Pergamon Geoforum. Vol. 25, No. 2. pp. 1X%143, 1994

Copyright 0 1994 Elsevier Science Ltd

Printed in Great Britain. Ail rights reserved

0016-7185/94 $7.00+0.00

Addressing “Edge” Problems in Land and Water Management in The Sokoto-

Rima River Basin, Nigeria

BRUCE MITCHELL,* Ontario, Canada

Abstract: Integrated management was endorsed as a fundamental principle at the International Conference on Water and the Environment at Dublin in January 1992. Analysis in the Sokoto-Rima basin in northwestern Nigeria indicated that such an integrated approach is not being followed. A primary obstacle is institutional gridlock, with specific problems related to inadequate funding, ambiguous responsi- bilities, preoccupation with institutional structures, and lack of attention to oper- ation and maintenance. To move toward an integrated approach, priority should be given to establishing legitimation or credibility for the concept of integration, creating a supportive organizational culture, and modifying management functions-all of which face formidable obstacles in Nigeria.

The Dublin Conference

In late January 1992, an International Conference on

Water and the Environment was held in Dublin,

IreIand..The purpose of the conference, attended by

over 500 participants representing 114 countries, 52

non-governmental and inter-governmental organiz-

ations, and 28 UN agencies, was to develop ideas and

recommendations for the Earth Summit held during

June 1992 in Rio de Janeiro (Koudstaal et al., 1992).

Emerging from the conference was the ~ubZ~~ State-

ment which included four principles to guide water

and environmental management into the 21st cen-

tury. The first principle, and the key idea which

emerged from the conference, was that integrated

water resources development and management should

be a fundamental building block for the future, an

argument which had been made by various investi-

gators for some time prior to the conference

*Deparrmen~ of Geography, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, Ontario, Canada N2L 3Gl.

(Schramm, 1980; Falkenmark, 1985; Mitchell, 1990;

Downs et al., 1991). It was concluded that since water

sustains all life forms, a holistic approach is needed

for the development of human societies and econo-

mies, and for the protection of natural ecosystems on

which the survival of humanity ultimately depends. In

that context, it was concluded that an integrated

approach not only includes the need to look at the

entire water cycle, but also at inter-sectoral needs.

The other principles called for a participatory

approach in institutions and arrangements for water

development and management, recognizing the role

of women in the provision, management and safe-

guarding of water, and recognizing that water has an

economic value and therefore should be considered

as an economic good.

The Nature of “Edge” or ‘*Boundary“ Problems

In many countries, developed and developing, a com-

mon obstacle to an integrated approach regarding

environmental management and resource develop-

133

1.34

ment is fragmentation ofjurisdiction and responsibili-

ties. When many agencies share responsibilities foi

land and water management, it is not unusual for

action to be slow, delayed or uncvcn. For example, in

Canada the Royal Commission on the Future of the

Toronto Waterfront (19Y2, p. xxii) commented that

“when everyone is in charge. no one is in charge”, and

that “the jurisdictional gridlock throughout this re-

gion is the single biggest obstacle to its environmental

(and economic) regeneration”.

While the lack of integration due to institutional

fragmentation can be identiticd in most countries, it is

not a problem which is easy to resolve. Thus. Noble cut

01. (1977, p. 33) stated:

The coordination problem cannot be made to disappear. If some of the ragged edges are smoothed over procc- durally by treating the symptoms they will crop up elsewhere. .In sum. no coordination solution is final. Coordination is a continuous process of managing, of administering, of coping.

As Eddison (1985) observed, coordination or inte-

gration is an exercise in managing edge or boundary

problems which can be rearranged. but never elimi-

nated. The “boundaries” or “edges” in this instance

are those related to shared or joint interest among

two or more levels of government, agencies. organiz-

ations or other stakeholders. Examples arc irrigation,

often of mutual interest for agricultural and public

works agencies, or rural dcvclopmcnt, usually of

interest to each of local, state and national govern-

ments. The challenge is to dcvisc a management

system which will function effectively in the presence

of such boundary or edge problems (Ingram ~‘1 01..

1984: Gormley. 1987; Mitchell, 1990. pp. 54).

A Framework for Analyzing “Edge” Problems

If an integrated approach is to be realized and scarce

human and financial resources are to be allocated

effectively, the logic for using an integrated approach

is powerful. In other words, in resource planning and

management, recognition must be given to the link-

ages between land and water, and between the poli-

cies and initiatives of various government agencies.

To indicate what adjustments might be made in the

(;eoforum/VolLlmc 3 Number 2/1994

\ ‘1.

‘-_ .,

Figure 1. (‘onccptual analytical framework.

Sokoto-Rima basin. attention ncccis to be given to the

aspects idcntitied in Figure I (Mitchell. 1990):

Legitirnaticm

For an integrated approach to be implemented effec-

tively. it must be regarded as legitimate and credible

by elected officials, relevant agencies and the commu-

nity. Legitimacy can be given by legislative. political.

administrative and/or financial means.

Management functions must bc performed to im-

plcment any policy or program. Decisions must be

made regarding the distribution of functions among

agencies, organizations and individuals.

9r.11ct14r.e.s

The institutional and organizational structures must

be designed to facilitate cfticicnt performance of the

idcntihed functions.

Even when structures and functions have been estab-

lished. it is necessary to introduce mechanisms and

processes under which the system will operate, par-

ticularly regarding boundary and cdgc problems.

Geoforum/Volume 2.5 Number 2/1994

Orgunizational culture and uttitudes

The effectiveness with which any policy is imple-

mented is influenced significantly by the culture and

the attitudes of the organizations and people in-

volved.

