adult learners who are they and what do they want

ADULT LEARNERS

WHO ARE THEY AND

WHAT DO THEY WANT?

Niki Perkins Director of Career Services Baker College Online Baker Center for Graduate Studies Flint, MI

Dr. Phil Gardner Director, CERI Michigan State University East Lansing, MI

Adult Learners - Who Are They and What Do They Want

Table of Contents

Introduction………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 3

Methods……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 4

Part I—Profile and Background of Responding Adult Learners From Four Year Institutions………………………….5

Why Attend College…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 6

Sense of Self…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………8

Family Involvement……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 9

Part II—Career Plans and Concerns……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 10

Part III—Work History and Attitudes about Work…………………………………………………………………………………………11

Work History……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 11

Job Surfing and Reneging…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 12

Work Life Identity………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 13

Job Characteristics………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 14

Part IV—Challenges Faced by Adult Learners………………………………………………………………………………………………. 16

Working With Adult Learners to Facilitate the Transition from College to Work…………………………………………. 16

Endnotes……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 18

References…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 20


Introduction

When one thinks of college today, images of Saturday afternoon football games with sun-drenched coeds rabidly

cheering and passing bodies up the stadium, classes filled with bright young minds, absorbing knowledge at the

feet of their professors, or late-night bull sessions in dorm rooms easily come to mind. How reflective are these

images of students in today’s world? Traditional age college students between the ages 18 to 24 who are

attending college full-time and not working full-time (35 hours or more a week) comprise a smaller percentage of

students enrolled for credit at for-profit and non-profit colleges and universities in the United States than they

did a decade ago (BLS, 2009, Orszag, et.al.2001, Pema, 2010). Research reveals much about traditional students

including learning and pedagogy strategies, developmental issues, and career expectations. However, literature

on the broader group of adult learners (often termed non-traditional) is less available, particularly in the area of

career expectations, transition readiness, and work force attachment.

In today’s devastating economy, where job growth has been lagging behind in the slow economic recovery,

workers or potential workers without certifiable skills (post-secondary credential or degree) have very few

opportunities to gain meaningful employment. Adult participation in college courses continues to rise in an

attempt to gain knowledge, skills and competencies that allow students to be more competitive in the job

market. A challenge for college administrators, faculty, advisors and employers is the lack of information about

adult learners that would assist in identifying successful paths from college into the workplace.

This report is the first in a series and draws upon survey responses from nearly 12,000 adult learners from eleven

colleges and universities that serve non-traditional adults. The first objective of this study, led by Baker College

and supported by the Collegiate Employment Research Institute at Michigan State University, was to develop a

profile of adult learners and identify possible academic and career programs and strategies to position them for

successful transition into the workplace. The profile focuses on career aspirations, attitudes toward work,

support systems for sustaining education and employment efforts, work history, and job expectations. The target

group was adult learners over age 25, who were entering college for the first time, re-enrolling to complete a

previously started degree, or for additional training.


Methods

Participants

No precise definition of non-traditional college student exists on which to structure our target population for this

study (see Endnote 1). After examining the National Center for Educational Statistics (NCES) explanation of non-

traditional students, we used the following parameters for the students to be included in this study:

Adult learners over the age of 25 who delayed enrollment in college after high school until after the

age of 24. This group also includes students who completed their high school degree through GED

as well as those who have not completed high school but enrolled in “a right to try” institution.

Adult learners over the age of 25 who may have attempted college but never earned a degree;

completed a credential program or apprenticeship after high school but have not attempted a two

or four year college program.

Adult learners over the age of 25 who have earned a two year degree and have returned to college

to obtain a four year degree.

The survey also gathered information regarding the other conditions that NCES uses to identify non-traditional

students, including work status, dependents, financial dependence, and marital status.

Inquiries were made to a number of institutions who serve non-traditional populations, inviting them to partner

in this study. The for-profit institutions we approached declined to participate. Several community colleges

expressed interest but we had difficulty in coordinating and gaining approval from the appropriate parties.

Community colleges are too important in educating adult learners not to have a research design appropriate for

their institutions. We decided to pursue a separate study just focusing on community colleges in the future. As a

result, for this study we focused on four-year institutions. Ten other institutions, in addition to Baker College,

joined the study (see Endnote 2) and agreed to solicit students to complete the survey.

