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Research Results on Land Use, Transportation, and Community Design

(For slides related to walking/biking to school, please see the set titled School Environment and Active Transportation to School)

Active Living Researchwww.activelivingresearch.org

A national program of the Robert Wood Johnson Foundation

Any of the slides contained in this set are available for public use. If you have comments or questions about a particular slide, please contact Debbie Lou at [email protected]

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Data from the 2001 National Household Travel Survey (N=3,312) show that 29% of public transit users achieve the Surgeon General’s recommendation of 30 minutes or more of physical activity a day while walking to and from transit. Racial/ethnic minorities reported even greater percentages of achieving the recommended level of activity.

18%

33%

41% 39%

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

White AfricanAmerican

Asian/PacificIslander

Hispanic

Public Transit Users

Per

cen

t w

alke

d

30+

min

ute

s/d

ay

Besser L, Dannenberg A. Walking to public transit: Steps to help meet physical activity recommendations. American Journal Preventive Medicine 2005; 29(4): 273-280.

Residents of walkable neighborhoods were more likely to meet physical activity guidelines

18%

37%

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

High walkability Low walkability% m

ee

tin

g p

hy

sic

al a

cti

vit

y

gu

ide

line

s

Frank LD, Schmid TL, Sallis JF, Chapman J, Saelens BE. Linking objectively measured physical activity with objectively measured urban form. Findings from SMARTRAQ. American Journal of Preventive Medicine 2005; 28(2S2):117-125.

A study of 357 Atlanta adults using accelerometer data found people who live in walkable neighborhoods are more likely to meet recommended daily levels of physical activity.

A national study of US adolescents (N=20,745)* found a greater number of physical activity facilities is directly related to increased physical activity and inversely related to risk of overweight

Gordon-Larsen P, Nelson MC, Page P, Popkin BM. Inequality in the built environment underlies key health disparities in physical activity and obesity. Pediatrics 2006; 117(2): 417-424. http://www.pediatrics.org/cgi/content/full/117/2/417

*using Add Health data

0.5

0.75

1

1.25

1.5

One Two Three Four Five Six Seven

Number of facilities per block group

Od

ds

rati

o

Odds of having 5 or more bouts of MVPA

Odds of being overweight

1.26

.68

Referent

http://www.pediatrics.org/cgi/content/full/117/2/417

Driving is a risk factor for obesity

10%

14%

27%

18%

0%

5%

10%

15%

20%

25%

30%

Lowest Quarter Highest Quarter

Vehicle miles traveled

% o

bese

(BM

I>30

)

Lopez-Zetina J, Lee H, Friis R. The link between obesity and the built environment. Evidence from an ecological analysis of obesity and vehicle miles of travel in California. Health & Place 2006; 12(4):656-664.

A study of 33 California cities found that adults who drove the most had obesity rates (27%) that were three times higher than those who drove the least (9.5%).

Adults with sidewalks in their neighborhoods were more likely to meet physical activity guidelines

38%44%

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

Sidewalks present No sidewalkspresent

% m

ee

tin

g p

hy

sic

al a

cti

vit

y g

uid

elin

es

Reed JA, Dawn K, Wilson DK, et al. Perceptions of neighborhood sidewalks on walking and physical activity patterns in a southeastern community in the US. Journal of Physical Activity and Health 2006; 3(2):243-253.

A survey of 1,148 adults living in the southeastern US found that the number of adults who met physical activity guidelines was 15% higher in neighborhoods with sidewalks.

31%

13%

0%

5%

10%

15%

20%

25%

30%

35%

40%

Low ACE High ACE

% w

alk

ing

an

d b

ikin

g f

or

tra

ns

po

rta

tio

n

Aytur SA, Rodriguez DA, et al. Promoting active community environments through land use and transportation planning. American Journal of Health Promotion 2007; 21(4;S4):397-407.

A 2007 study of 6,694 residents in 67 North Carolina counties found those living in counties with the highest “Active Community Environment” (ACE) scores* were more than twice as likely to walk and bike for transportation than residents in counties with the lowest ACE scores.

* High ACE scores were determined mainly by the number of land use policies, and also implementation tools, supportive of non-motorized transportation implementation and/or mixed land use.