These matters are considered below with regard to

Nigeria in general and the Sokoto-Rima area in

particular.

Edge Problems in Land and Water Management

in Nigeria

As in many countries, Nigeria has the challenge of

edge problems and institutional fragmentation. The

Food and Agricultural Organization (1991, p. 70)

noted that many organizations are involved in the

management of natural resources in Nigeria and

furthermore that “there is some ambiguity about

their responsibilities and considerable danger of

overlap, duplication and competition for scarce re-

sources . . .“. To illustrate this concern, at the federal

level, the Ministry of Agriculture and Natural Re-

sources is responsible for agricultural production,

and in that regard provides support for irrigation and

other agricultural inputs (seeds, agrochemicals). The

Directorate of Food. Roads and Rural Infrastructure

focuses upon rural development, including provision

of rural water supply as well as feeder roads (Obot,

1992). The Ministry of Water Resources and Rural

Development includes a Department of Water Re-

sources with overall responsibility for water planning

and management. At the same time. eleven River

Basin Development Authorities assist in develop-

ment of water resources to support economic growth

(Faniran, 1972; Adams, 198Sb; Ojiako, 1985; Oka-

for. 1985; Salau, 1986; 1990; Ebong, 1988; Udofia,

1988). In addition, an Environmental Protection Pro-

gramme has responsibility for environmental regu-

lations and enforcement.

At the state level, parallel agencies exist whose main

task is to implement the policies developed by the

federal agencies. Thus, in the Sokoto-Rima basin

within Sokoto state, there is a state Ministry of

Agriculture and Natural Resources. In addition, the

Sokoto Agricultural and Rural Development Auth-

ority (SARDA) was created with World Bank fund-

135

ing to provide assistance to rural farmers. Key activi-

ties for SARDA include installation of tubewells for

small-scale irrigation, as well as supplying seeds and

chemical inputs. The Sokoto-Rima River Basin

Development Authority is the federal government

river basin agency with responsibility for major dams

and reservoirs (Bakolori and Goronyo) to provide

water for irrigation. As a further complication, in

Sokoto state the Department of Water Resources is

located in the Ministry of Public Works rather than in

the Ministry of Water Resources and Rural Develop-

ment as at the federal level. In other states, the Water

Resources department is in other state ministries. In

addition, the Sokoto State Water Board supplies

water for the city of Sokoto. the state capital.

With such a mix of agencies, the potential exists for

action to be slow, delayed or uneven, as well as for

overlap, duplication and competition. Certainly

there is no doubt that boundary or edge problems

exist. The focus of this paper is on the challenges

being encountered in managing such boundary or

edge problems in the Sokoto-Rima basin.

The Sokoto-Rima River Basin

Since the mid 197Os, the Sokoto-Rima basin has been

the target of major investment by the Nigerian Gov-

ernment. For example, Adeniyi and Bullock (1988

p.vi) noted that one third of the national expenditure

on water resources development was dedicated to

Sokoto-Rima during the planning period 1981 to

1985. The majority of this investment was in the

construction of the Bakolori and Goronyo dams, and

associated irrigation infrastructure at Bakolori, de-

scribed in more detail later. It was for this and other

reasons that the first phase of a collaborative research

project involving investigators from the University of

Lagos and the University of Waterloo in Canada

focused on the Sokoto-Rima basin between 198.5 and

1988. A second phase followed, and this paper is

based on field work during 1991 and 1992. In the

remainder of this section, background information is

provided about the Sokoto-Rima basin.

The Sokoto-Rima Basin, in northwestern Nigeria,

covers an area of approximately 195,000 square kilo-

metres. In 1991, the basin covered a large portion of

Sokoto State and the northern part of Kaduna State

1.16

State agctlcics and organiration\ Sokoto State Ministry of Agriculture and Natural Kev~~~t-ce~

Sokoto State Ministry of Water Rewurccs and Kut-al De\ clop~n~t~t

Sokoto Agriculture and Rural I~evelolmcttt AuthoriL\. (S,\l<I>;\\) Sokoto State Wxtet- Ho;~t-d

Sokoto Ministry ol Work\

Sokoto Environmental Protection Progt-amtne

Sukoto State Forcstr) II PI-ojec~ Sokoto State Directcmte of Foocl. Reacts and Rural Inl’txtructure Sokoto State Commission for Women

Uamanu Danfodiyo IJnivorsit>

Federal institutions in Sokoto State. Abuja and Lagos Sokoto-Rima River Basin Devcloptnent Authority (Sokoto) Ministry of Water Resources (Ahjua) Forestry Department (Sokoto) Directorate of Food. Rc~acls and Rur:tl Infrastructure (Lagos)

to the east. In August 199 I , the Federal Government

through the President and the Armed Forces Ruling

Council created several new states in Nigeria. and the

western part of Sokoto State became the state of

Kebbi. Thus. the Sokoto-Rima River basin now in-

cludes parts of three states. The Sokota and Rima

rivers arc the main catchmcnts. and form ;I tribLLtar\

to the Niger River.

The basin possesses a semi-arid climate, with ;I tit-!,

season from October to May and a wet season from

May to early October. Annual rainfall varies from

about 700 mm in the north to IWO mm in the south.

Rainfall can be variable and highly conccntratcd in

time, creating major challcngcs for agriculture (Olo-

fin, lY8S: Olaniran. 19X8: O~Jchandc and H;IIo~LIn.

lYY2). Temperatures throughout the year allow plant

growth. but inadequate soil moisture for the greatct

part of the year and the unavoidably short annual

rainfall pose serious constraints. making irrigation an

attractive concept (Ojo r~/ 01.. 1 Wh).