Survey

A survey instrument was developed that adapted many of the scales used by Gardner and Chao at Michigan

State University in their study of traditional college students and young professionals. We modified their scale to

accommodate the situation we expected to find among adult learners, including support from non-parental

sources, such as spousal and children support. This scale covers college to work transitions, such as job surfing

(moving from job to job searching for correct fit), career planning, external pressures in career choice, parental


involvement, and job and children relationship. In addition we included several widely used scales that measure

career concerns, work-life identify, superiority, self-confidence, work-life balance, and career outlook. General

questions were asked regarding work history, motivation to attend college, and a standard set of socio-economic

questions. The survey is available upon request.

Data Collection

The survey was administered on-line, using SurveyMonkey as the provider, between January and May 2010.

Institutions sent email invitations to the defined student population beginning in January with reminders shortly

after spring break.

Part I. Profile and Background of Responding Adult Learners from Four Year Institutions

Approximately 11,900 attempted the survey and provided useable information with 75% completing the entire

survey. Throughout the presentation of results all respondents will be included unless specifically stated.

The majority of respondents to this survey can be described as white (61%), women (73%). Their average age was

38, ranging from 24 to late 60s. Thirty-five percent of respondents were married while 28% indicated they were

single, divorced or separated, and 37% indicated other or did not answer this question. Large portions of

responding adult learners, 37%, consider themselves to be financially independent. An additional 25% reported

they were still financially dependent, relying on someone for funds to attend school and cover living expenses.

They were likely to need support from a partner or significant other, friends, parents or relatives. Six percent

indicated they received local, state, or federal government assistance. Only a few respondents indicated they

were homeless at the time the survey was taken. Eight percent of these respondents indicated they were living at

home with their parents or they were living with other relatives and friends.

At the time they enrolled in their current educational program, approximately 27% had completed a high school

diploma and 29% had attended some college but never completed a degree, an apprenticeship or credential

program. Twenty-one percent of participants had completed an associate degree. About 20% of the sample had

already attained a bachelor’s degree and were not included in the comparative report because they had already

finished a degree program. Their data was retained for comparative purposes.


Table 1: Distribution of Respondents Based on Their Highest Degree Completion Prior to Entering Current

Academic Program

The following table provides a breakdown of the respondents by the academic area they are currently pursuing.

Table 2: Distribution of Respondents by Current Academic Program

Why Attend College?

Adult learners are enrolling for the first time or returning to college for a variety of reasons. In uncertain

economic times, college enrollments usually increase as individuals seek to improve their skills and credentials.

Many older college students also seek to complete life-long dreams of attaining a college education.

Respondents were presented with five commonly mentioned reasons for pursuing college degrees later in life;

they could select as many motivating factors as pertained to them.

Personal satisfaction and attaining personal life goals stood out as the primary reasons most of these

respondents returned to school. For those who checked “a need for training” or that “they needed to finish a

degree”, it can be assumed, based on the written responses that accompanied this question, they simply needed

Highest Academic Degree Before Enrolling in Current Program Percentage

High School Diploma (including GED and “right to try’) 27

Some College No Degree 29

Associate Degree 21

Bachelor Degree or higher 20

Other including military 3

Academic Major Category Percentage Enrolled

Business 30

Medical Services 34

Technical (engineering and computer sciences) 14

Education and Human Services 14

Other or Undecided 8


to complete a few courses in order to remain current in the work place or to complete their degree in order to

advance with their current employer.

Table 3: Reasons for Attending College as an Adult Learner by Highest Degree Earned Prior to Enrolling in

Current Program (%)

Comparing these reasons by the level of education the respondent had received at the time of entering the

program, several key differences were observed.

High school completers were more likely to be achieving a personal desire to attain a degree, serve

as a role model to their children while less likely to be looking for advancement.

Those with some college also shared a desire to fulfill a personal dream and serve as a role model to

their children.

Associate degreed respondents were looking for career advancement with their current employer

by completing a higher level degree but less likely to pursue a degree as an example for their

children (possibly because they had already earned one degree).

Respondents with Bachelor’s degrees or higher are seeking a career change.

