Active Galaxies

Chapter 21

Centaurus A

What are Active Galactic Nuclei (AGN)?Galaxies with a source of non-stellar light coming from the nucleus (excessive ultraviolet, infrared, radio and X-ray light), sometimes showing jets and variability

Central Supermassive Black Hole accreting material from surrounding host galaxy (Lynden-Bell 1969)

Quasars – luminous (MB<-23) objects with broad emission lines, distant, many are strong radio sourcesSeyferts – fainter (MB>-23), most identified locally, spiral hosts

Sey 1s – broad emission lines (e.g. Hydrogen)Sey 2s – narrow emission lines

Radio Galaxies – excess radio emission and jetsStarbursts – extreme star-formation in addition to black hole accretion in the nucleusULIRGS – ultra-luminous infrared galaxies

Quasars (or QSOs)By 1960, several hundred radio sources were cataloged with no obvious optical counterparts (due to poor positional accuracy).

In the early 1960’s, positional improvements allowed for the detection of optical counterparts for two radio sources: 3C48 and 3C273.

Both sources looked like normal stars – “quasi-stellar objects or QSOs”

They appeared bluer than normal stars with strong, broad emission lines.

Maartin Schmidt was the first to recognize that these lines were normal Hydrogen emission lines redshifted by a large amount and indicating high velocities and great distances (according to Hubble’s Law).

D = 660 Mpc (2.2 billion light years) for 3C273

1340 Mpc (4.4 billion light years) for 3C48.

The large distances implied large luminosities:

L = 20 trillion Lsun (or 1000 Milky Way’s) for 3C273

These point-like sources were the most luminous objects that had been found in the Universe at that time!

Within ~2 years, quasars were discovered that were 10 billion light years away and L 100 trillion Lsun. The most distant quasar known today is 12.7 billion light years away!

Quasars - Discovery

The bright emission (light) from quasars is actually embedded in a “host galaxy”

•difficult to detect due to the brightness of nuclear quasar emission•appear to be a mixture of galaxy types - from disturbed galaxies to normal E’s and early type spirals – brightest QSOs tend to be in E’s

Quasars – Host Galaxies

Trump et al. 2006

• Some quasar spectra not only show broad emission lines but also broad absorption lines• (BAL) Quasars: normal quasars viewed at angle along the line-of-sight of intervening, fast-moving material.

Quasars – Broad Absorption lines

QSO spectra also reveal some absorption lines not associated with the quasar at all.

These narrow absorption lines are caused by intervening galaxies (halos) between us and the QSO.

Redshifts of the material will be equal to or less than the QSO.

Lyman alpha is the lowest excitation level for Hydrogen gas.

Quasars – Lyman Alpha Forest

First identified by Carl Seyfert in 1943

Defined class based on observational characteristics:

• Almost all the luminosity comes from a small (unresolved) region at the center of the galaxy – the galactic nucleus.

NGC 4151

• Nuclei fainter than QSOs – generally L ~ 108 to 1012 Lsun

• Unusual spectra

• Light from the nucleus is variable on timescales of months

Seyfert Galaxies

Seyfert 1s:Broad and narrow lines(BLAGNs)

Seyfert 2s:Only narrow lines(NLAGNs)

Seyfert galaxy spectra fall into two classes•Broad emission line spectra (Seyfert type 1; similar to quasars)•Narrow emission line spectra (Seyfert type 2)

Seyfert Galaxies - spectra

Seyfert 2 galaxies (Narrow-Line AGN) •can be differentiated from normal emission line galaxies through the flux ratios of certain emission lines. •shape of the underlying ionizing source determines how many photons are available to produce particular emission lines.

Kewley et al 2006 – red line shows extreme starburst, dashed line separates Active galaxies (AGN/Seyfert) from normal, star-forming galaxies (HII)

Seyfert Galaxies - spectra

Variability occurs at most wavelengths - X-rays through radioThis indicates that the fluctuations are originating from a very tiny object.

• QSOs and Seyfert nuclei have long been recognized as variable• Optical flux changes occur on timescales of months to years• Cause of variability? – instabilities in accretion disk, SN or starbursts, microlensing…..

Quasar light curve ~25 yearsSeyfert light curve over ~11 months

Hawkins 2002

Seyfert Galaxies - variability

Why does rapid variability indicate small physical size of the emitting object?

Time Delay = t = RSun / c

700,000 km / 300,000 km/s = 2.3 sec

Consider an object like the Sun. Any instantaneous flash would appear “blurred” in time by t = RSun / c.

observerRSun

RSun

Seyfert continuum luminosity varies significantly in less than a year (some variation occurs on timescales of days or weeks).This implies an emitting source less than a few light-weeks across!