The basin economy is Prcciominantl~ subsistcncc

agriculture practised mostly by the H:ILIU people.

and herding by the Fulani people (Adams. I Wh). A\

Adeniyi (IYXX, p. 5) has explained. the growing

season and the number of crops in any one season are

;I function of the duration of rainfall. rctaincd moist-

Lit-c. and rcsiliencc of crops to variable conditions.

Other than in&irrmn areas (flood plain and other low

areas susceptible to seasonnl flooding), which retain

moisture in the dry season. cultivation OCCIII’S oni\

during the wet season.

Lack of sufficient moisture for crops had Icd to ;I

range of irrigation practices. from hand dug ~vells

(Egboka ~‘t trl.. lYX8) to other types of small-scale

irrigation (Adams and Carter. lY87: Kitnmage and

Adams. IYYO: Kitntnagc. IWI ). to large-scale.

capital-intensive projects (Impresit. lY71: Baba.

19X-l: Adams and Hughes. 1’986). A key question

related to irrigation. which requires integrated land

and water tnanagctment, is the degree to u hich appro-

priatc public agencies arc able to coordinate thcit-

politics and initiativc4. Unless such coordination and

integration occur. it i\ unlikely that policies and

practices regarding irrigation v,ill be sustainable in

the long term (.4damx. 19X-I: 19X7). In a later wx?ioii.

:ittcntion turns to a4pcctx which create ot33tacle4 to

coordin~rtion and intcgt-ation. In other bar-ds. bhat

;irc the prol~lems to Ix_- o~c~rcon~c to manayc lx>~~ncl-

;ir\’ or ctlgc prohlcni4’1

Study Procedure

‘l‘he fir\t field \vork \v;I~ conductccl tr-om mid .lL11! to

mid August IW I. At that time, attention concc~~-

tratcd Ltpon obtaining hc\ polic\ st:ttcmcnt\. ;I~~LI:I~

and technical trcports 1.1.om agcttcic\. and other rc-

lated documents, intcr\icwing key official\ in fcdcral

:rnd state agencies responsible for land ;ind watct

maniigctncnt (Table I ). and visiting rcsout-cc dcvcl-

optncnt projects or arcas with significant cnviroti-

mental degradation.

Since this Lvork \V;IS part of ;I second phase of rc-

GeoforumNolume 2.5 Number 2/1994

search, contacts with key officials in the basin were

well established, particularly due to the numerous

field trips to the area by team members based at the

University of Lagos. Indeed, in 1991 the Commis-

sioner of Agriculture, one of the senior public ser-

vants in the state, had endorsed the research and had

directed state officials to cooperate with the research

team. As a result, access to senior officials was poss-

ible, and respondents were open and frank in the

discussions.

Between the first field season and the second one

(mid July to mid August 1992), two important

changes occurred. First, as already mentioned, in

August of 1991 the President and the Armed Forces

Ruling Council had created new states. As a result,

some key government officials who had been inter-

viewed in 1991 had been transferred to the new Kebbi

state. This meant that continuity was lost with key

respondents, and time was required to re-establish

contact with their replacements.

The second change resulted from the transition from

military to civilian government which had started in

late 1991, and was supposed to conclude in 1993.

However, as noted later, this changeover did not

occur because of a military coup in mid November

1993. For the research process, this evolution meant

that by the second field season some of the senior

public officials who had been appointed by the mili-

tary government had been replaced by civilian

appointees. Also, by the second field season the

federal government had restructured some govern-

ment agencies. These events meant that extra time

was required to establish contacts with new officials,

some of whom had been in office for a relatively short

time. Furthermore, most likely because of the antici-

pated evolution from military to civilian government,

the researchers found government respondents to be

less open and candid during 1992.

Nevertheless, forty senior and intermediate officials

were interviewed over the two field seasons. Many

people were interviewed more than once. Interviews

were completed with senior officials in all of the key

organizations in the basin. The goal had been to use a

mix of cross-checking data sources, ranging from

published material to interviews with key informants,

to explore issues related to an integrated approach.

This goal was accomplished. In addition, during the

137

second field season a sample of farmers was inter-

viewed. The results from the interviews with farmers

will be reported in another paper.

Obstacles Relating to Management of Edge

Problems

Several key obstacles must be overcome if edge or

boundary problems are to be handled in the Sokoto-

Rima basin. These include: funding, responsibilities,

structures, and implementation and maintenance.

Each will be considered below.

Funding

Significant additional funding is unlikely to be allo-

cated to resolve environmental or resource manage-

ment problems in Nigeria for the foreseeable future

(Beckman, 1987; Parfitt and Riley, 1988). The Niger-

ian economy, dominated by oil from the late 196Os,

experienced a major problem with the drop in oil

prices during the 1980s. Oil revenues fell from a peak

of $25.7 billion (US) in 1980 to $7.0 billion (US) by

1987. As a result of this situation, after June 1989 the

Naira was devalued from virtual parity with the US

dollar to 13 cents (US). Another significant devalua-

tion occurred in 1992. Consequently, the federal

government no longer has the income that allowed it

to undertake major capital-intensive structural initia-

tives during the 1970s.

Another policy initiative has been privatization and

commercialization in order to encourage efficiency.

Privatization involves the sale of parastatal com-

panies to the private sector. Commercialization re-

quires public agencies to charge for services in order

to cover their operating costs. Regarding land and

water management, commercialization has been the

main thrust, with the federal Government continuing

to provide funds for capital costs, but expecting

agencies at the federal and state levels to earn money

to cover operating costs.