Reasons for Attending

Percentage Selecting This Options (all)

High School Degree

Some College, Credential,

Apprenticeship

Associate Degree

BA plus Degree

Achieve Personal 55 57 57 55 40

Seek a Career 49 45 50 48 58

Serve as a Role 34 39 36 30 18

Need Training to 22 22 23 18 19

Advancement with 16 11 15 24 20


Sense of Self

During the first decade of the 21st century, observers of youth culture and youth development have been struck

by the increasing sense of entitlement among youth and young adults. Youth entitlement is described as the

belief that one deserves or should be guaranteed a reward or benefit because of who they are. Jean Twenge at

San Diego State University has documented longitudinally the increase of entitlement among youth over the past

several decades (see Generation Me). Her work has been extended into the workplace with employers critical of

the high sense of entitlement among new college graduates. Gardner and Chao employed a superiority scale

(Robbins and Patton, 1985), which is not directly comparable to the scales used by Twenge, in their study of

young adults. They found a high level of entitlement among their sample of young adults with 40% expressing

high levels of entitlement.

The question of entitlement is frequently raised when dealing with adult learners. Anecdotal evidence suggests

that some adults also hold a high sense of entitlement. Using the scale from Gardner and Chao, survey results

indicate adult learners do not have as high of a superiority complex (I am better than everyone else) as young

adults. Our sample of adult learners’ had a scale mean of 2.6 compared to Gardner’s and Chao’s young adults’

sample where the mean was 3.1 (Gardner, 2007). Thirty two percent of adult learners expressed low levels of

superiority while 16% showed high superiority tendencies. In comparison to young adults where 40% showed

high tendencies (Gardner, 2007), adult learners are much less likely to feel entitled. Men in our sample expressed

a higher level of superiority (mean = 2.90) than did women (mean = 2.50).

Chart 1: How strongly do respondents agree or disagree with statements concerning superiority


Family Involvement

An image prevalent on many college campuses and even in the workplace through much of this decade has been

the hovering parent. This parent provides their children all types of assistance beyond financial support, including

preparing and submitting resumes, structuring career choice, and even assisting with their work assignments

(Gardner, 2007). Adult learners may have a more extended support network, including parents, spouses,

partners, children, and relatives to support them in their academic pursuits and career decisions. The extent of

support adult learners receive through their network was also explored. Particular attention was given to how

adult learners were able to balance school, work, and family responsibilities.

Four different anchors were examined that can provide support to achieve educational and career goals or

impede achieving them. Respondents report strong support from all sources for their education and career plans

though there is some concern that parents may be heavily involved with decisions for a segment of the adult

population.

Parental support, includes being able to live at home while searching for a job or trying different

jobs, receive financial help, receiving assistance with work or school assignments, influencing career

decisions and helping find a job. The mean on this scale was 3.13 which indicated slight agreement

that parents were available to support them. Slightly more than 30% strongly agreed that their

parents could help them with schooling, career planning, and their job search.

Children support includes assistance from adult children with financial assistance, job search

guidance, and living options as well as making decisions about school and work based on the needs

of younger children. With a mean 4.35 on this scale, respondents who have children expressed

strongly that children influence their approach to both school and work.

Spousal support includes aid in finding a job, helping define career goals, and assisting with

work. For respondents with spouses or partners, the mean on this scale was 4.01 with 53% strongly

agreeing that they have support from their spouse/partner in these areas.

Educational support for sustaining their educational goals comes from parents, spouses/partners,

children and friends. Respondents strongly agreed that these networks greatly assisted them in

pursuing their education. The mean on this scale was 5.52 with over 80% strongly agreeing they

receive positive support.


Part II. Career Plans and Concerns

Students enter college with varying degrees of career focus. One aspect of traditional student development is to

help them construct a viable career plan and align it with their academic endeavors. Adult learners enter college

with different experiences than traditional students and it is often assumed that adult learners know what they

want to do with their life. A series of questions probed into how well they felt that they had a career identified,

what type of job would fit them best, and specific career goals to pursue. The four questions were collapsed into

one variable (Cronbach's alpha = .711). These respondents in general agreed (mean 2.7, lower scores indicate

higher career plans) that they had career objectives they were pursuing and they felt comfortable with their

career plans. The exceptions were students who were enrolling with only a high school degree. They were much

more likely to have poorly formed career plans.

