ADJECTIVESADJECTIVES

• Definition• Adjectives are words that describe or

modify another person or thing in the sentence. The Articles — a, an, and the — are adjectives.

• the tall professor • the lugubrious lieutenant • a solid commitment • a month's pay • a six-year-old child • the unhappiest, richest man

Position of AdjectivesPosition of Adjectives

• Unlike Adverbs, which often seem capable of popping up almost anywhere in a sentence, adjectives nearly always appear immediately before the noun or noun phrase that they modify. Sometimes they appear in a string of adjectives, and when they do, they appear in a set order according to category. (See Below.) When indefinite pronouns — such as something, someone, anybody — are modified by an adjective, the adjective comes after the pronoun:

• Anyone capable of doing something horrible to someone nice should be punished. Something wicked this way comes.

Degrees of AdjectivesDegrees of Adjectives

• Adjectives can express degrees of modification: • Gladys is a rich woman, but Josie is richer than Gladys, and

Sadie is the richest woman in town. • The degrees of comparison are known as the positive, the

comparative, and the superlative. (Actually, only the comparative and superlative show degrees.) We use the comparative for comparing two things and the superlative for comparing three or more things. Notice that the word than frequently accompanies the comparative and the word the precedes the superlative. The inflected suffixes -er and -est suffice to form most comparatives and superlatives, although we need -ier and -iest when a two-syllable adjective ends in y (happier and happiest); otherwise we use more and most when an adjective has more than one syllable.

Formation of Comparative Formation of Comparative AdjectivesAdjectives

• There are two ways to make or form a comparative adjective:

• short adjectives: add "-er"• long adjectives: use "more"

Some examples of short adjectivesSome examples of short adjectives

• 1-syllable adjectives • old, fast• 2-syllable adjectives ending in -y; -ly; -ow; -le• happy, easy, readysilly, hilly, holyhollow, shallow, mellowable,

simple, ripeNormal rule: add "-er"old > olderVariation: if the adjective ends in -e, just add -rlate > laterVariation: if the adjective ends in consonant, vowel, consonant, double the last consonantbig > biggerVariation: if the adjective ends in -y, change the y to ihappy > happierLong adjectives

• other 2-syllable adjectives • modern, pleasant• all adjectives of 3 or more syllables • expensive, intellectualNormal rule: use "more" or “less”modern

> more modern expensive > more expensiveinteresting > less interesting

The following are some of the The following are some of the adjectives with irregular formsadjectives with irregular forms

• good > better • well (healthy) > better • bad > worse• far > farther/further

With some 2-syllable adjectives, we can use either '-er' or 'more':

• quiet > quieter/more quiet • clever > cleverer/more clever • narrow > narrower/more narrow • simple > simpler/more simple

Use of Comparative AdjectivesUse of Comparative Adjectives

• Comparative adjectives are used to compare (only) 2 things. If both items of comparison are mentioned in the sentence, the comparative adjective is followed by "than".

• Examples:• John is 1m 85. He is tall. But Chris is 1m 90. He

is taller than John. • China is big, but Russia is bigger. • I want to have a more powerful computer. • Is Croatian more difficult than English?

• NOTE1: Although we use comparative adjectives when talking about two things (not three or more things), in fact one or both of the things may be a group of things.

• Mt Everest is higher than all other mountains. • There are hundreds of mountains, but we are still

comparing one thing (Mt Everest) to one other thing (all other mountains).

• NOTE2: When we compare one thing with itself, we do not use "the":

• England is coldest in winter. (not the coldest) • My boss is most generous when we get a big

order. (not the most generous)

Use of Superlative AdjectivesUse of Superlative Adjectives

• We can use superlative adjectives when talking about three or more things (not two things).

• John is 1m75. David is 1m80. Chris is 1m85. Chris is the tallest.

• Canada, China and Russia are big countries. But Russia is the biggest.

• Mount Everest is the highest mountain in the world.

ADVERBS

An adverb is a word that tells us more about a verb. It "qualifies" or "modifies" a verb (The man ran quickly). In the following examples, the adverb is in bold and the verb that it modifies is in italics.John speaks loudly. (How does John speak?) Afterwards she smoked a cigarette. (When did she smoke?) Mary lives locally. (Where does Mary live?) But adverbs can also modify adjectives (Tara is really beautiful), or even other adverbs (It works very well). Look at these examples:Modify an adjective:- He is really handsome. (How handsome is he?)- That was extremely kind of you.Modify another adverb:- She drives incredibly slowly. (How slowly does she drive?)- He drives extremely fast.

ADVERB FORM

We make many adverbs by adding -ly to an adjective, for example:quick (adjective) > quickly (adverb) careful (adjective) > carefully (adverb) beautiful (adjective) > beautifully (adverb) There are some basic rules about spelling for -ly adverbs. See the table below:Adjective ending do this adjective adverb most adjectives add – ly quick quickly

-able or –ible change -e to –y regrettable regrettably-y change -y to –il happy happily-ic change -ic to –ically economic economically

Kinds of Adverbs Here you can see the basic kinds of adverbs

Adverbs of Manner Adverbs of Manner tell us the manner or way in which something happens. They answer the question "how?". Adverbs of Manner mainly modify verbs.He speaks slowly. (How does he speak?) They helped us cheerfully. (How did they help us?) James Bond drives his cars fast. (How does James Bond drive his cars?)

Adverbs of PlaceAdverbs of Place tell us the place where something happens. They answer the question "where?". Adverbs of Place mainly modify verbs.Please sit here. (Where should I sit?) They looked everywhere. (Where did they look?) Two cars were parked outside. (Where were two cars parked?)

Adverbs of TimeAdverbs of Time tell us something about the time that something happens. Adverbs of Time mainly modify verbs.They can answer the question "when?":He came yesterday. (When did he come?) I want it now. (When do I want it?) Or they can answer the question "how often?":They deliver the newspaper daily. (How often do they deliver the newspaper?) We sometimes watch a movie. (How often do we watch a movie?)

Adverbs of DegreeAdverbs of Degree tell us the degree or extent to which something happens. They answer the question "how much?" or "to what degree?". Adverbs of Degree can modify verbs, adjectives and other adverbs.She entirely agrees with him. (How much does she agree with him?) Mary is very beautiful. (To what degree is Mary beautiful? How beautiful is Mary?) He drove quite dangerously. (To what degree did he drive dangerously? How dangerously did he drive?)

ADVERB POSITION

When an adverb modifies a verb, there are usually 3 possible positions within the sentence or clause:1. FRONT - before subject Now I will read a book2. MID - between subject + verb I often read books.

3. END - after verb/object I read books carefully.

When an adverb modifies an adjective or another adverb, it usually goes in front of the word that it modifies, for example: She gave him a really dirty look.We quite often study English.

Adverbs of Frequency

Adverbs of Frequency are Adverbs of Time that answer the question "How frequently?" or "How often?". They tell us how often something happens. Here are some examples:daily, weekly, yearly often, sometimes, rarely You probably see a difference between a) and b) above. With words like daily we know exactly how often. The words in a) describe definite frequency. On the other hand, words like often give us an idea about frequency but they don't tell us exactly. The words in b) describe indefinite frequency.

ARTICLES

What is an article? Basically, an article is an adjective. Like adjectives, articles modify nouns.English has two articles: the and a/an. The is used to refer to specific or particular nouns; a/an is used to modify non-specific or non-particular nouns. We call the the definite article and a/an the indefinite article.the = definite articlea/an = indefinite articleFor example, if I say, "Let's read the book," I mean a specific book. If I say, "Let's read a book," I mean anybook rather than a specific book.

Here's another way to explain it: The is used to refer to a specific or particular member of a group. For example, "I just saw the most popular movie of the year." There are many movies, but only one particular movie is the most popular. Therefore, we use the."A/an" is used to refer to a non-specific or non-particular member of the group. For example, "I would like to go see a movie." Here, we're not talking about a specific movie. We're talking about any movie. There are many movies, and I want to see any movie. I don't have a specific one in mind.Let's look at each kind of article a little more closely.

Indefinite Articles: a and an

"A" and "an" signal that the noun modified is indefinite, referring to any member of a group. For example:"My daughter really wants a dog for Christmas." This refers to any dog. We don't know which dog because we haven't found the dog yet. "Somebody call a policeman!" This refers to anypoliceman. We don't need a specific policeman; we need any policeman who is available. "When I was at the zoo, I saw an elephant!" Here, we're talking about a single, non-specific thing, in this case an elephant. There are probably several elephants at the zoo, but there's only one we're talking about here.

Remember, using a or an depends on the sound that begins the next word. So...

a + singular noun beginning with a consonant: a boy; a car; a bike; a zoo; a dogan + singular noun beginning with a vowel: an elephant; an egg; an apple; an idiot; an orphana + singular noun beginning with a consonant sound: a user(sounds like 'yoo-zer,' i.e. begins with a consonant 'y' sound, so 'a' is used); a university; a unicyclean + nouns starting with silent "h": an houra + nouns starting with a pronounced "h": a horse

In some cases where "h" is pronounced, such as "historical," you can use an. However, a is more commonly used and preferred.