The commercialization policy has created problems,

as few public organizations have adequate revenue to

pay for services received from other agencies. Thus,

the Sokoto State Water Board has been slow to pay

the SRBDA for water released to it for urban water

138

supply. In 1991, the Sokoto State Water Board owed

13 million Naira to the authority but of that amount

had paid onI> 1 2 million Naira. And 2 million Naira

was the most the Sokoto State Water Board had cvcr

paid in one year.

The state Ministry of Agriculture and Natural Re-

sources has ncvt’r paid the SRBDA for water released

for irrigation. During interviews, it was alleged that

the state Ministry of Agriculture officials know that

the federal river basin ~~~lth~~rity can not refuse to

release irrigation water because it would become a

major political issue and possibly generate serious

protests. As a result. the river basin authority con-

tinues to release water. even though it has not been

paid.

One impact of this was noted by the researchers on

this project in July 1992. While powcr interrupti~~ns

arc not unusual in Sokoto city, the Nigerian Electrical

Power Authority (NEPA) disconnected the power to

the river authority guest house and some of its other

facilities because the SRBDA had not paid its elec-

tricity bill with NEPA. This “cycle” of nonpayments

highlights the difficulties with a commercialization

policy which requires that land and water agencies

collect income ncccssary to cover operating costs.

A reasonable conclusion is that environmental and

resource dcv~l~~pment prohlcms in Nigeria in general

and Sokoto in particular arc not going to be resolved

through substantial new funding. Public agencies will

have to find other ways to address problems. How-

ever, even if other ways are identified. the agencies

will have to overcome alleged endemic problems of

bureaucratic organization and corruption which re-

sult in much of any new income from c~~In~nerci~ili~~I_

tion not being available to address environmental and

resource problems.

In one of the introductory sections, it was noted that

when cvcryone is in charge, no one is in charge. Such

21 situation often emerges regarding edge or boundary

problems in which different but legitimate interests

exist. Adequate processes or mechanisms must be

present to handle such situations.

Situations do exist in which everyone stems to hc in

charge in the Sokoto-Rimu basin. Several cxamplea

illustrate this conclusion. First, ~1 gabion protective

work near Wllrn~~ rcyuired repair. Over- a three-year

period. it was reported that consideration for the

necessary repairs passed from the Ministry of Agri-

culture, to SARDA. to the Sokoto-Rima River Basin

Development Authority, to the Ministry of Public

Works. During that time. while these various federal

and state agcncics were considering tvhich of them

was rtsponsihlc for the repair work. the gabion deter-

ioratcd to a stage that it was no longer functional.

Second. when the Goronyo Dam was under construc-

tion, a bridge was built d~~w~nstr~~~n~ to facilitate

crossing of the Rima River by nearby villagers. After

the dam was constructed and the reservoir tilled, the

operators of the Goronyo Dam had guidelines

regarding safe levels for the water behind the dam.

During 1988, shortly after the dam and reservoir had

become functional. the operators noticed that the

water levels in the reservoir had risen above the

specified safe level, and they immedi~ltely rclcasetl :I

large amount of water. One outcome was serious

damage to the downstream bridge. to the extent that

it was unusable for either vehicular or pedestrian

traffic. The bridge has not been repaired. Expla-

nations were twofold: lack of funds, and disagrcc-

ment between the Ministry of Public Works and the

Sokoto-Rima River Basin Development Authority

about which agency was responsible for the repairs.

In the meantime, nearby villagers oither have to wade

across the river, and/or hire four-wheel drive jeeps to

carry across the river ;lpricultural produce dtstincd

for rural market places.

These two examples illustrate that edge or boundary

problems do exist in Sokoto regarding land and water

management. and at times that considerable delays.

or simply inaction, are the result. At the most senior

level within the state. the Governor meets regularly

with he~~ds~~fl~inistri~s to discuss matters(ftcotlllTlOn

interest, and to dcvclop ways to achicvc cooperation

and coordination. However. at the lcvcl at which

implementation occurs, the researchers frequently

encountcrcd situations in which no obvious process

or mechanism existed to facilitate an integrated

approach. As a result, various boundary or cdgc

problems combined with ambiguous responsibilities

to inhibit coordination of activities. Similar problems

Geoforum/Volume 25 Number 2/1994

also have been noted by Faniran (1972), Adams

(1985a), Salau (1986; 1990), Udofia (1988) and

Hyman (1993).

Structures

Previously, it was argued that edge problems never

can be designed away. Instead, the management

challenge is to achieve integration in the presence of

such problems. In many countries, however, there

often is an ongoing attempt to modify organizational

structures to resolve edge or boundary problems.

Nigeria is no exception. Since the mid-1970s, numer-

ous changes have been made regarding the federal

and state agencies.

For example, a federal Ministry of Water Resources

was created in 1975 but was dissolved in 1976. In

1979, a federal Ministry of Water Resources was

established for a second time. It was maintained until

1984 when it was merged with the Ministry of Agricul-

ture to form a new Ministry of Agriculture, Water

Resources and Rural Development which existed

until December 1989. At the beginning of 1990, a new

Ministry of Water Resources and Rural Develop-

ment was established.

