1ueiBook.y

and the London restaurants were not good enough for American tastes. As one Londoner noted, the facilities for tourists ‘were not inviting to guests accustomed to the Palaces of New York, Chicago, and San Francisco, and a good dinner at a reasonable price with a decent bottle of wine was a thing to be sighed for’. However, rapid improvements followed after the France-German War of lS70 had closed the French tourist trade. Amer- icans came instead to Britain, and the growing demand for good accom- modation helped to change London hotels for the better. By 1881, one of the early tourist papers had appeared. It was The Americnn Visitor, and it communicated in the new language of tourism. The object was, the editor wrote, ‘to give strangers complete and accurate information as to the best means of occupying their time in London. to tell them not only what to do, but how, when, and where to do it.’

1. F. Clarke, Emeritus Professor of English,

Strathclyde University, UK

Books

Tourism aids develor>ment

THE GREAT ESCAPE? AN EXAMINATION OF NORTH-SOUTH TOURISM by E. Philip English North-South institute, 185 Rideau, Ottawa, Canada Kl N 5X8, 198689 pages, $9.50

A good literature review serves sever- al purposes--chief among them is to present a coherent overview of the diversity captured by the theme. Started as a doctoral thesis in econo- mics, The Great Escape? reviews the literature relating to tourism in the developing countries, with a special

focus on the role of North-South tourism (ie the flow of tourism from the developed countries to developing nations) including its benefits and costs to the process of development. An important question posed at the outset is whether tourism offers the host countries the chance to improve their economic positions and thus “escape from poverty” (p viii). In the final analysis, the author responds with a qualified affirmative: “When everything is considered, the potential economic benefits from North-South tourism are too important to be re- nounced . with proper manage- ment, tourism can provide a valuable

source of foreign exchange, jobs, tax revenue and economic diversification without undue disruption” (p 81).

But in order to arrive at this state- ment (in the concluding paragraph of this brief book) the author examines the literature in search of alternative views. The first chapter reviews the recent development of international tourism, providing some useful insight into the nature, scope, magnitude, and trend of tourism and its growing share among the developing countries. It notes, eg that “North-South tour- ism blossomed in the 1960s. attaining an average annual growth rate in arrivals of almost 15 percent, or a

TOURISM MANAGEMENT March 1987 67