A historical event is worth recording.

If the noun is modified by an adjective, the choice between a and an depends on the initial sound of the adjective that immediately follows the article:a broken egg an unusual problema European country (sounds like 'yer-o-pi-an,' i.e. begins with consonant 'y' sound)

Remember, too, that in English, the indefinite articles are used to indicate membership in a group:I am a teacher. (I am a member of a large group known as teachers.) Brian is an Irishman. (Brian is a member of the people known as Irish.) Seiko is a practicing Buddhist. (Seiko is a member of the group of people known as Buddhists.)

The definite article

The definite article is used before singular and plural nouns when the noun is specific or particular. The signals that the noun is definite, that it refers to a particular member of a group. For example:"The dog that bit me ran away." Here, we're talking about a specific dog, the dog that bit me."I was happy to see the policeman who saved my cat!" Here, we're talking about a particular policeman. Even if we don't know the policeman's name, it's still a particular policeman because it is the one who saved the cat."I saw the elephant at the zoo." Here, we're talking about a specific noun. Probably there is only one elephant at the zoo.

OMISSION OF ARTICLES

Some common types of nouns that don't take an article are:Names of languages and nationalities: Chinese, English, Spanish, Russian (unless you are referring to the population of the nation: "The Spanish are known for their warm hospitality.")

Names of sports: volleyball, hockey, baseballNames of academic subjects: mathematics, biology, history, computer science

Excersize:

Directions: Fill in the blank with the appropriate article, a, an, or the, or leave the space blank if no article is needed.1. I want ____ apple from that basket.2. ____ church on the corner is progressive.3. Miss Lin speaks ____ Chinese.4. I borrowed ____ pencil from your pile of pencils and pens.5. One of the students said, "____ professor is late today."6 Eli likes to play ____ volleyball.7. I bought ____ umbrella to go out in the rain.8. My daughter is learning to play ____ violin at her school.9. Please give me ____ cake that is on the counter.10. I lived on ____ Main Street when I first came to town.11. Albany is the capital of ____ New York State.12. My husband's family speaks ____ Polish.13. ____ apple a day keeps the doctor away.14. ____ ink in my pen is red.15. Our neighbors have ____ cat and ____ dog.

Answers

1. I want an apple from that basket.2. The church on the corner is progressive.3. Miss Lin speaks Chinese. (no article needed)4. I borrowed a pencil from your pile of pencils and pens.5. One of the students said, "The professor is late today."6. Eli likes to play volleyball. (no article needed)7. I bought an umbrella to go out in the rain.8. My daughter is learning to play the violin at her school.9. Please give me the cake that is on the counter.10. I lived on Main Street when I first came to town. (no article needed)11. Albany is the capital of New York State. (no article needed)12. My husband's family speaks Polish. (no article needed)13. An apple a day keeps the doctor away.14. The ink in my pen is red.15. Our neighbors have a cat and a dog.

Uncountable nouns

Some nouns in English are uncountable. In other words, they are not used with a or an and do not have plural forms. For example, the word information, as in the phrase I need some information.In order to refer to a particular number of an uncountable noun, especially one, you can join the noun to a word that is itself countable, or use a countable synonym instead.

music, art, love, happiness advice, information, news furniture, luggage rice, sugar, butter, water electricity, gas, power money, currency

We usually treat uncountable nouns as singular. We use a singular verb. For example:This news is very important. Your luggage looks heavy.

We do not usually use the indefinite article a/an with uncountable nouns. We cannot say "an information" or "a music". But we can say a something of:a piece of news a bottle of water a grain of rice We can use some and any with uncountable nouns:I've got some money. Have you got any rice? We can use a little and much with uncountable nouns:I've got a little money. I haven't got much rice.

ConditionalConditional sentencessentences

There are three types of the ifThere are three types of the if--clauses.clauses.Type Type -- conditionconditionI condition possible to fulfillI condition possible to fulfillII condition in theory possible to fulfillII condition in theory possible to fulfillIII condition not possible to fulfill (too late)III condition not possible to fulfill (too late)

TypeType ifif clauseclause mainmain clauseclauseII SimpleSimple PresentPresent willwill--futurefuture (or (or

ModalModal + infinitive)+ infinitive)

IIII SimpleSimple PastPast wouldwould /might/could+/might/could+infinitiveinfinitive

IIIIII Past Past PerfectPerfect wouldwould + + havehave + + pastpast participleparticiple

ExamplesExamples ((ifif--clauseclause at at thethe beginningbeginning))

TypeType ifif clauseclause mainmain clauseclauseII If I study, If I study, I will pass the exam.I will pass the exam.

II II If I studied,If I studied, I would pass the I would pass the exam.exam.

IIIIII If I had studied, I would have passed If I had studied, I would have passed the exam.the exam.

Examples (ifExamples (if--clause at the end)clause at the end)

TypeType main clausemain clause ifif--clauseclause

II I will pass the examI will pass the exam if I study.if I study.

IIII I would pass the examI would pass the exam if I if I studied.studied.

IIIIII I would have passed the examI would have passed the exam if I had if I had studied.studied.

ExerciseExercise

1) 1) IfIf I (I (gogo) to ) to LeipzigLeipzig, I'll , I'll visitvisit thethe zoo.zoo.2) If it (rain), we'd be in the garden.2) If it (rain), we'd be in the garden.3) If you (wear) a lighter jacket, the car driver 3) If you (wear) a lighter jacket, the car driver

would have seen you earlier.would have seen you earlier.4) We (watch) TV tonight if Peter hadn't bought 4) We (watch) TV tonight if Peter hadn't bought

the theatre tickets.the theatre tickets.5) She wouldn't have had (sign)two laptops if she 5) She wouldn't have had (sign)two laptops if she

the contract.the contract.

6) If I was/were a millionaire, I (live)in Beverly Hills.6) If I was/were a millionaire, I (live)in Beverly Hills.7) You would save energy if you (switch off) the 7) You would save energy if you (switch off) the lights more often.lights more often.8) If we had read the book, we (understand) the film.8) If we had read the book, we (understand) the film.9) My sister could score better on the test if the 9) My sister could score better on the test if the teacher (explain) the grammar once more.teacher (explain) the grammar once more.10) They (arrive) on time if they hadn't missed the 10) They (arrive) on time if they hadn't missed the train.train.

AnswersAnswers1) If I 1) If I gogo to Leipzig, I'll visit the zoo.2) If it to Leipzig, I'll visit the zoo.2) If it didn't didn't rainrain, we'd be in the garden.3) If you , we'd be in the garden.3) If you had wornhad worn a a lighter jacket, the car driver would have seen you lighter jacket, the car driver would have seen you earlier.4) We earlier.4) We would have watchedwould have watched TV tonight if TV tonight if Peter hadn't bought the theatre tickets.5) She wouldn't Peter hadn't bought the theatre tickets.5) She wouldn't have had two laptops if she have had two laptops if she had not signedhad not signed the the contract.6) If I was/were a millionaire, I contract.6) If I was/were a millionaire, I would livewould live in in Beverly Hills.7) You would save energy if you Beverly Hills.7) You would save energy if you switched offswitched off the lights more often.8) If we had read the lights more often.8) If we had read the book, we the book, we would have understoodwould have understood the film.9) My the film.9) My sister could score better on the test if the teacher sister could score better on the test if the teacher explainedexplained the grammar once more.10) They the grammar once more.10) They might might have arrivedhave arrived on time if they hadn't missed the train.on time if they hadn't missed the train.

FUTURE FORMSFUTURE FORMS

FORM FORM ““WillWill””

[[willwill + + verbverb]]ExamplesExamples::You You will helpwill help him later. him later. WillWill you you helphelp him later? him later? You You will not helpwill not help him laterhim later

FORM FORM ““BeBe GoingGoing ToTo””

[am/is/are + [am/is/are + goinggoing to + to + verbverb]]

ExamplesExamples::You You are going to meetare going to meet Jane tonight. Jane tonight. AreAre you you going to meetgoing to meet Jane tonight? Jane tonight? You You are not going to meetare not going to meet Jane tonight. Jane tonight.

USE 1 "Will" to Express a VoluntaryUSE 1 "Will" to Express a Voluntary ActionAction

"Will" often suggests that a speaker will do something "Will" often suggests that a speaker will do something voluntarily. It is used to express a voluntarily. It is used to express a decision, intention, decision, intention, offer or promise madeoffer or promise made at the moment of speaking.at the moment of speaking.Similarly, we use "will not" or "won't" when we refuse to Similarly, we use "will not" or "won't" when we refuse to voluntarily do something. voluntarily do something.