At the press briefing related to the establishment for a

third time of a Ministry of Water Resources, the

Minister explained that the most important reason for

this initiative was “the need for Nigeria to attain

agrarian independence and self-sufficiency in food

production by full exploitation of its water resources

potentials” (Federal Ministry of Water Resources,

1990, p. 1). Several of the key functions of the new

ministry were to formulate and implement a Water

Resources Master Plan for irrigation, including inter-

basin water transfers; to develop and support irri-

gated agriculture and reduce the dependence of the

nation on rainfed agriculture; to promote and sustain

national food security by minimizing unexpected and

undesirable shortfalls in domestic production due to

vagaries of weather; to coordinate the development

and use of water resources for irrigation and water

supply; and to formulate and implement a national

irrigation policy which was consistent with and comp-

lementary to the national agricultural policy. From

these functions, it is apparent that significant bound-

ary or edge problems would exist between the new

139

Ministry of Water Resources and Rural Develop-

ment and the Ministry of Agriculture and Natural

Resources.

One specific decision to deal with edge problems

related to the federal river basin development author-

ities. Until 1990, they had active programs in both

water development and food production. However,

in the press briefing, the new Minister explained that

in the future the river basin authorities were “to

strictly engage in the development of water resources

infrastructure to support irrigated agriculture. This

departs from the past when they were also engaged in

direct food production and other agricultural activi-

ties” (Federal Ministry of Water Resources, 1990. p.

2).

The third iteration of the federal water resources

ministry was short lived. By 1992, the Ministry had

been changed to a Department of Water Resources

within the Ministry of Public Works. This decision

was taken by the federal government to streamline

the number of public agencies, and resulted in 15

federal ministries being amalgamated into 7 minis-

tries. From the viewpoint of integration, however,

the change of a Water Ministry to a department

within the Ministry of Public Works did not remove

or resolve edge problems. It simply changed what had

been inter-Ministry edge problems into intra-

Ministry problems. The need to inter-relate land and

water initiatives, and policies regarding agriculture

and water management and development, remained.

The more important requirements-establishing a

commitment for an integrated approach, and creating

effective mechanisms and processes for

coordination-still required attention.

tmplementation and maintenance

It is not sufficient for integration to occur at the policy

and strategic levels, important as that may be. Atten-

tion also must be given to ensuring that policies and

strategies can be implemented, and once in place can

be maintained. Unfortunately, there is a long history

in Nigeria in general and Sokoto-Rima in particular

of inadequate attention to implementation and main-

tenance. The criticism, of course, can be levelled at

most countries, whether developing or developed

140

(Planas, 1991). Several examples illustrate the nature

of the problem in the Sokoto-Rima basin.

The Bakolori Irrigation Project was the first major

project to be implemented in the Sokoto-Rima river

basin. It was envisaged in a report prepared by the

Food and Agricultural Organization (1969). Located

about 200 kilometres south of the fringes of the

Sahara Desert and 100 kilometres east of Sokoto

City, the Bakolori Dam crosses the Sokoto River. It

was estimated that the reservoir would cover 8.000

hectares of land, would store 450 million cubic metres

of water, and provide irrigation water for an area of

23,200 hectares (Sokoto-Rima River Basin Develop-

ment Authority, 1980. pp. 7-X).

The rationale for Bakolori was that the immediate

area contained large units of suitable terrace and

fudama soils which could be irrigated by gravity feed

from a reservoir. Specifically, it was anticipated that

irrigation would “improve yield from traditional

rainfed crops such as millet, sorghum, groutldnut and

cowpeas” (Sokoto-Rima River Basin Development

Authority, 1980, p. 8). Furthermore, the FAO (1969,

p. 4) report noted that “control of the Sokoto would

have an immediate beneficial effect on the existing

rice cultivation in the lower Rima fadama as the

success of this activity is dependent on the timeliness

of the early Sokoto tloodx”. As a result, the Bakolori

project was to be ‘&the first phase of the long range

development plan” for the arca (FAO. 1969, p. -1).

Construction of the Hakolori Dam began in June

1975, and it was commissioned in April I9X3. About

20,0(~0 people wcrc relocated as a result of the rtser-

voir. However, by 1902 it was rcportcd to the re-

search team that the most land which had cvcr been

irrigated by sprinkler in a growin, C’ w~1soIl \VilS ti.000

hectares, the cyuivalent arca to the land irliind~~tcd by

the reservoir. The explanation was that all of the

irrigation sprinkling eyuipmcnt ~vas made in Italy.

and that there was only enough equipment to facili-

tatc irrigation of iy.000 hcctarcs. Furthermore. hc-

cause of foreign exchange problems. no funds were

available either to acquire additional equipment or to

replace existing cquipmrnt as it fell into disrepair. As

a result, the potential for the Bakolori project had not

been realized almost 10 years after the prctjcct had

hcen commissioned. A key reason. it has been

suggested, was that inadequate provision was made

for ~~nplclnent~~ti~~~~ and n~ailitc~i~lncc of the \prinklcr

irrigation equipment needed to supply water to the

fnrmcrs’ fields.

The CJorwly~ project {XX the “second phase of the

overall agricultural development programme for the

Sokoto Rima basins” (Sokoto-Rima River Basin

Development Authority. 1080. p. 9). It also was

proposed in the FAO report in 1Yh9. The Goronyo

dam. located about 90 kilometres northeast ofsokoto

city, crosses the Rima River and creates a 200 square

kilometre reservoir. It was estimated that the rcser-

voir would “double the present rice cultivated fada-

mas from 40.0~~~~ to ~O.~~~)O hectares. In addition, on

construction of irrigated systems on the down stream

of dam (sic), a double cropping irrigation is expected

to be developed in another 33,(tOO hectares” (Sokoto-

Rima River Basin Development Authority. 1980, p.