Daily steps are higher among adults who commute by train instead of car

7500

9500

6000

7000

8000

9000

10000

Train Car

Commuting Mode

Ave

rag

e D

aily

Ste

ps

(ped

om

eter

)

Wener RE, Evans GW. A morning stroll: Levels of physical activity in car and mass transit commuting. Environment and Behavior 2007; 39(1): 62-74.

Pedometer data collected from over 100 New Jersey train and car commuters revealed that those who commuted by train walked 30% more steps a day and were 4 times more likely to meet recommended 10,000 steps daily than car commuters.

Frank L, Kerr J, Chapman J, Sallis J. Urban form relationships with walk trip frequency and distance among youth. American Journal of Health Promotion 2007; 21(4S): 305.ALR Funded

Data collected in 2001-2002 from 3,161 Atlanta children show 5 to 18 year olds were more likely to walk for transportation if they lived in mixed-used neighborhoods with parks, schools, and commercial destinations nearby.

Cross-sectional (N=70) and prospective (N=32) data collected during 2003-6 from predominantly low-income, African-American women in the southeastern United States found women who moved to neighborhoods with fewer cul-de-sacs walked more on average, while women who moved to neighborhoods with greater land-use mix walked less on average.

Wells NM, Yang Y. Neighborhood Design and Walking: A quasi-experimental longitudinal study. American Journal of Preventive Medicine 2008; 34(4): 313-319.

Residents who live in metropolitan areas with urban growth restrictions report having more leisure time physical activity

125

178

020406080

100120140160180200

Yes No

Presence of state-mandated urban growth boundaries

Ave

rag

e m

inu

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wee

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TP

A

Aytur SA, Rodriguez DA, Evenson KR, Catellier DJ. Urban containment policies and physical activity: A time-series analysis of metropolitan areas, 1990-2002. American Journal of Preventive Medicine 2008; 34(4):320-332.

ALR Funded

A study of 63 large metropolitan statistical areas from 1990 to 2002 found residents in MSAs with state mandated urban growth boundaries reported about 53 minutes more of leisure time physical activity (LTPA) per week than residents without such policies.

Saelens BE, Handy SL. Built environment correlates of walking: A review. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise 2008: 40(7:S1):S550-S566.

A review of original studies published in 2005 to 2006 found walking for transportation is most strongly related to living in neighborhoods with high residential density, mixed land use, and short distances to destinations.

Support for Traditonally Designed Communities Increased between 2003 and 2005

44%

59%

0%

20%

40%

60%

80%

100%

2003 2005

Perc

en

t exp

ressin

g s

up

po

rt

Handy SL, Sallis JS, et al. Is support for traditionally designed communities growing? Evidence from two national surveys. Journal of the American Planning Association 2008; 74(2): 209-221.

National survey data collected in 2003 from 5,873 people, and 2005 from 12,630 people, show public support for traditionally designed communities increased from 44% in 2003 to almost 60% in 2005.

Percent increase in average support for traditionally designed communities between 2003 and 2005 by education, race, perceived

location and walking status

14%

17%17%

10%

16%15%

15%

17%

0%

5%

10%

15%

20%

HighSchool or

less

College ormore

White Non-White Rural Non-Rural Walker Non-Walker

per

cen

t in

crea

se i

n s

up

po

rt


National survey data collected in 2003 from 5,873 people and 2005 from 12,630 people show public support for traditionally designed communities increased across almost all subgroups.

National survey data collected in 2003 from 5,873 people and in 2005 from 12,630 people on public support for traditionally designed communities show the ability to walk or bike around their neighborhoods increased the most in importance ratings.

Handy SL, Sallis JS, et al. Is support for traditionally designed communities growing? Evidence from two national surveys. Journal of the American

Planning Association 2008; 74(2): 209-221.

The characteristics of living in traditionally designed communities that increased the most in importance were:

1. Being able to walk or bike to shopping 2. Being able to walk or bike to work3. Being able to walk or bike to public transportation


National survey data collected in 2003 from 5,873 people and in 2005 from 12,630 people on public support for traditionally designed communities indicate the biggest advantages of walkable communities were the benefits they provide to children and seniors.

Handy SL, Sallis JS, et al. Is support for traditionally designed communities growing? Evidence from two national surveys. Journal of the American Planning

Association 2008; 74(2): 209-221.