Examples:Examples:I I will send will send you the information when I get it. you the information when I get it. I I will translatewill translate the email, so Mr. Smith can read it. the email, so Mr. Smith can read it. WillWill you you helphelp me move this heavy table?me move this heavy table?

USE 2 "Be going to" to Express a PlanUSE 2 "Be going to" to Express a Plan

““Be going to" expresses Be going to" expresses that something is a plan that something is a plan made made before the moment of speakingbefore the moment of speaking. It expresses the idea . It expresses the idea that a person intends to do something in the future. It that a person intends to do something in the future. It does not matter whether the plan is realistic or not. does not matter whether the plan is realistic or not.

Examples:Examples:He He is going to spendis going to spend his vacation in Hawaii. his vacation in Hawaii. She She is not going to spendis not going to spend her vacation in Hawaii. her vacation in Hawaii. A: When A: When areare we we going to meetgoing to meet each other tonight?each other tonight?B: We B: We are going to meetare going to meet at 6 PM. at 6 PM.

USE 3 "Will" or "Be Going to" to Express a USE 3 "Will" or "Be Going to" to Express a PredictionPrediction

Both "will" and "be going to" can express the idea of a Both "will" and "be going to" can express the idea of a general prediction about the future. Predictions are general prediction about the future. Predictions are guesses about what might happen in the future. In guesses about what might happen in the future. In "prediction" sentences, the subject usually has little "prediction" sentences, the subject usually has little control over the future and therefore USES 1control over the future and therefore USES 1--2 do not 2 do not apply. In the following examples, there is no difference in apply. In the following examples, there is no difference in meaning.meaning.Examples:Examples:The year 2222 The year 2222 will bewill be a very interesting year. a very interesting year. The year 2222 The year 2222 is going to beis going to be a very interesting year. a very interesting year. John Smith John Smith will bewill be the next President. the next President. John Smith John Smith is going to beis going to be the next President. the next President.

Use 4 Present ContinuousUse 4 Present Continuous

We use the present continuous to express a We use the present continuous to express a future arangement (refers to near future)future arangement (refers to near future)

Example:Example:We We are goingare going out with Jenny tonight.out with Jenny tonight.I I m havingm having my hair cutmy hair cut..

No Future in Time ClausesNo Future in Time Clauses

Like all future forms, the Simple Future cannot Like all future forms, the Simple Future cannot be used in clauses beginning with time be used in clauses beginning with time expressions such as: when, while, before, after, expressions such as: when, while, before, after, by the time, as soon as, if, unless, etc. Instead of by the time, as soon as, if, unless, etc. Instead of Simple Future, Simple Future, Simple PresentSimple Present is used. is used. Examples:Examples:When you When you will arrivewill arrive tonight, we will go out for tonight, we will go out for dinner. dinner. Not CorrectNot CorrectWhen you When you arrivearrive tonight, we will go out for tonight, we will go out for dinner. dinner. CorrectCorrect

ADVERB PLACEMENTADVERB PLACEMENT

The examples below show the placement for The examples below show the placement for grammar adverbs such as: always, only, never, grammar adverbs such as: always, only, never, ever, still, just, etc.ever, still, just, etc.Examples:Examples:You will You will nevernever help him. help him. Will you Will you everever help him? help him? You are You are nevernever going to meet Jane. going to meet Jane. Are you Are you everever going to meet Jane? going to meet Jane?

EXERCISEEXERCISE1.1.Michael:Michael: Do you think the Republicans or the Democrats Do you think the Republicans or the Democrats (win) the next election? (win) the next election? Jane:Jane: I think the Republicans (win) the next election. I think the Republicans (win) the next election. John:John: No way! The Democrats (win) . No way! The Democrats (win) .

2. 2. Susan:Susan: We (go) camping this weekend. Would you like We (go) camping this weekend. Would you like to come along? to come along? Sam:Sam: That sounds great, but I don't have a sleeping bag. That sounds great, but I don't have a sleeping bag. Susan:Susan: No problem. I (lend) you one. My family has tons No problem. I (lend) you one. My family has tons of camping gear. of camping gear.

Barbara:Barbara: I (buy) a new car this weekend, but I'm I (buy) a new car this weekend, but I'm a little worried because I don't really know much a little worried because I don't really know much about cars. I'm afraid the salesman (try) to take about cars. I'm afraid the salesman (try) to take advantage of me when he sees how little I know. advantage of me when he sees how little I know.

Dave:Dave: I used to work for a mechanic in high I used to work for a mechanic in high school and I know a lot about cars. I (go) with school and I know a lot about cars. I (go) with you to make sure you are not cheated. you to make sure you are not cheated.

Gina:Gina: Fred and I (visit) Santa Fe next summer. Fred and I (visit) Santa Fe next summer. Have you ever been there?Have you ever been there?

Margaret:Margaret: My family lives in Santa Fe! I (give) My family lives in Santa Fe! I (give) you my parents' phone number. When you get to you my parents' phone number. When you get to Santa Fe, just call them and they (give) you a Santa Fe, just call them and they (give) you a little tour of the town. They can show you some little tour of the town. They can show you some of the sights that most tourists never see. of the sights that most tourists never see.

Pam:Pam: Can you see my future in the crystal ball? Can you see my future in the crystal ball? What (happen) next year? What (happen) next year?

Fortune Teller:Fortune Teller: You (meet) a man from the East You (meet) a man from the East Coast, perhaps New York or maybe Boston. You Coast, perhaps New York or maybe Boston. You (marry) that mystery man. (marry) that mystery man. Pam:Pam: Forget the man! I want to know if I (get) a Forget the man! I want to know if I (get) a new job. new job.

ANSWERSANSWERSMichael:Michael: Do you think the Republicans or the Democrats (win) will Do you think the Republicans or the Democrats (win) will win the next election? win the next election? Jane:Jane: I think the Republicans (win) will win the next election. I think the Republicans (win) will win the next election. John:John: No way! The Democrats (win) are going to win. No way! The Democrats (win) are going to win.

2. 2. Susan:Susan: We (go) are going to go camping this weekend. Would you We (go) are going to go camping this weekend. Would you like to come along? like to come along? Sam:Sam: That sounds great, but I don't have a sleeping bag. That sounds great, but I don't have a sleeping bag. Susan:Susan: No problem. I (lend) will lend you one. My family has tons of No problem. I (lend) will lend you one. My family has tons of camping gear. camping gear.

3. 3. Barbara:Barbara: I (buy) am going to buy a new car this weekend, but I'm a I (buy) am going to buy a new car this weekend, but I'm a little worried because I don't really know much about cars. I'm little worried because I don't really know much about cars. I'm afraid afraid the salesman (try) will try to take advantage of me when he seesthe salesman (try) will try to take advantage of me when he seeshow little I know. how little I know. Dave:Dave: I used to work for a mechanic in high school and I know a lot I used to work for a mechanic in high school and I know a lot about cars. I (go) will go with you to make sure you are not cheabout cars. I (go) will go with you to make sure you are not cheated. ated.

4. 4. Gina:Gina: Fred and I (visit) are going to visit Santa Fe next summer. Fred and I (visit) are going to visit Santa Fe next summer. Have you ever been there? Have you ever been there? Margaret:Margaret: My family lives in Santa Fe! I (give) will give you my My family lives in Santa Fe! I (give) will give you my parents' phone number. When you get to Santa Fe, just call them parents' phone number. When you get to Santa Fe, just call them and they (give) will give you a little tour of the town. They caand they (give) will give you a little tour of the town. They can show n show you some of the sights that most tourists never see. you some of the sights that most tourists never see.

5. 5. Pam:Pam: Can you see my future in the crystal ball? What (happen) will Can you see my future in the crystal ball? What (happen) will happen next year? happen next year? Fortune Teller:Fortune Teller: You (meet) are going to meet a man from the East You (meet) are going to meet a man from the East Coast, perhaps New York or maybe Boston. You (marry) will marry Coast, perhaps New York or maybe Boston. You (marry) will marry that mystery man. that mystery man. Pam:Pam: Forget the man! I want to know if I (get) will get a new job. Forget the man! I want to know if I (get) will get a new job.

PASSIVE VOICEPASSIVE VOICE

USE OF PASSIVEUSE OF PASSIVE

• Passive voice is used when the focus is on the action. It is not important or not known, however, who or what is performing the action.

• Example: My bike was stolen.• In the example above, the focus is on the

fact that my bike was stolen. I do not know, however, who did it.

HOW TO REWRITE AN ACTIVE HOW TO REWRITE AN ACTIVE SENTENCESENTENCE

• When rewriting active sentences in passive voice, note the following:

• the object of the active sentence becomes the subject of the passive sentence

• the finite form of the verb is changed (to be + past participle)

• the subject of the active sentence becomes the object of the passive sentence (or is dropped)

Form of PassiveForm of Passive

• Simple Present• Active:Rita writes a letter.• Passive:A letter is written by Rita.