9). The dam and reservoir work was started in 1979

and was substantially completed by May 1984. Forty-

five villages involving about 29,000 people were reset-

tled as a result of the c(~nstructi~~tl.

No irrigation canals have ever been built to move

water to the adjacent ticlds. although occasionally

water is released from the reservoir to irrigate the

fields by flooding. It was cxplaincd to the researchers

that the hesitation to completu the irrigation infra-

structure at Goronyo was partially a result of the

mixed success at Bakolori. and a conclusion that no

~~dd~ti(~n~~l money should bc spent until there \vas

confidence that the outcome at Goronyo would bc

appropriate. As funding becomes more and more

difficult to obtain. the realization ol the potential

irrig~lti(~ii hcnctits from Gimfnyo appears to hc bc-

coming increasingly reduced. Cioronvo. like Bako-

tori, partially serve\ to illustrate a prt&cupation with

ma@ capital works, without adcyuatc provision for

the iinpicmc~it~ltit~~~, operation and n~~~ititctl~~ncc of

ctthcr essential components (Faniran. 19fs.i).

Addressing Edge Problems Regarding Integrated

Management

While attention must bc given to all five comptrncnts

in Figure I . l~~~;lit)lf?~~~~~? or cwtfihilify regarding an

integrated approach ideally dcscrvcs the highest

priority in Sokoto-Rima, at Icast initially. in other

m~~rcis. if action is not taken to give credibility to the

Geoforum/Volume 25 Number 2/1994

idea of an integrated approach, then adjustments to

functions, structures, processes and mechanisms, and

organizational culture will be little more than ges-

tures. In Nigeria, for credibility to be given to an

integrated approach, some major problems will have

to be overcome, problems which in the short- to

medium-term may be insurmountable.

The Federal Government of Nigeria needs to indicate

that an integrated approach is expected by all federal

and state organizations. An integrated approach

should be built into the corporate strategy for all

federal and state agencies, and this should be com-

pleted within a specified time. The challenge in this

regard is that while in 1991 and 1992 the country

appeared to be evolving toward a civilian government

and a degree of stability, during 1993 some major

setbacks were experienced.

Following the June 1993 elections for a civilian presi-

dent, the former military dictator, General Ibrahim

Babangida annulled the results since the presidential

winner, Moshood Abiola from the South, was unac-

ceptable to the Hausa and Fulani people in the North

who have long dominated Nigerian politics and the

military. Then in mid November 1993, General Sani

Abacha declared himself ruler of Nigeria. Abacha

removed an interim civilian government, and dis-

solved the National Assembly and the two national

parties, as well as the 30 state and 529 municipal

governments. All senior civilian officials were re-

placed by military commanders. With a military gov-

ernment focused upon maintaining control over the

country, it is unlikely that General Abacha will place

high priority on integrated water and land manage-

ment. And, with the dissolving of the federal, state

and local government capacity, the basic infra-

structure needed to deliver an integrated approach

that reflects both national and regional perspectives

has disappeared. As a result, it is unlikely that much

leadership will be given by the military government to

provide credibility for the concept of integrated man-

agement in Nigeria.

Even if credibility for an integrated approach were

created, then significant effort would be required to

establish an organizational culture compatible with an

integrated approach. As in many countries, before

the dissolution of the civilian government in

November 1993, most agency representatives in

141

Sokoto-Rima understood and focused only upon

their own mandates, objectives and programs. Most

individual managers showed little interest in, aware-

ness about, or understanding of the responsibilities

and activities of other agencies. This lack of interest,

awareness or understanding was further exacerbated

by underfunding and overstaffing to agencies, as well

as by alleged bureaucratic ineptitude and corruption

in the Nigerian public service.

Thus, achieving an organizational culture supportive

of an integrated approach faces major problems in

Nigeria. First. a military government which in late

1993 removed state and local governments is unlikely

to be unduly concerned about achieving a balance

and integration of federal and regional views.

Furthermore, even if some mix of civilian-military

governance were to evolve, the long tradition of

agencies only focusing upon their own mandates

would be a major hurdle to overcome. As a result of

the significant problems related to a likely lack of

interest in integrated management, and the heritage

of an organizational culture which has been the

antithesis of integration and cooperation, the pros-

pects for Nigeria being able to practice the principles

identified at the Dublin conference appear to be slim

in both the short- and medium-term future.

However, even if progress can not be realized regard-

ing legitimation and organizational culture, there is

the possibility that improvements could be made

regarding management funcrions. In the Sokoto-

Rima basin, ambiguity exists regarding responsibility

for water and land management in general, and

irrigation activity in particular. Decisions are needed

at the federal level to establish which agencies should

have the lead role regarding specific functions. In

addition, if commercialization is to continue as

federal policy, steps must be taken to ensure that

payments are made by government agencies for ser-

vices received from other federal or state agencies,

and that the revenues are made available to support

the mandates of those agencies. Without such enfor-

cement, agencies will not have the necessary funds to

cover the operating costs, which are assumed to be

covered by them under the commercialization policy.

Given the extent to which corruption is alleged to

exist in the Nigerian governance system, the pros-

pects for significant improvements in this regard must

be considered to be poor.

142

In the short- and medium-term, no further changes

should bc made to the organizational .strzrc~zrre.s. l‘hc

rationale is that edge problems always exist regarding

management functions whet-c there arc shared intcr-

ests. Modifying the organizations never removca

these boundary and cdgc problems. It simply rc-

arranges them. As a result. it is more important to

take actions regarding legitimation. organizational

culture. and functions than structures. Only after the

necessarv initiatives have hcun taken for- those three

components related to an intcgratcd approach should

attention be given to the opportunities to fine tune

organizational structures.