Another aspect of career planning is the confidence a student has that they will be able to find a job that utilizes

their skills upon graduation. A series of questions explored how confident adult learners were in their ability to

transition from college to work. The overall average of 4.01 was quite high (5 being the highest on the scale). In

other words, these students were very concerned about being able to successfully transition into a job where

they would fit with the organization, be able to use their skills and abilities, and receive training to insure

success. While the current economic climate might explain the high score on this scale, it compares closely with

the 4.03 average reported by a large group of young adults who graduated five years ago during better economic

times.

No matter how confident they may be in their career plans, they are very concerned about succeeding once they

enter the workplace.

Chart 2: The chart below shows how confident students are


Part III. Work History and Attitudes about Work

Work History

Adult learners offer employers what they are seeking - experience in the work place and education. Most adult

learners participating in the survey indicated they have been in the work force for some time. Historically, 63% of

adult learners have worked for one to five companies; 68% of adult learners have held one to six jobs. Fifty-five

percent had earned one to three promotions. Only 2% of adult learners reported that they had never held a job

prior to enrolling in their current academic program. This work experience, even if it is not germane to their

current career aspirations, proves invaluable in making a successful transition from college to career-related

work. Transferrable skills obtained from a variety of positions and life experiences often help adult learners

transition quickly into new organizations and careers. This is especially beneficial for the small and medium

employer who may not have a lot of time to train a new hire.

Small and medium employers with fewer than 500 employees are the most popular among adult learners and

traditional students. Sixty-four percent of participants indicated they are working for or were previously

employed by an employer with fewer than 500 employees when they began working on their current college

degree. Unfortunately, adult learners have reported several periods of unemployment in their work history.

Seventy-five percent of participants indicated they had experienced unemployment at some time, 40% indicated

it was not always their choice.

Adult learners are not job hoppers. Seventy-nine percent of respondents indicate they are currently working full

time or they selected “Other” which based on the write-in responses included working full-time with multiple

jobs, working over 40 hours per week, contract workers, and military personnel. This group of students and soon

to be new college graduates are dedicated individuals who are hard working, supportive team players and

leaders eager to make their mark.

Chart 3: A brief overview of the adult learners work history.


Job Surfing and Reneging

It is not uncommon for young employees to change jobs and companies five or more times in their lifetime.

Based on Gardner and Chao’s (2007) research on young adults, they are more open to trying new careers and

companies than groups before them. Fifty percent of young adults strongly agreed that they would “surf” the job

market for the best fit for them while thirty percent indicated they would not surf jobs (Gardner, 2007). In the

adult survey we ask several questions about trying different jobs before settling down in one job for a long period

of time. On the whole, adult learners are much less likely to be surfing jobs to find the right one. Depending on

how the question was asked, 50% or more would not surf. If asked if they would try different experiences (could

include non-work activities) before settling down, 62% said they would not surf while 10% would surf. Asked if

they would endure frequent job changes to find a job that fits their interests and abilities, 41% said they would

not change jobs while 18% said they would. The remaining 41% may change jobs. Job changing may be

considered a risky action when job stability is so important to them. If they job surf at all, they will do it while

employed.

Chart 4: Would endure frequent job changes to find a job

Reneging on job offers is another area where young adults and adult learners vary, though not as much as job

surfing. Thirty-seven percent of adult learners agreed or strongly agreed that it was okay to renege once a job


offer was accepted to take a better offer. This is in contrast to the 44% of young adults who agreed or strongly

agreed it was okay to renege on a job offer once accepted (Gardner, 2007). Both groups had similar response

rates when asked if they disagree or strongly disagree it was okay to renege on a job offer; adult learners 24%

and young adults 32%. Reneging on a job offer does not appear to be a behavior solely attributable to young

adults; it occurs across a large segment of the working population.

Chart 5: If after accepting a job offer, I would have no problem in telling the first company that I changed my

mind and would take the better offer.

Work Life Identity

Work-life identity is a measure of how closely a person defines themselves by their work. This scale taps into

constructs such as "the most important things in life that happen involve work," "work should be central to life,"

and “life is worth living only when people get absorbed in work." Researchers have used this scale since the

early 1970s (see Gardner, 2007) and have revealed that the Boomer Generation defines themselves significantly

by their work; Baby Boomers were born between 1944 and 1964. In their study of young adults Gardner and

Chao (2007) have found that young adults no longer define themselves solely by their work. Other dimensions of

their lives are equal to or more important than work. In this study adult learners place importance on work as

defining who they are than young adults but not by much.