BL Lac objects• Bright radio sources• Variability faster and higher amplitude than normal quasars and

Seyferts• Look like QSOs with extremely bright nucleus and faint fuzz “host”

galaxy surrounding• Rapid and strong variability “floods” emission lines so that they

can’t be detected• Variability light curve indicates emitting region less than one light-

day across (or ~200 AU)Spectrum Light Curve

Which AGN are the brightest?

QSOs (Quasi-Stellar Objects) or quasars

Which AGN are fainter than the QSOs?

Seyferts

What’s the difference between Type 1 and 2 Seyferts?

Type 1 have broad & narrow emission lines, Type 2 only have narrow emission lines

Which AGN are the most variable?

BL Lac objects

Which AGN generally have high redshifts (are at great distances)?

QSOs

Which AGN are brightest at radio wavelengths?

Radio galaxies of course!

Radio Galaxies•Emit most light at radio wavelengths (~107 to 1011 Lsun)•Radio emission is highly polarized synchrotron radiation•Morphology can be extended or compact•Host galaxies are generally Ellipticals

Radio morphology first classified by Fanaroff & Riley (1974)•FR I: less luminous, 2-sided jets brightest closest to core and dominate over radio lobes compact•FR II: more luminous, edge-brightened radio lobes dominate over 1-sided jet (due to Doppler effect “brightening” of approaching jet over receding jet) extended

FR I - 3C 47 FR II - 3C 449

Radio Galaxies

FR II radio galaxies: most emission comes from lobes

Radio “Light”

Centaurus A

Visible Light

0.8 Mpc

The radio lobes span about 10 degrees on the sky!

Lobes consist of material ejected from the nucleus.

Radio Galaxies

Radio image of the FR II radio galaxy Cygnus A.

The lobes occur where the jets plow into intracluster gas.

~1 Mpc

Radio Galaxies

This giant elliptical (E1) galaxy is ~100 Kpc across.

Radio jet is visible in radio, optical and X-ray light

Visible image of the FR I radio galaxy M87.

FR I radio galaxy: most of the energy comes from a small nucleus with a halo of weaker emission around the nucleus and jets close to nucleus.

Radio Galaxies

Close-up view of the jet in M87 at radio wavelengths.

~2 kpc

galaxy nucleus, i.e. the radio core

The jet is apparently a series of distinct “blobs”, ejected by the galaxy nucleus, and moving at up to half the speed of light.

Radio Galaxies

Some radio “blobs” in jets appear to move faster than the speed of light – superluminal

For a blob moving distance r below:x = r cos , y = r sin and t = r/v

object moving at v

Light from P takes x/c less time to reach us than light emitted from O.

Time the observer sees for object to travel from O to P is tapp = t - x/c tapp = (r/v) - (r/c) cos tapp = (r/v) (1 - cos )

Apparent velocity across sky vapp = y/tapp

vapp = (v sin )/(1 - cos )

radio jet in 3C273

Radio Galaxies: Superluminal Expansion

vapp = (v sin )/(1 - cos )

For v << c, is close to 0 and vapp = v sinFor v close to c, vapp can be much more than v and even greater than c

Substitute this into the above equation gives

(vapp/v)max = 1/(1- 2)1/2

What is the maximum apparent velocity that could be observed for a “blob” moving at 0.95c? What is the angle required to get this velocity?

To see this, find the angle that gives the maximum vapp for a given v by dividing this equation by v, differentiate wrt theta and set equal to zero

Radio Galaxies: Superluminal Expansion

Radio Galaxies: M87

Mini-spiral at the center of the galaxy

Radius of central disk: r = 16 pc = 4.9 x 1017 m

Inclination of disk: i = 42 degrees

Doppler shifted spectrum reveals rotation rate:vr = vc sin i = 460 km/sSo that vc = 690 km/s

MBH = vc2 r / G = 4 x 1039 kg = 2 x 109 Msun

ULIRGs (ultra luminous IR galaxy) - Starburst or AGN?

A starburst galaxy:• May result from a galaxy collision/merger• Gas streams converge from different directions causing shocks which compress material and trigger star formation• Gas which loses enough angular momentum falls into the galaxy center bar formation funnels more gas inward violent star formation near center of disk and further out

Nuclear close-up (HST) of NGC 1808 starburst galaxy. Galaxy has barred-spiral morphology.

ULIRGS are:•Galaxies that emit most of their light in the IR - LIR > 1012 Lsun

• more common beyond z > 1• nearly all are undergoing mergers• IR light is a combination of dust reprocessed AGN emission and star formation•Some AGN may appear as ULIRGs during different stages of galaxy evolution.