Top five expectations about traditionally designed communities, 2005

1. Allow kids to walk to school2. Be safe for kids to play in neighborhood3. Enable people to walk/bike to public transit4. Enable people to walk/bike to shopping5. Enable older adults to live independently


Cross-sectional data on residents (N=1,497) in northern California show that, after controlling for sociodemographic and attitudinal variables, certain neighborhood characteristics are significantly associated with physical activity frequency within the neighborhood

Handy SL, Cao X, Mokhtarian PL. The causal influence of neighborhood design on physical activity within the neighborhood: Evidence from Northern California. American Journal of Health Promotion 2008; 22(5):350-357.

Neighborhood Characteristic Standardized Coefficients

P values

# of business types within 400m .05 .02

Distance to nearest health club (km) .06 .004

Perceived physical activity options .04 .08

Perceived socializing .04 .03

Perceived attractiveness .09 .00

Perceived stores within walking distance .05 .004

Built environment features are associated with higher levels of walking time among older adults

Dista

nce

to n

eare

st p

ark

# of s

elec

t est

ablis

hments

# of

com

mer

cial

est

ablis

hmen

ts

# o

f bus lin

es

# o

f inte

rsec

tions

% o

f sid

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k co

vera

ge

% of low volume stre

ets

% o

f medi

um vo

lum

e stre

ets

% o

f hig

h volu

me

stre

ets

-20

-15

-10

-5

0

5

10

15

20

Dif

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nc

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n m

inu

tes

of

wa

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Built environment features(Orange columns denote significant results)

Nagel CL, Carlson NE, et al. The relation between neighborhood built environment and walking activity among older adults. American Journal of Epidemiology 2008; 168(4): 461-468.

Self-reported data collected in 2001 from 546 adults ages 65+ in Portland, Oregon reveal among those who reported some walking activity, the average amount of time spent walking per week was significantly associated with the amount of automobile traffic and number of commercial establishments in their neighborhood.

Spivock M, Gauvin L, Riva M, Brodeur J-M. Promoting active living among people with physical disabilities: Evidence for Neighborhood-level buoys. American Journal of Preventive Medicine 2008; 34(1): 291-298.

Cradock A, Troped PJ, Fields B, et al. Factors associated with federal transportation funding for local pedestrian and bicycle programming and facilities. Journal of Public Health Policy 2009; 30(S1): S38-S72.ALR Funded

Yearly percentages of total bicycle- and pedestrian-related projects and federal funding obligations implemented between 1990 and 2004, Fiscal Management Information System 1990–2004

ISTEA, Intermodal Surface Transportation Efficiency Act; STEA-2003, Surface Transportation Extension Act-2003; TEA-21, Transportation Act for the 21st century

Disparities in implementation of federally funded bicycle and pedestrian projects

Counties with persistent poverty (OR=.69)or low educational status (OR=.66) were less likely to implement projects


Policy recommendations for improving public health outcomes of federally funded bicycle and pedestrian projects

• Improved data tracking and monitoring systems to improve data accessibility and allow for transparent assessment of spending decisions

• More explicit linkages between transportation projects and public health, and

• Improved planning assistance to underserved communities


Importance of factors in bicycle route choice among adult cyclists in Portland, OR (N=166)

Mean score (1=not at all important, 5=very important)

Minimize total distance 3.60Avoiding streets with lots of vehicle traffic 3.57Riding in a bike lane 2.95Riding on signed bike routes 2.62Reducing wait time due to stop signs/lights 2.67Riding on an off-street bike trail/path 2.21Avoiding hills 2.10

Note: Exercise trips excluded.

Dill, J. Bicycling for transportation and health: The role of infrastructure. Journal of Public Health Policy; 2009; 30(S1):S95-S110.

ALR Funded

Recommendations to encourage more bicycling among adults

• Well-connected network of low-traffic neighborhood streets• Bike lanes should be networked with paths and bike boulevards• Zoning standards that support mixed land use

These can be accomplished through comprehensive planning, regulation, and funding

Dill, J. Bicycling for transportation and health: The role of infrastructure. Journal of Public Health Policy; 2009; 30(S1):S95-S110.

ALR Funded

Distribution of recorded bicycle travel by facility type, compared to network mileage (based on 166 adult cyclists in Portland, OR). Location of travel assessed by GPS.