• Simple Past• Active: Rita wrote a letter.• Passive: A letter was written by Rita.

• Present Continuous• Active: Rita is writing a letter.• Passive: A letter is being writen by Rita.

• Past Continuous• Active: Rita was writing a letter.• Passive: A letter was being written by Rita.

• Present Perfect• Active: Rita has written a letter.• Passive: A letter has been written by Rita.

• Past Perfect (Pluperfect)• Active: Rita had written a letter.• Passive:A letter had been written by Rita.

• Future• Active: Rita will write a letter.• Passive: A letter wil be written by Rita.

Passive Sentences with Two Objects Passive Sentences with Two Objects

• Rewriting an active sentence with two objects in passive voice means that one of the two objects becomes the subject, the other one remains an object. Which object to transform into a subject depends on what you want to put the focus on.

Subject Verb Object 1 Object2• Active: Rita wrote a letter to me.• Passive: A letter was written to me by Rita.• Passive: I was written a letter by Rita.

ExerciseExercise

• You do not write the letter. • A thief stole my car. • They didn't let him go. • I have opened the present. • They have not read the book.• I was repairing their bikes. • They were not eating dinner. • I am writing a poem. • We are not playing football.

Passive with 2 objectsPassive with 2 objects

• Rachel will give you some advice.• I sent him a letter .• The police officer showed us the way. • We have asked him a favour. • The waiter has not brought us the coffee. • They did not offer her a seat.• They have written her a postcard.

• She told me a lie.

PASSIVE VOICEPASSIVE VOICE

USE OF PASSIVEUSE OF PASSIVE

• Passive voice is used when the focus is on the action. It is not important or not known, however, who or what is performing the action.

• Example: My bike was stolen.• In the example above, the focus is on the fact

that my bike was stolen. I do not know, however, who did it.

HOW TO REWRITE AN ACTIVE HOW TO REWRITE AN ACTIVE SENTENCESENTENCE

• When rewriting active sentences in passive voice, note the following:

• the object of the active sentence becomes the subject of the passive sentence

• the finite form of the verb is changed (to be + past participle) • the subject of the active sentence becomes the object of the passive

sentence (or is dropped)

Subject doing a. verb object receiving a.The professor teaches the students.Subject receiving a. passive v. doing a.The students are taught by the professor

FormForm ofof PassivePassive

The passive voice is formed by using the appropriate form of the verb to be (for example, is) and a past participle (for example, formed).

• Simple Present• Active: Rita writes a letter.• Passive: A letter is written by Rita.

• Simple Past• Active: Rita wrote a letter.• Passive: A letter was written by Rita.

• Present Continuous• Active: Rita is writing a letter.• Passive: A letter is being written by Rita.

• Past Continuous• Active: Rita was writing a letter.• Passive: A letter was being written by Rita.

• Present Perfect• Active: Rita has written a letter.• Passive: A letter has been written by Rita.

• Past Perfect (Pluperfect)• Active: Rita had written a letter.• Passive:A letter had been written by Rita.

• Conditional I• Active: Rita would write a letter.• Passive:A letter would be written by Rita.• Conditional II• Active:Rita would have written a letter.• Passive: A letter would have been written by Rita.• Future• Active: Rita will write a letter.• Passive: A letter will be written by Rita.

Passive Sentences with Two Objects Passive Sentences with Two Objects

• Rewriting an active sentence with two objects in passive voice means that one of the two objects becomes the subject, the other one remains an object. Which object to transform into a subject depends on what you want to put the focus on.

Subject Verb Object 1 Object2• Active: Rita wrote a letter to me.• Passive: A letter was written to me by Rita.• Passive: I was written a letter by Rita.

ExerciseExercise

• You do not write the letter. • A thief stole my car. • They didn't let him go. • I have opened the present. • They have not read the book.• I was repairing their bikes. • They were not eating dinner. • I am writing a poem. • We are not playing football.

PassivePassive withwith 2 2 objectsobjects

• Rachel will give you some advice.• I sent him a letter .• The police officer showed us the way. • We have asked him a favour. • The waiter has not brought us the coffee. • They did not offer her a seat.• They have written her a postcard.

• She told me a lie.

PAST PERFECT TENSEPAST PERFECT TENSE

The past perfect refers to a time The past perfect refers to a time earlier thanearlier than a past time. a past time. It is used to make it clear that one event happened before It is used to make it clear that one event happened before another in the past. It does not matter which event is another in the past. It does not matter which event is mentioned first mentioned first -- the tense makes it clear which one the tense makes it clear which one happened first. happened first.

John John had gonehad gone out when I arrived in the office. out when I arrived in the office.

I I had savedhad saved my document before the computer crashedmy document before the computer crashed. . He was very tired because he He was very tired because he hadn't slepthadn't slept well.well.

USE 1 Completed Action Before Something in USE 1 Completed Action Before Something in the Pastthe Past

The Past Perfect expresses the idea that The Past Perfect expresses the idea that something occurred before another action something occurred before another action in the past. Examples:in the past. Examples:I I hadhad never never seenseen such a beautiful beach such a beautiful beach before I went to Kauai. before I went to Kauai. I did not have any money because I I did not have any money because I had had lostlost my walletmy wallet..

USE 2 Duration Before Something in the Past USE 2 Duration Before Something in the Past

We use the Past Perfect to show that something We use the Past Perfect to show that something started in the past and continued up until started in the past and continued up until another action in the past.another action in the past.Examples:Examples:We We had hadhad had that car for ten years before it that car for ten years before it broke down. broke down. By the time Alex finished his studies, he By the time Alex finished his studies, he had had beenbeen in London for over eight years.in London for over eight years.

ADVERB PLACEMENTADVERB PLACEMENT

The examples below show the placement for The examples below show the placement for grammar adverbs such as: always, only, never, grammar adverbs such as: always, only, never, ever, still, just, etc.ever, still, just, etc.Examples:Examples:You had You had previouslypreviously studied English before you studied English before you moved to New York. moved to New York. Had you Had you previouslypreviously studied English before you studied English before you moved to New York? moved to New York?

FormForm

Positive: “had”+ past participle of the main verb (or –ed)She had written the letter before I came home.

Negative Negative : : ““hadhad”” + not + participle of the main verb (or + not + participle of the main verb (or ––ed)ed)She She had not writtenhad not written the letter before I came home. the letter before I came home. Question:Question: ““hadhad”” + subject+ past participle of the main + subject+ past participle of the main verb (or verb (or ––ed)ed)HadHad she she writtenwritten the book before I came home ?the book before I came home ?

ExerciseExercise Present or Past perfect?Present or Past perfect?

1. I never get up from the table before others 1. I never get up from the table before others --------(finish).(finish).

2. I 2. I -------- (see) many pictures of the pyramids before I (see) many pictures of the pyramids before I went to Egypt last summer. Pictures of the monuments went to Egypt last summer. Pictures of the monuments are very misleading. The pyramids are actually quite are very misleading. The pyramids are actually quite small.small.

3. Sarah 3. Sarah -------- (climb) Mount Everest, (climb) Mount Everest, -------- (sail) around the (sail) around the world, and world, and -------- (go) on safari in Kenya. She is such an (go) on safari in Kenya. She is such an adventurous personadventurous person..

4. Susan 4. Susan -------- (climb) Mount Everest, (climb) Mount Everest, -------- (sail) around (sail) around the world, and the world, and -------- (go) on safari in Kenya by the time (go) on safari in Kenya by the time she was twentyshe was twenty--five. She five. She -------- (experience) more by that (experience) more by that age than most people do in their entire lives.age than most people do in their entire lives.

5. Before my trip lo Paris two years ago, I 5. Before my trip lo Paris two years ago, I -------- (never be) (never be) to France.to France.

6. When we finally stopped him, the squirrel 6. When we finally stopped him, the squirrel -------- (already (already eat) five cookies.eat) five cookies.

1.After Fred 1.After Fred (to spend)(to spend) his holiday in Italy he his holiday in Italy he (to want)(to want) to learn Italian.to learn Italian.

2) Jill 2) Jill (to phone)(to phone) Dad at work before she Dad at work before she (to leave)(to leave) for for her trip.her trip.

3) Susan 3) Susan (to turn on)(to turn on) the radio after she the radio after she (to wash)(to wash) the the dishes.dishes.

4) When she 4) When she (to arrive)(to arrive) the match already the match already (to start)(to start)..5) After the man 5) After the man (to come)(to come) home he home he (to feed)(to feed) the cat.the cat.

6) Before he 6) Before he (to sing)(to sing) a song he a song he (to play)(to play) the the guitar.guitar.7) She 7) She (to watch)(to watch) a video after the children a video after the children (to go)(to go) to bed.to bed.8) After Eric 8) After Eric (to make)(to make) breakfast he breakfast he (to (to phone)phone) his friend.his friend.9) I 9) I (to be)(to be) very tired because I very tired because I (to study)(to study) too too much.much.10) They 10) They (to ride)(to ride) their bikes before they their bikes before they (to (to meet)meet) their friends.their friends.