Ackt7oM;lrc~~~etnprlts--7‘he financial support of the Intcr- national Dcvclopmcnt Rcscarch Centrc. Ottawa. as well as the support of the University of Lagos Central Rescxch Committee during field work in IYYI and IYYZ in the Sokoto-Rima basin has been very much npprcciatcrl. The participation, advice, and assistance of Pctcr Atlcniyi, Isaac Balogun, Ron Bullock, Lekan Oyebande. A. Soneyc and Wendy Wynia is gratefully acknowledged. The cooperation of governtnent ofticials and farmers in the Sokoto-Ritna basin was also very much appreciated. The constructive suggestions of two miknown reviewers also led to improvc- tnents.

References

Adams. W. M. (lY84) Irrigation 21s hazard: farmers rc‘- sponsec to the introduction of irrigation in Sokoto. Nigeria. In: Irrigutiott itr 7iopicuI njkk7: Protdetm trt7rl

I’rohletn-So/~,itzg. pp. 111-130. W. M. Adams :und A. T. Grove (Eds). African Studies Ccntre. Cambridge.

Adams, W. M. ( IYXSa) The downstream itnpacts of dam construction: a case study from Nigeria, Trrct7srcc~tiot7s r!f’

/hc lmtit77re of British C;cogrcrpl7r,t:s. 10, 7Y2?302.

Adams, W. M. .(lYXSb) River hasin planning in Nigeria. Applied Geograpl7_y. 5, 2Y7-30X.

Adatns, W. M. (lYX6) Traditional agriculture and water USC in the Sokoto Valley, Nigeria, Grogrcrltl7ic,cr/ Jmrrt7rrl.

152. 30-13. Adams, W M. (1957) Approxhcs to water rcsourcc dcvel-

optnent, Sokotn Valley, Nigeria: the prohlcm of \ustai- nahility. In: (‘ot7sc,r.~,crliot7 ita Africrr. pp. 307--33, D. Andcrscn and R. Grove (Eds). (‘amhridgc liniveraitb Press. Camhridgc.

Adams. W. M. and Hughes. F. M. R. ( IYXh) The cnviron- mental effects of dam construction in tropical Africa: impacts and planning procedures, Grofiw7rtt7. 17, 40%

410. Adams, M M. and Carter. R. c‘. ( lYS7) Small-scale it-riga

tion in Sub-Saharan Africa, Progress it7 Physictrl C;cwq-

tqi7V. 11. l-77. Adeniyi. P. 0. (IYXX) Resource mapping of the Sohoto-

Ritna Ixtsin. Northwestern Nigeria: ;I cooperative re- mote \en\ing research project. In: Sottw Applic~~ifiott.5 o/’

(;eot’orum/Volumc 3 Number 2IlW4

lic~tttolc~ .Sc,tisitrg it7 :Vortli l\‘f’,\i .Ni,fyritr: iI 1’0.51.Ptvjccl

WorXsl7op Mrrlf~ritrl ot7 Hcsoi7tw Mfrppitig ftJ Ilrc .Sokolo-

Ritt7tr hsit7, pp. ILIT. P. 0. Adeniyi and R. A. Bulloch ((‘(ml’.). University of Lagos. Department of Geog- raphy and Planning. Lagos.

Atlcniyi I’. 0. and Bullock. K. A. (Eels) (IYXX) Sefr.sotrul

l.trt7fl il.sf, C‘owr it7 .Yorrh,2wt Nigc,ritr, Llniversity of Waterloo, Dcparttncnt of (icographv. Occasional Papc’r No. X. Watdoo. Ontario.

Baha. .I_ M. ( lYX4) I>evcloping rural Nigeria through capi- tal intensive it-rigition project\. .lorrrtitrl oj Iss77f~s it7

I~c~r~c~lopttll~t,/. I. lbl7. Beckman. B. ( 10X7) Public invcsttnent and agrarian trarts-

tormation in northern Nigeria. In: .Strlte, Oil rrt7d Agri-

mII77rc it7 ,‘L’ipv+7. pp. llC-137. M. Watts (Ed.). Institute of International Studies. Berkeley. California.

Downs, I’. W.. (it-cgory. K. .I. and Brookes, A. (IYYI) How integrated is rivet- hasin managcmcnt?, Et7l,irof7vt7ctitcrI

Mr7t7r7pw1ct,l. 15. ‘7YO~3OY. Ehong. M. 0. ( IYXH) Rivet- txtsin dcvelopmcnt as :I regional

planning \tratcgy: the case of the Cross River. Nigeria. 7‘17irtl World Plrrt7t7it7,g Rcl,irrib. 10. 4 lY430.

Eddison. ‘I‘. ( 1YS.S) Managing an ecological \ystctn 5: reforming ths txtreauct-ncy. ~27r.strrrlicfti Qrrrirfcrl~. 57.

14x-15.3.

Eghoka. B. C. E.. Mhanugoh. R. E., Nwogutc. N. S.. Uma. K. 0. and Okpoko. E. I. (IYXX) Positive impli- cation of handdug wells in water resources planning and managctncnt in ;I developing economy such as Nigeria. Wrrff~r /t7tc’rt7rrliot7u/. 13. YX-105.

Falkenmark, M. (1565) Integration in the river-ha\in con- test. Attihio. 14. 11X-120.

Fanit-an. A. (lY72) River basins as planning units, In: I’lr777t7it7,q fitr ,Yigc,ritr: A Groyccpl7icrrl Approucl7, pp. l2S-154. K. M. Barhour (Ed.). Ibxlan University Press, Ilxltl~ltl.