Obscuring TorusDusty structure that blocks view of inner region

Broad Line Region• dense (109 /cm3) gas clouds in area a few light-days to months across •outer edge defined by dust sublimation radius (1500K)

Narrow Line Region • less dense (103/cm3) gas clouds located 10 to 1000 lyrs out•part of the host galaxy ISM near galaxy center

Central Black HoleRs = 3x1011 m or 2 AU for 108 Msun

Masses of a million to a billion Msun

Accretion diskUV/visible light from region 1012 - 1013m (X-rays probably come from a corona that surrounds the disk)

Jets – ionized gas from accretion disk spirals along magnetic field lines away from the disk

Structure of AGNs and Unified Theory

Structure of AGNs and Unified Theory

Observer is looking into the center of the accretion disk, viewing motions of gas near blackhole - sees broad emission lines

Seyfert 2

Quasar/Seyfert 1

Observer is looking at blackhole “edge-on” through the surrounding dusty torus - does not see broad emission lines produced by gas near BH

/BL LacObserver sees mostly synchrotron emission from jet - highly variable with hardly any emission lines/absorption lines

What Powers Active Galactic Nuclei??

(1) A compact central black hole provides a very intense gravitational field. MBH = 106 - 109 Msun

(2) Infalling gas forms an accretion disk around the black hole.

(3) As the gas spirals inward, friction heats it to extremely high temperatures (T>104 K); emission from the accretion disk at different radii accounts for optical thru soft X-ray continuum.

(4) Some of the gas is driven out into jets focused by the magnetic field.

Before entering the black hole, some fraction of the mass is converted into energy. Matter is heated to high temps by dissipation in the accretion disk and radiates away its gravitational potential energy.

BH radius is Rs=2GMbh/c2 = 0.25 M8 light hours. What energy is available (via gravitational potential energy) for a mass m falling from far away to the Rs?

How efficient is the energy production?

Emax = GMbhm/Rs

Substituting equation for Rs

Emax = (1/2)mc2

Half the rest energy of the infalling mass is converted to kinetic energy. If the mass is decelerated (via the accretion disk), KE can be converted to thermal energy and then photon energy.

Ephot = ηmc2 where η is efficiency and should be ≤ 0.5

The efficiency of this conversion is typically ~10% (η=0.1) for AGN.

Since the luminosity is dE/dt, then the AGN luminosity is L = η(dm/dt)c2

If we know an AGN’s luminosity, we can deduce infall rate Example:MW “AGN” luminosity is1000 Lsun implying dm/dt = 10-9 Msun per year)

What would be the luminosity if the infall rate (dm/dt) is one solar mass per year with 10% efficiency?

L = η(dm/dt)c2 = (0.1)(2 x 1033g / 3.15 x 107s)(3 x 1010 cm/s)2

= 6 x 1045 ergs/s = 1.6 x 1012 Lsun

100 times brighter than the entire Milky Way Galaxy

The Eddington Limit – the maximum L for a given black hole mass (any higher and radiation pressure will blow away surrounding gas!)

Force caused by outward flow of photons balances gravitational force of infalling matter (assuming pure ionized H gas)

σeL / (4πr2c) = GMbhmp / r2 (eq. 21.12)

LE = 4πcGMbhmp/σe = 3.3x1012L(Mbh/108M)

If L is greater than LE, ionized gas will be accelerated outward and accretion will cease. This leads to a maximum accretion rate for black holes:

ME = LE / ηc2 = 2M/yr (Mbh/108M) (0.1/η)

The Eddington ratio is then m = M / ME = Lbol/LE where m = dm/dt

.

...

So...can you just shovel in mass at higher and higher rates to create a superluminous AGN?

.

(Gebhardt et al. 2000; Ferrarese & Merritt 2000)

Black Hole Mass - Bulge Mass Relation

• Evidence for SMBHs has been found in most galaxies with a significant spheroidal component. It is now generally believed that all galaxies contain SMBHs.

• A clear relationship between the mass of the spheroidal component of a host galaxy and the black hole mass has been found.

• indicates connection between galaxy formation (star formation) and growth/evolution of central black hole

Active Galaxies as part of Galaxy Evolution

•Additional mergers and depletion of fuel may result in radio galaxies and Seyfert galaxies.

•Further fuel depletion results in a normal galaxy with a dormant black hole at the nucleus.

•As small galaxies merge to form larger ones, black holes may form at the nucleus (ULIRG stage?)

•With plenty of fuel available early on, the galaxy light is dominated by emission of the black hole (Quasar). Feedback from AGN radiation may squelch star formation in the host galaxy – setting spheriodal component size

Quasars are relatively short-lived phenomena – only need 20 Myr to grow largest BHs knownNumber density of quasars peaked when universe was about 3 Gyr oldWhere do those BH’s go? Become dormant – go into “hibernation”?

Hopkins et al. 2008

A closer look at how the AGN phase may be the result of galaxy mergers

Active Galaxies as part of Galaxy Evolution