1.After Fred 1.After Fred had spenthad spent his holiday in Italy he his holiday in Italy he wantedwanted to learn Italian.2) Jill to learn Italian.2) Jill had phonedhad phoned Dad Dad at work before she at work before she leftleft for her trip.3) Susan for her trip.3) Susan turned onturned on the radio after she the radio after she had washedhad washed the the dishes.4) When she dishes.4) When she arrivedarrived the match the match hadhadalready already startedstarted.5) After the man .5) After the man had comehad comehome he home he fedfed the cat.6) Before he the cat.6) Before he sangsang a song a song he he had playedhad played the guitar.7) She the guitar.7) She watchedwatched a a video after the children video after the children had gonehad gone to bed.8) to bed.8) After Eric After Eric had madehad made breakfast he breakfast he phonedphoned his his friend.9) I friend.9) I waswas very tired because I very tired because I had had studiedstudied too much.10) They too much.10) They had riddenhad ridden their their bikes before they bikes before they metmet their friends.their friends.

1. have finished2 had seen3. has climbed, has sailed, has gone4. had climbed, had sailed, had gone, had experienced5. had never been6. had already eaten

PASTPAST PROGRESSIVEPROGRESSIVE Use of Past ProgressiveUse of Past Progressive

puts emphasis on the course of an action in the pastputs emphasis on the course of an action in the pastExample: He Example: He was playingwas playing

football.football.

two actions happening at the same time (in the past)two actions happening at the same time (in the past)Example: While she Example: While she was preparingwas preparing

dinner, he dinner, he was washingwas washing

the dishes.the dishes.

action going on at a certain time in the past action going on at a certain time in the past Example: When I Example: When I was havingwas having

breakfast, the phone suddenly rang.breakfast, the phone suddenly rang.

Signal Words of Past ProgressiveSignal Words of Past Progressivewhen, while, as long as when, while, as long as

FORMFORM

PositivePositive

II

/ he / / he / sheshe

/ it / it waswas

speaking.speaking.You/we/they/ were speaking.You/we/they/ were speaking.

NegativeNegative

II/ he// he/sheshe

/it /it waswas

notnot

speaking.speaking.You/we/they were not speakingYou/we/they were not speaking

Question Question Was I speaking?Was I speaking?Were you/we/they speaking?Were you/we/they speaking?

Exceptions in SpellingExceptions in Spelling

final final ee is dropped (but: is dropped (but: eeee is not changed)comeis not changed)come –– coming coming (but:(but: agreeagree –– agreeing)agreeing)

after a short, stressed vowel, the final consonant is after a short, stressed vowel, the final consonant is doubled sitdoubled sit –– sittingsitting

L L as final consonant after a vowel is doubled (in British as final consonant after a vowel is doubled (in British English) travelEnglish) travel –– travelling travelling

final final ieie becomes becomes y y lielie –– lyinglying

Exceptions in Spelling when Adding Exceptions in Spelling when Adding inging

Write down the ing form of the following words.Mind the Write down the ing form of the following words.Mind the exceptions in spelling.exceptions in spelling.live live →→run run →→give give →→swim swim →→lie lie →→sit sit →→travel travel →→

Was or WereWas or Were

BorisBoris__________ learning English. learning English. TheyThey________ swimming in the lake. swimming in the lake. Your father Your father ________repairing the car. repairing the car. I I ______reading a magazine. reading a magazine. YouYou______ packing your bag. packing your bag. My friends My friends ______watching the match on TV. watching the match on TV. ItIt______ raining. raining. The dogThe dog______ barking. barking. The children The children ________brushing their teeth. brushing their teeth. Anne and MaureenAnne and Maureen________singing a songsinging a song

Positive SentencesPositive Sentences

Yesterday at 3 pm the following people wereYesterday at 3 pm the following people were

in the in the middle of an action.middle of an action.

Write positive sentences in past progressive.Write positive sentences in past progressive.you / play / cards you / play / cards Alice / walk / around the lake Alice / walk / around the lake Caron / listen / to the radio Caron / listen / to the radio we / read / a book about Australia we / read / a book about Australia

Negative SentencesNegative Sentences

Somebody believes that yesterday at 3 pm the following Somebody believes that yesterday at 3 pm the following people were in the middle of an action. That cannot be, people were in the middle of an action. That cannot be, however, as yesterday at 3 pm these people were not however, as yesterday at 3 pm these people were not doing those things.doing those things.

Write negative sentences in past progressive.Write negative sentences in past progressive.Sarah and Luke / not / work Sarah and Luke / not / work Mister Miller / not / teach / chemistry Mister Miller / not / teach / chemistry Barry / not / drive / a lorry Barry / not / drive / a lorry Mandy / not / have / lunch Mandy / not / have / lunch

QuestionsQuestions

You want to know whether the following people You want to know whether the following people were in the middle of an action at a certain time were in the middle of an action at a certain time in the past.in the past.

Write questions in past progressive.Write questions in past progressive.Rachel / feed / the cat Rachel / feed / the cat the children / paint / a picture the children / paint / a picture Clark / repair / his computer Clark / repair / his computer Hazel / swim / in the pool Hazel / swim / in the pool

Put the verbs into the correct form Put the verbs into the correct form (past progressive(past progressive).).

When I phoned my friends, they (play) monopoly. When I phoned my friends, they (play) monopoly. Yesterday at six I (prepare) dinner. Yesterday at six I (prepare) dinner. The kids (play) in the garden when it suddenly began to rain. The kids (play) in the garden when it suddenly began to rain. I (practise) the guitar when he came home. I (practise) the guitar when he came home. We (not / cycle) all day. We (not / cycle) all day. While Aaron (work) in his room, his friends (swim) in the pool. While Aaron (work) in his room, his friends (swim) in the pool. I tried to tell them the truth but they (listen / not) . I tried to tell them the truth but they (listen / not) . What (you / do) yesterday? What (you / do) yesterday? Most of the time we (sit) in the park. Most of the time we (sit) in the park.

PAST SIMPLEPAST SIMPLE

The simple past expresses an The simple past expresses an action in the past taking place once, action in the past taking place once, never, several times. It can also be never, several times. It can also be used for actions taking place one used for actions taking place one after another or in the middle of after another or in the middle of another action.another action.

Form of Simple PastForm of Simple Past

PositivePositive

I/you/he/we/you/they spoke.I/you/he/we/you/they spoke.NegativeNegative

I/you/he/we/you/they did not I/you/he/we/you/they did not speak.speak.

Question Did I/you/he/we/you/they speak.Question Did I/you/he/we/you/they speak.For irregular verbs, use the past form (see For irregular verbs, use the past form (see

list of irregular verbslist of irregular verbs, 2nd column). For , 2nd column). For regular verbs, just add regular verbs, just add ““eded””

Exceptions in Spelling when Adding Exceptions in Spelling when Adding ‘‘eded’’

after a final after a final ee only add only add dd love love –– lovedlovedfinal consonant after a short, stressed final consonant after a short, stressed vowel or vowel or ll as final consonant after a as final consonant after a vowel is doubled admit vowel is doubled admit –– admitted, travel admitted, travel –– travelledtravelledfinal final yy after a consonant becomes after a consonant becomes i i hurry hurry –– hurriedhurried

Use of Simple PastUse of Simple Past

action in the past taking place once, never or several times action in the past taking place once, never or several times Example: He Example: He visitedvisited his parents every weekend.his parents every weekend.

actions in the past taking place one after the other actions in the past taking place one after the other Example: He Example: He camecame in, in, tooktook off his coat and off his coat and satsat down.down.

action in the past taking place in the middle of another actionaction in the past taking place in the middle of another actionExample: When I was having breakfast, the phone suddenly Example: When I was having breakfast, the phone suddenly rangrang..

if sentences type II (If I talked, if sentences type II (If I talked, ……) ) Example: If I Example: If I hadhad a lot of money, I would share it with you.a lot of money, I would share it with you.

Signal Words of Simple PastSignal Words of Simple Pastyesterday, 2 minutes ago, in 1990, the other day, last Friday yesterday, 2 minutes ago, in 1990, the other day, last Friday IfIf--Satz Typ II (If I talked, Satz Typ II (If I talked, ……) )

Was or Were?Was or Were?