% of all bicycle travel (miles)

% of network

Roads without bicycle infrastructure 51 92

Primary roads/highways, no bicycle lanes 4 4

Secondary roads, no bicycle lanes 19 13

Minor streets, no bicycle lanes 27 63

Driveways, alleys, unimproved roads 2 12

Bicycle Infrastructure 49 8

Primary roads/highway, with bicycle lanes 9 3

Secondary roads, with bicycle lanes 14 2

Minor streets, with bicycle lanes 3 1

Bicycle/multi-use paths 14 2

Bicycle boulevards 9 <1

N (miles) 7,479 10,564

Dill, J. Bicycling for transportation and health: The role of infrastructure. Journal of Public Health Policy; 2009; 30(S1):S95-S110. ALR Funded

Self-reported data* from seniors in Denver, CO (N=190) found that total physical activity and community-based activity were highest in neighborhoods with fewer walkability variables but higher respondent perceptions of safety and social cohesion (p<.01).

* data from the Neighborhoods and Senior Health (NASH) study

King D. Neighborhood and individual factors in activity in older adults: Results from the neighborhood and senior health study. Journal of Aging and Physical Activity 2008; 16:144-170.ALR Funded

Certain subgroups of adults are more likely to walk for transportation in high density areas

Forsyth A, Oakes JM, et al. The built environment, walking, and physical activity: Is the environment more important to some people than others? Transportation Research Part D 2009; 14:42-49.

Population Odds ratio

White 1.97

Male 1.78

No college degree 2.07

Less than healthy 2.45

N=716 adults in the Twin Cities metropolitan area of Minnesota

*Based on US Census data (N=2,172) and observation of 76 block faces

Neckerman KM, Lovasi GS, Davies S, et al. Disparities in urban neighborhood conditions: Evidence from GIS measures and field observation in New York City. Journal of Public Health Policy 2009; 30(S1): S264-S285.

ALR Funded

18%

24%

0%

5%

10%

15%

20%

25%

30%

Nonpoor Poor

Density of pedestrian-vehicular collisions per square km

Pe

rce

nt/

sq

ua

re k

m

Pedestrians in New York City are less safe from vehicular traffic in poor neighborhoods*

A study of 3318 nine and ten-year old children across Southern California over an eight year period found children who lived the closest to dense traffic had the highest risk of gaining weight by age 18.

Jerrett M, McConnell R, et al. Automobile traffic around the home and attained body mass index: A longitudinal cohort study of children aged 10-18 years. Preventive Medicine 2010; 50(S1):S50-S58.

-95% CI Est. Effects

Data on 2692 low-income women from the CDC’s WISEWOMAN study found the average body mass index (BMI) of women who lived in areas with the most mixed land use was 2.60 kg/m2 lower than the BMI of women living in environments with the least mixed land use.

Mobley LR, Root ED, Finkelstein EA, et al. Environment, obesity, and cardiovascular disease risk in low-income women. American Journal of Preventive Medicine 2006; 30(4): 327-332.

Significant trend (p=.042)

Degree of Urban Density

A study of 17,968 African-American women living in New York City, Chicago, and Los Angeles found women who lived in neighborhoods that had more dense urban form were significantly less likely to become obese over six years.

Coogan PF et al. Longitudinal Assessment of Urban Form and Weight Gain in African-American Women. American Journal of Preventive Medicine 2011; 40(4): 411-418.

Degree of Urban Density

Quintile 1 Quintile 2 Quintile 3 Quintile 4 Quintile 5Least Urban Most Urban

A study of 17,968 African-American women living in New York City, Chicago, and Los Angeles found women who lived in neighborhoods that had more dense urban form gained significantly less weight over six years.

Coogan PF et al. Longitudinal Assessment of Urban Form and Weight Gain in African-American Women. American Journal of Preventive Medicine 2011; 40(4): 411-418.

Minorities Have Less Access to Sidewalks

A national study of nearly 3,000 women found that American-Indian and African-American women were more likely to report not having neighborhood sidewalks compared with White women

King AC, Castro C, Eyler AA, et al. “Personal and Environmental Factors Associated with Physical Inactivity among Different Racial-Ethnic Groups of US Middle-Aged and Older-Aged Women.” Health Psychology, 19(4):354-364, 2000.

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