Faniran. A. (IYS3) New approaches to water supply in tlcvctoping countries: csamples from the Nigerian situ- ation. R’c7f77rd Rc.so77tu,.\ Forrrtt7. 7. 371&175.

Fcdcral Ministrv of Water Resources (IYYO) 1900 Mit7isrc~r-

irrl I’rm Bt’i~,/it7~:----lt7r77rgurNI Pw.ss Bricfit7g. N igcria Fetlcral Ministry of Water Resources. Nicon Noga Hil- ton Hotel. Ahuja. 7 Decemhcr.

Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations ( IYhY) .Srtil rrt~tl Wrttc,r Rr.wurws .Sctrljc,>, of the Sokoto \‘ullc,y, Ni,yc,rirr Vol. III: Plan for Development of the Walct- Rcsout-ccs. FAO/SF:67/NIR .3. United Nations Dcvclopmcnt Programtnc. FAO. Rome.

Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations ( IYY I ) Riigcrirr: Lrrtid Rcsoirrw.~ i2frrt7r7gcvt7et7r .S/iui~.

Volt~mc I : Main Report and Annex I. Report No. 31101 (‘I’-NI K 31 SPN. FAOiWorld Bank Cooperative Pro- gamme. Invextmcnt <‘cntrc. Rome. 4 April.

Gormlcy. W. T. ( 10x7) Institutional policy analysis: ;I critical rc‘\ ie\! 1 ./o77rtrtt/ of’ P0lic.F At7frlwi.s rrtrtl Matzf7gc-

tt7(‘17/. 6, 153~1h’J. Hyman. E. L. ( lYY.3) Forestry practices and programmcs

for tuclwood supply in Northern Nigeria. I,crrtcl U.sc I’dif:\‘, 10. 3-13.

Imprcsit ( I Y7-I) Wrrkrrlori Proje’c.t: fir.st pl7tr.sc f!f 711~ Sokoto- Rittzrr Hrr.sitt I)c,~,f,lol”tif,t7f. jitifrl tqtorf. lmprcait and NLIO\,O (‘xtoro. Rome.

III~I-;II~. 13. M., Mann. D. E.. Weathcrfot-cl. G. D. and (‘ortncr. H. .I. (lW4) <;uidelines for improced institu-

GeoforumNolume 25 Number 2/1994

tional analysis in water resources planning, Water Re- sources Research, 20, 323-334.

Kimmage, K. (1991) Small scale irrigation initiatives in Nigeria: the problems of equity and sustainability, Ap- plied Geography, 11, S-20.

Kimmage, K. and Adams, W. M. (1990) Small-scale farmer managed irrigation in northern Nigeria, Geoforum, 21, 43.5443.

Koudstaal, R., Rijsberman, F. R. and Savenije, H. (1992) Water and sustainable development, Natural Resources Forum, 16,277-2Y0.

Mitchell, B. (1990) Introduction, In: Integrated Water Man- agement: International Experiences and Perspectives, pp. l-21, B. Mitchell (Ed.). Belhaven, London.

Noble, J. H., Banta, J. S. and Rosenberg, J. S. (1977) Groping Through the Maze. The Conservation Foun- dation, Washington, DC.

Obot, J. U. (1992) Science, technology and food problems in Nigerian development, GeoJournal, 26, 349-356.

Okafor, F. C. (1985) River basin management and food crisis in Nigeria. Geoforum, 16, 413421.

Ojiako, G. U. (1985) Nigerian water resources and their management, Water International, 10, 64-72.

Ojo, S. O., Ijioma, M. and Ojo, A. 0. (1986) Consumptive water use of rainfed maize in Nigeria, Singapore Journal of Tropical Geography, 7, 12&144.

Olofin, E. A. (1985) Climatic constraints to water resource development in the Sudana-Sahelian Zone of Nigeria, Water International, 10, 20-37.

Olaniran, 0. J. (1988) The distribution in space of rain-days of rainfall of different amounts in the Tropics: Nigeria as a case study, Geoforum, 19,507-520.

143

Oyebande, L. and Balogun, I. (1992) Water resources management in the semi-arid regions of Nigeria, Cana- dian Journal ofDevelopment Studies, Special Issue, 209- 226.

Parfitt, T. W. and Riley, S. P. (198X) African debt and the debate on stabilisation: the case of Nigeria, Geoforum, 19, 93-108.

Planas, A. (1991) Operation and maintenance of water projects and services in Latin America, Natural Re- sources Forum, 15.228-234.

Royal Commission on the Future of the Toronto Water- front (1992) Regeneration, Minister of Supply and Ser- vices Canada, and Queen’s Printer of Ontario, Ottawa and Toronto.

Salau, A. T. (1986) River basin planning as a strategy for rural development in Nigeria. Journal of Rural Studies, 32, 321-335.

Salau, A. T. (1990) Integrated water management: the Nigerian experience, In: Zntegrated Wuter Management: Internationul Experiences and Perspectives, pp. 188-202, B. Mitchell (Ed.). Belhaven, London.

Schramm, G. (1980) Intcgratcd river basin planning in a holistic universe, Natural Resources Journal, 20. 787- 806.

Sokoto-Rima River Basin Development Authority (1980) 6th Annual Report, 1 April 1979-31 March 1980, Sokoto-Rima River Basin Development Authority, Sokoto, Nigeria.

Udofia, W. E. (1988) The role of river basins and Rural Development Authorities in the development process: the case of Cross River State, Nigeria, Third World Planning Review, 10, 405418.