Complete the sentences with was or were.Complete the sentences with was or were.II______ happy. happy. YouYou________angry. angry. SheShe________in London last week. in London last week. He He ______on holiday. on holiday. ItIt______ cold. cold. WeWe______at school. at school. YouYou______ at the cinema. at the cinema. TheyThey______ at home. at home. The catThe cat______ on the roof. on the roof. The childrenThe children______ in the gardenin the garden

Write positive sentences Write positive sentences in simple pastin simple past

he / the question / answer he / the question / answer you / a question / ask you / a question / ask the dog / bark the dog / bark they / us / call they / us / call we / a mountain / climb we / a mountain / climb

Exercise on negative Exercise on negative sentencessentences

Rewrite the sentences in the negative.Rewrite the sentences in the negative.They collected postcards. They collected postcards. →→You jumped high. You jumped high. →→Albert played squash. Albert played squash. →→The teacher tested our English. The teacher tested our English. →→Fiona visited her grandma. Fiona visited her grandma. →→

Exercise on questionsExercise on questions

Write questions in simple past.Write questions in simple past.Anna / the window / open Anna / the window / open she / home / walk she / home / walk you / in the garden / work you / in the garden / work you / a song / sing you / a song / sing she / on a chair / sit she / on a chair / sit you / the castle / visit you / the castle / visit Jenny / the door / lock Jenny / the door / lock she / happy / be she / happy / be Greg / the ball / kick Greg / the ball / kick the car / at the corner / stop the car / at the corner / stop

Put the verbs into the correct tense Put the verbs into the correct tense (Simple Past or Past Progressive).(Simple Past or Past Progressive).

While Tom While Tom ((readread)____)____ , Amely, Amely ((watchwatch)____)____ a a documentary on TV. documentary on TV. Marvin Marvin ((comecome)___)___ home, home, ((switchswitch)____)____ on the on the computer and computer and ((checkcheck)______)______ his emails. his emails. We We waitwait)___)___for Jane, when suddenly Louisfor Jane, when suddenly Louis((comecome)___)___ around the corner. around the corner. I I ((cyclecycle)_____)_____ through the park, when through the park, when ((hearhear)___)___I a strange noise. I a strange noise. HeHe ((passpass)____)____ her a message when the her a message when the teacher teacher ((notnot look)____look)____ . .

Two days ago, a murder Two days ago, a murder ((happenhappen)___)___ in in Market Street at about seven pm. Market Street at about seven pm. Yesterday, Sherlock Holmes Yesterday, Sherlock Holmes ((arrivearrive)____)____ at at the crime scene to investigate. the crime scene to investigate. He He ((askask)____)____ one of the tenants in the house. one of the tenants in the house. »»What What (do/(do/youyou)___)___ yesterday at seven?yesterday at seven?««»»II ((watchwatch)___)___ a football match on TV.a football match on TV.««»» ((BeBe)____)____ you alone?you alone?««»»Yes, IYes, I( ( bebe)____)____ ..««

»» ((hearhear //youyou/____/____ anything anything suspicious?suspicious?««»»Yes, about seven o'clock, two people Yes, about seven o'clock, two people ((argueargue)_____)_____ in the hallway. But the in the hallway. But the football match football match ((bebe)_____)_____ so interesting. so interesting. So I just So I just ((turnturn)____)____ up the telly and up the telly and then then ((hearhear notnot) ) anything anymore.anything anymore.««

Put the verbs into the correct tense Put the verbs into the correct tense (simple past or past progressive(simple past or past progressive))

When I When I (do)(do) the washingthe washing--up, I up, I ((braekbraek)) a plate. a plate. While Tom While Tom ((playplay)) the piano, his motherthe piano, his mother (do)(do) the washingthe washing--up. up. He He ((drinkidrinki) ) some juice and then he some juice and then he (eat)(eat) a few chips. a few chips. I I ((havehave) ) dinner when I suddenly dinner when I suddenly ((hearhear)) a loud bang. a loud bang. When my father When my father (work)(work) in the garden, an old friend in the garden, an old friend ((passpass)) by to by to see him. see him. She She ((gogo)) to school, to school, ((taketake)) out her textbook and out her textbook and ((beginbegin))to learn. to learn. When it When it (start)(start) to rain, our dog to rain, our dog ((wantwant)) to come inside. to come inside. When Jane When Jane (do)(do) a language course in Ireland, she a language course in Ireland, she ((visitvisit)) Blarney Blarney Castle. Castle. When I When I ((bebe)) on my way home, I on my way home, I ((seesee)) an accident. an accident. I I ((notnot understandunderstand) ) what they what they (talk)(talk) about. about.

PresentPresent PerfectPerfect

TenseTense

USE 1 Unspecified Time Before NowUSE 1 Unspecified Time Before Now

We use the Present Perfect to say that an action We use the Present Perfect to say that an action happened at an unspecified time before now. happened at an unspecified time before now. The exact time is not important. The exact time is not important. You CANNOT use the Present Perfect with specific You CANNOT use the Present Perfect with specific time expressions such as: yesterday, one year ago, last time expressions such as: yesterday, one year ago, last week, when I was a child, when I lived in Japan, at that week, when I was a child, when I lived in Japan, at that moment, that day, one day, etc. moment, that day, one day, etc.

We CAN use the Present Perfect with unspecific expressions We CAN use the Present Perfect with unspecific expressions such as: ever, never, once, many times, several times, before, ssuch as: ever, never, once, many times, several times, before, so o far, already, yet, etc. far, already, yet, etc. Examples:Examples:I I have seenhave seen that movie twenty times. that movie twenty times. I think I I think I have methave met him once before.him once before.There There have beenhave been many earthquakes in California. many earthquakes in California. People People have traveledhave traveled to the Moon. to the Moon.

USE 2 Duration From the Past Until Now (NonUSE 2 Duration From the Past Until Now (Non-- Continuous Verbs)Continuous Verbs)

With With NonNon--Continuous VerbsContinuous Verbs and nonand non--continuous uses continuous uses of of Mixed VerbsMixed Verbs, we use the Present Perfect to show , we use the Present Perfect to show that something started in the past and has continued up that something started in the past and has continued up until now. until now. "For five minutes," "for two weeks," and "since "For five minutes," "for two weeks," and "since Tuesday" are all durations which can be used with the Tuesday" are all durations which can be used with the Present Perfect.Present Perfect.

Examples:Examples:I I have hadhave had a cold for two weeks. a cold for two weeks. She She has beenhas been in England for six months. in England for six months. Mary Mary has lovedhas loved chocolate since she was a little girl. chocolate since she was a little girl.

Although the above use of Present Perfect is normally limited toAlthough the above use of Present Perfect is normally limited toNonNon--Continuous Verbs and nonContinuous Verbs and non--continuous uses of Mixed continuous uses of Mixed Verbs, the words "live," "work," "teach," and "study" are Verbs, the words "live," "work," "teach," and "study" are sometimes used in this way even though they are NOT Nonsometimes used in this way even though they are NOT Non--Continuous Verbs.Continuous Verbs.

ADVERB PLACEMENTADVERB PLACEMENT

The examples below show the placement for The examples below show the placement for grammar adverbs such as: always, only, never, grammar adverbs such as: always, only, never, ever, still, just, etc.ever, still, just, etc.Examples:Examples:You have You have onlyonly seen that movie one time. seen that movie one time. Have you Have you onlyonly seen that movie one time? seen that movie one time?

ExerciseExercise

I (not / work) today. I (not / work) today. We (buy) a new lamp. We (buy) a new lamp. We (not / plan) our holiday yet. We (not / plan) our holiday yet. Where (be / you) ? Where (be / you) ? He (write) five letters. He (write) five letters. She (not / see) him for a long time. She (not / see) him for a long time. (be / you) at school? (be / you) at school? School (not / start) yet. School (not / start) yet. (speak / he) to his boss? (speak / he) to his boss? No, he (have / not) the time yet. No, he (have / not) the time yet.

PRESENT SIMPLEPRESENT SIMPLE

FORMFORMVERB + s/es VERB + s/es inin third third personperson

ExamplesExamples::You You speakspeak English. English.

DoDo you you speakspeak English? English? You You do not speakdo not speak English?English?

He/she /it He/she /it speaks speaks English.English.DoesDoes he/she/it he/she/it speakspeak English?English?

He/she/it He/she/it does not speakdoes not speak EnglishEnglish

USE 1 Repeated ActionsUSE 1 Repeated Actions

Use the Simple Present to express the idea that Use the Simple Present to express the idea that an action is repeated or usual. The action can be a an action is repeated or usual. The action can be a habit, a hobby, a daily event, a scheduled event or habit, a hobby, a daily event, a scheduled event or something that often happens. It can also be something that often happens. It can also be something a person often forgets or usually does something a person often forgets or usually does not do.not do.Examples:Examples:I I playplay tennis. tennis. The train The train leavesleaves every morning at 8 AM. every morning at 8 AM. The train The train does not leavedoes not leave at 9 AM. at 9 AM. She always She always forgetsforgets her purse. her purse. He never He never forgetsforgets his wallet. his wallet. Every twelve months, the Earth Every twelve months, the Earth circlescircles the Sun. the Sun. DoesDoes the Sun the Sun circlecircle the Earth?the Earth?

USE 2 Facts or GeneralizationsUSE 2 Facts or Generalizations

The Simple Present can also indicate the speaker The Simple Present can also indicate the speaker believes that a fact was true before, is true now, believes that a fact was true before, is true now, and will be true in the future. It is not important and will be true in the future. It is not important if the speaker is correct about the fact. It is also if the speaker is correct about the fact. It is also used to make generalizations about people or used to make generalizations about people or things.things.Examples:Examples:

Cats Cats likelike milk. milk. California California isis in America. in America. California California is notis not in the United Kingdom. in the United Kingdom. Windows Windows areare made of glass. made of glass. Windows Windows are notare not made of wood. made of wood.

USE 3 Scheduled Events in the Near USE 3 Scheduled Events in the Near FutureFuture

Speakers occasionally use Simple Present Speakers occasionally use Simple Present to talk about scheduled events in the near to talk about scheduled events in the near future. This is most commonly done when future. This is most commonly done when talking about public transportation, but it talking about public transportation, but it can be used with other scheduled events can be used with other scheduled events as wellas well. .

Examples:Examples:•• The train The train leavesleaves tonight at 6 PM. tonight at 6 PM. •• The bus The bus does not arrivedoes not arrive at 11 AM, it at 11 AM, it arrivesarrives at 11 PM. at 11 PM. •• When When dodo we we boardboard the plane? the plane? •• The party The party startsstarts at 8 o'clock. at 8 o'clock. •• When When doesdoes class class beginbegin tomorrow?tomorrow?

ADVERB PLACEMENTADVERB PLACEMENT

The examples below show the placement for grammar The examples below show the placement for grammar adverbs such as: always, only, never, ever, still, just, adverbs such as: always, only, never, ever, still, just, etc.etc.

Examples:Examples:•• You You onlyonly speak English. speak English. •• Do you Do you onlyonly speak English?speak English?

PRESENT CONTINUOUSPRESENT CONTINUOUS

FORM FORM •• [[am/is/are + present participle]am/is/are + present participle]

Examples:Examples:•• You You are watchingare watching TV. TV. •• AreAre you you watchingwatching TV? TV? •• You You are not watchingare not watching TV. TV.

USE 1 NowUSE 1 NowUse the Present Continuous with Use the Present Continuous with Normal VerbsNormal Verbs (Most verbs (Most verbs are "Normal Verbs." These verbs are usually physical are "Normal Verbs." These verbs are usually physical actions which you can see somebody doing. These verbs can actions which you can see somebody doing. These verbs can be used in all tenses.) to express the idea that something is be used in all tenses.) to express the idea that something is happening now, at this very moment. It can also be used to happening now, at this very moment. It can also be used to show that something is not happening nowshow that something is not happening now. . (Normal Verbs (Normal Verbs to run, to walk, to eat, to fly, to go, to say, to touch, etc.)to run, to walk, to eat, to fly, to go, to say, to touch, etc.)

•• Examples:Examples:•• You You are learningare learning English now. English now. •• You You are not swimmingare not swimming now. now. •• AreAre you you sleepingsleeping? ? •• I I am sittingam sitting. . •• IsIs he he sittingsitting or or standingstanding? ? •• They They are readingare reading their books. their books. •• What What areare you you doingdoing? ? •• Why Why aren'taren't you you doingdoing your homework?your homework?

USE 2 Longer Actions in Progress Now USE 2 Longer Actions in Progress Now In English, "now" can mean: this second, today, In English, "now" can mean: this second, today, this month, this year, this century, and so on. this month, this year, this century, and so on. Sometimes, we use the Present Continuous to say Sometimes, we use the Present Continuous to say that we are in the process of doing a longer action that we are in the process of doing a longer action which is in progress; however, we might not be which is in progress; however, we might not be doing it at this exact second.doing it at this exact second.

•• Examples: (All of these sentences can be said while eating dinneExamples: (All of these sentences can be said while eating dinner in r in a restaurant.)a restaurant.)

•• I I am studyingam studying to become a doctor. to become a doctor. •• I I am not studyingam not studying to become a dentist. to become a dentist. •• I I am readingam reading the book the book Tom Sawyer.Tom Sawyer.•• I I am not readingam not reading any books right now. any books right now. •• AreAre you you workingworking on any special projects at work? on any special projects at work? •• Aren'tAren't you you teachingteaching at the university now?at the university now?

USE 3 Near FutureUSE 3 Near Future

Sometimes, speakers use the Present Continuous Sometimes, speakers use the Present Continuous to indicate that something will or will not happen to indicate that something will or will not happen in the near future.in the near future.

Examples:Examples:•• I I am meetingam meeting some friends after work. some friends after work. •• I I am not goingam not going to the party tonight. to the party tonight. •• IsIs he he visitingvisiting his parents next weekend? his parents next weekend? •• Isn'tIsn't he he comingcoming with us tonight?with us tonight?

USE 4 Repetition and Irritation with USE 4 Repetition and Irritation with "Always"Always""

The Present Continuous with words such as The Present Continuous with words such as "always" or "constantly" expresses the idea that "always" or "constantly" expresses the idea that something irritating or shocking often happens. something irritating or shocking often happens. Notice that the meaning is like Notice that the meaning is like Simple PresentSimple Present, , but with negative emotion. Remember to put the but with negative emotion. Remember to put the words "always" or "constantly" between "be" and words "always" or "constantly" between "be" and "verb+ing.""verb+ing."

•• Examples:Examples:•• She She is always comingis always coming to class late. to class late. •• He He is constantly talkingis constantly talking. I wish he would shut up. . I wish he would shut up. •• I don't like them because they I don't like them because they are always are always

complainingcomplaining..

ADVERB PLACEMENTADVERB PLACEMENTThe examples below show the placement for The examples below show the placement for grammar adverbs such as: always, only, never, grammar adverbs such as: always, only, never, ever, still, just, etcever, still, just, etc..

•• Examples:Examples:•• You are You are stillstill watching TV. watching TV. •• Are you Are you stillstill watching TV?watching TV?

EXERCISESEXERCISES

1.Every Monday, Sally (drive) her kids to football practice. 1.Every Monday, Sally (drive) her kids to football practice.

2. Usually, I (work) as a secretary at ABT, but this summer I (s2. Usually, I (work) as a secretary at ABT, but this summer I (study) French at a language school tudy) French at a language school in Paris. That is why I am in Paris. in Paris. That is why I am in Paris.

3. Shhhhh! Be quiet! John (sleep) . 3. Shhhhh! Be quiet! John (sleep) .

4. Don't forget to take your umbrella. It (rain) . 4. Don't forget to take your umbrella. It (rain) .

5. I hate living in Seattle because it (rain, always) . 5. I hate living in Seattle because it (rain, always) .

6. I'm sorry I can't hear what you (say) because everybody (talk6. I'm sorry I can't hear what you (say) because everybody (talk) so loudly. ) so loudly.

7. Justin (write, currently) a book about his adventures in Tibe7. Justin (write, currently) a book about his adventures in Tibet. I hope he can find a good t. I hope he can find a good publisher when he is finished. publisher when he is finished.

8. Jim: Do you want to come over for dinner tonight?8. Jim: Do you want to come over for dinner tonight? Denise: Oh, I'm sorry, I can't. I (go) to a movie tonight with sDenise: Oh, I'm sorry, I can't. I (go) to a movie tonight with some friends. ome friends.

9. The business cards (be, normally ) printed by a company in Ne9. The business cards (be, normally ) printed by a company in New York. Their prices (be) w York. Their prices (be) inexpensive, yet the quality of their work is quite good. inexpensive, yet the quality of their work is quite good.

10. This delicious chocolate (be) made by a small chocolatier in10. This delicious chocolate (be) made by a small chocolatier in Zurich, Switzerland. Zurich, Switzerland.

A Trekking JournalA Trekking Journal

November 12, 2011November 12, 2011

Today (be) the second day of my trek around Mount Annapurna. I aToday (be) the second day of my trek around Mount Annapurna. I am exhausted and my legs m exhausted and my legs (shake) ; I just hope I am able to complete the trek. My feet (k(shake) ; I just hope I am able to complete the trek. My feet (kill, really) me and my toes (bleed) ill, really) me and my toes (bleed) , but I (want, still) to continue., but I (want, still) to continue.

Nepal is a fascinating country, but I have a great deal to learnNepal is a fascinating country, but I have a great deal to learn. Everything (be) so different, and I . Everything (be) so different, and I (try) to adapt to the new way of life here. I (learn) a little b(try) to adapt to the new way of life here. I (learn) a little bit of the language to make it of the language to make communication easier; unfortunately, I (learn, not) foreign langcommunication easier; unfortunately, I (learn, not) foreign languages quickly. Although I uages quickly. Although I (understand, not) much yet, I believe that I (improve, gradually(understand, not) much yet, I believe that I (improve, gradually) .) .

I (travel, currently) with Liam, a student from Leeds UniversityI (travel, currently) with Liam, a student from Leeds University in England. He (be) a nice guy, in England. He (be) a nice guy, but impatient. He (walk, always) ahead of me and (complain) thatbut impatient. He (walk, always) ahead of me and (complain) that I am too slow. I (do) my best I am too slow. I (do) my best to keep up with him, but he is younger and stronger than I am. Mto keep up with him, but he is younger and stronger than I am. Maybe, I am just feeling sorry for aybe, I am just feeling sorry for myself because I am getting old.myself because I am getting old.

Right now, Liam (sit) with the owner of the inn. They (discuss) Right now, Liam (sit) with the owner of the inn. They (discuss) the differences between life in the differences between life in England and life in Nepal. I (know, not) the real name of the owEngland and life in Nepal. I (know, not) the real name of the owner, but everybody (call, just) ner, but everybody (call, just) him Tam. Tam (speak) English very well and he (try) to teach Liahim Tam. Tam (speak) English very well and he (try) to teach Liam some words in Nepali. Every m some words in Nepali. Every time Tam (say) a new word, Liam (try) to repeat it. Unfortunateltime Tam (say) a new word, Liam (try) to repeat it. Unfortunately, Liam (seem, also) to have y, Liam (seem, also) to have difficulty learning foreign languages. I just hope we don't get difficulty learning foreign languages. I just hope we don't get lost and have to ask for directions. lost and have to ask for directions.

Relative clauses

What

is a relative

clause?

We can use relative clauses to join two English sentences, or to give more information about something.

I bought a new car. It is very fast.→ I bought a new car that is very fast.

She lives in New York. She likes living in New York.→ She lives in New York, which she likes.

Defining and Non-defining

A defining relative clause tells which noun we are talking about:I like the woman who lives next door.(If I don’t say ‘who lives next door’, then we don’t know which woman I mean)A non-defining relative clause gives us extra information about something. We don’t need this information to understand the sentence.I live in London, which has some fantastic parks.(Everybody knows where London is, ‘which has some fantastic parks’ is extra information)

1: The relative pronoun is the subject:

First, let’s consider when the relative pronoun is the subject of a defining relative clause. We can use ‘who’, ‘which’ or ‘that’. We use ‘who’ for people and ‘which’ for things. We can use ‘that’ for people or things. The relative clause can come after the subject or the object of the sentence. We can’t drop the relative pronoun. For example (clause after the object of the sentence):I’m looking for a secretary who / that can use a computer well.More examples (clause after the subject of the sentence):The people who / that live on the island are very friendly. The man who / that phoned is my brother. The camera which / that costs £100 is over there.

2: The relative pronoun is the object

Next, let’s talk about when the relative pronoun is the object of the clause. In this case we can drop the relative pronoun if we want to. Again, the clause can come after the subject or the object of the sentence. Here are some examples:(clause after the object)She loves the chocolate (which / that) I bought. We went to the village (which / that) Lucy recommended.

(clause after the subject) The bike (which / that) I loved was stolen. The university (which / that) she likes is famous.

Non-defining relative clauses

We don’t use ‘that’ in non-defining relative clauses, so we need to use ‘which’ if the pronoun refers to a thing, and ‘who’ if it refers to a person. We can’t drop the relative pronoun in this kind of clause, even if the relative pronoun is the subject of the clause.

(clause comes after the subject)My boss, who is very nice, lives in Manchester. My sister, who I live with, knows a lot about cars.

(clause comes after the object)Yesterday I called our friend Julie, who lives in New York. The photographer called to the Queen, who looked annoyed.

Prepositions and relative clauses

If the verb in the relative clause needs a preposition, we put it at the end of the clause:For example:listen toThe music is good. Julie listens to the music.→ The music (which / that) Julie listens to is good.work withMy brother met a woman. I used to work with the woman.→ My brother met a woman (who / that) I used to work with.go toThe country is very hot. He went to the country.→ The country (which / that) he went to is very hot.come fromI visited the city. John comes from the city.→ I visited the city (that / which) John comes from.apply forThe job is well paid. She applied for the job.→ The job (which / that) she applied for is well paid.

Whose‘Whose’ is always the subject of the relative clause and can’t be left out. It replaces a possessive. It can be used for people and things.The dog is over there. The dog’s / its owner lives next door.→ The dog whose owner lives next door is over there.The little girl is sad. The little girl’s / her doll was lost.→ The little girl whose doll was lost is sad.The woman is coming tonight. Her car is a BMW.→ The woman whose car is a BMW is coming tonight.The house belongs to me. Its roof is very old.→ The house whose roof is old belongs to me.

Where / when / whyWe can sometimes use these question words instead of relative pronouns and prepositions.I live in a city. I study in the city.

→ I live in the city where I study.→ I live in the city that / which I study in.→ I live in the city in which I study.The bar in Barcelona is still there. I met my wife in that bar.

→ The bar in Barcelona where I met my wife is still there.→ The bar in Barcelona that / which I met my wife in is still there.→ The bar in Barcelona in which I met my wife is still t

The summer was long and hot. I graduated from university in the summer.

→ The summer when I graduated from university was long and hot.→ The summer that / which I graduated from university in was long and hot.→ The summer in which I graduated was long and hot.

Exercise:

Combine the sentences with relative clauses. (Decide whether to use commas or not.)A monk is a man. The man has devoted his life to God.A monk I have one black cat. His name is Blacky.I have A herbivore is an animal. The animal feeds upon vegetation.A herbivore Carol plays the piano brilliantly. She is only 9 years old.Carol Sydney is the largest Australian city. It is not the capital of Australia.Sydney

Combine the sentences using relative clauses

Samuel Johnson was the son of a bookseller. Samuel Johnson was born in 1709.

Samuel Johnson In 1728, he went to Oxford. He studied at Pembroke College in Oxford.In 1728, he went Johnson had to leave Oxford without a degree. He was too poor topay the fees.Johnson In 1737, Johnson moved to London. There he wrote poetry, essays and biographies.In 1737, Johnson In 1746, Johnson started to write his dictionary. It took him nine years to complete.In 1746, Johnson started

Study the situations and then decide whether the following relative clauses are defining or non-defining

defining – no commasnon-defining – commasI have three brothers. My brother who lives in Sidney came to see me last month.My brother, who lives in Sidney, came to see me last month.

I have one sister. My sister who is 25 years old spent her holiday in France.My sister, who is 25 years old, spent her holiday in France.

Bob's mum has lost her keys. Bob's mum who is a musician has lost her car keys.Bob's mum, who is a musician, has lost her car keys.

REPORTED SPEECH

If we report what another person has said, we usually do not use the speaker’s exact words (direct speech), but

reported (indirect) speech. Therefore, you need to learn how to transform direct speech into reported speech. The

structure is a little different depending on whether you want to transform a statement, question or request.

Statements

When transforming statements, check whether you have to change:pronouns present tense verbs (3rd person singular) place and time expressions tenses (backshift)

Type Example Direct speech “ I speak English.”reported speech(no backshift) He says that he speaks

English.reported speech(backshift) He said that he spoke English.

Questions

When transforming questions, check whether you have to change:pronouns present tense verbs (3rd person singular) place and time expressions tenses (backshift)

Type Examplewith interrogative direct speech“Why

don’t you speak English?”reported speech He

asked me why I didn’t speak English.without interrogative direct speech“Do you

speak English?reported speech He asked me whether / if I spoke English

Requests

When transforming questions, check whether you have to change:pronouns place and time expressions

Type Example direct speech “Carol, speak English.“reported speech He told Carol to speak English

Complete the sentences in reported speech. Note the change of pronouns and tenses.

"What's the time?" he asked.→ He wanted to know "When will we meet again?" she asked me.→ She asked me "Are you crazy?" she asked him.→ She asked him "Where did they live?" he asked.→ He wanted to know "Will you be at the party?" he asked her.→ He asked her "Can you meet me at the station?" she asked me.→ She asked me "Who knows the answer?" the teacher asked.→ The teacher wanted to know "Why don't you help me?" she asked him.→ She wanted to know "Did you see that car?" he asked me.→ He asked me "Have you tidied up your room?" the mother asked the twins.→ The mother asked the twins

Answers"What's the time?" he asked.→ He wanted to know what the time was."When will we meet again?" she asked me.→ She asked me when we would meet again."Are you crazy?" she asked him.→ She asked him if he was crazy."Where did they live?" he asked.→ He wanted to know where they had lived."Will you be at the party?" he asked her.→ He asked her if she would be at the party."Can you meet me at the station?" she asked me.→ She asked me if I could meet her at the station."Who knows the answer?" the teacher asked.→ The teacher wanted to know who knew the answer."Why don't you help me?" she asked him.→ She wanted to know why he didn't help her."Did you see that car?" he asked me.→ He asked me if I had seen that car."Have you tidied up your room?" the mother asked the twins.→ The mother asked the twins if they had tidied up their room.