The mean of the work-life scale was 2.60 which suggest that adult learners tend to not identify themselves by the

work they do. Only 25% reported high levels of work-life identity. Adult learners with the lowest work life

identity were 30-45 years of age. Two interesting observations emerged when making selected group

comparisons. Respondents who completed only a high school degree and those who had attempted but, not

completed a college degree place a higher value on work as a defining element in their life than those with

degrees. Respondents in their 30s and 40s held lower work identity than those younger or older than them. In

all cases, no group reached the level of work-identity as expressed by Boomers.

Job Characteristics

What do adult learners value? What do they want from the work place? Essentially they are seeking a career not

a job. They want their skills to be put to good use for the betterment of the organization and themselves while

being adequately compensated. Respondents were presented twenty-two (22) commonly sought job

characteristics or workplace conditions that job seekers may place an importance on during the job search. Each

characteristic was rated on a 6 point scale (little or no importance to extremely high importance). Based on the

mean ratings, the top ten job characteristics were:

Table 4: Top 10 Job Characteristics

Top 10 Job Characteristics Sought by Adult Learners

1. Job security (4.54)

6. Interesting and challenging work (4.09)

2. Good benefits (4.36) 7. Comfortable working conditions (4.04)

3. Fair supervision (4.15) 8. Feel needed and appreciated (4.04)

4. Opportunity to learn new skills (4.13) 9. Pleasant co-workers (3.93)

5. Opportunities for promotion (4.11) 10. Annual vacation of a week or more (3.77)


In order to make this list of characteristics more manageable, factor analysis (using varimax rotation) was

conducted that reduced the twenty-two variables into four latent variables which have been defined as (1)

Valued Employee(Cronbach's alpha = .877), Work Assignment(s) (Cronbach's alpha=.732), Rewards (Cronbach's

alpha =.720), and Utilize Talents (Cronbach's alpha =.749).

Table 5: Provides a closer look at what makes up each of these variables.

Clearly the most important workplace characteristics these respondents were seeking involved their treatment as

employees by management. They want to be respected for what they bring to the company; they want the

support and confidence from management and peers to do quality work. Also important is the nature of the

work assignment and the ability to gain new skills. Moderately important to them are characteristics where the

company utilizes their talents wisely and offers them a career and not simply a job. As a package, the rewards of

high salary and benefits are not as critical as the other dimensions.

Expanded Variables List

High income Limited overtime Regular hours – no nights/

Limited job stress Interesting and challenging work Prestigious company

Flexibility in work hours Annual vacations of year or more Being able to work independently

Opportunities for promotion Job security Geographical location

Opportunity to learn new skills Good benefits Travel opportunities

Company image Pleasant coworkers Fair supervision

Comfortable working conditions Child care support Assistance with aging parents

Feel needed and appreciated


Table 6: List of four latent variables their components and means.

Part IV. Challenges Faced by Adult Learners

Adult learners believe they have a positive balance between school, work and family, mean = 3.70. In comparing

across groups, older adult learners with lower education appear to have more problems balancing all aspects of

their life while trying to pursue a degree. There are also times where the student's roles may be out of balance

and their roles may conflict (mean =3.18)

Ninety-three percent of adult learners had confidence in their ability to balance work, life and school. However,

29% lacked confidence that they could sustain their educational pursuits in light of other demands on their time

and finances. Adult learners are quite confident in who they are and where they are headed. Twenty percent of

adults surveyed indicated they were not able to find direction and were confused about who they are; this

percentage could be as high as 30%. This group of adult learners has even more barriers to overcome in order to

achieve educational and career success. Future analysis of this specific population is planned.

Working With Adult Learners to Facilitate the Transition from College to Work

What have we learned about adult learners attending college today? Based on these survey results we know

adult learners are married, white women; on average they are 38 years old and have completed some college.

These students are enrolled largely in business and medical programs. Adult learners are returning to college for

personal reasons and to change careers. Most feel they have strong, solid career plans; however, there are some

exceptions. They are confident they can find work; however, they are concerned about career success once in a

Valued Employee Work Assignment Rewards Utilize Talents

Supervisor confidence Happy at work Offered career development Good use of skills

Backed by management

Work I like Receive fair compensation Provide status

rewards

Respected by peers Learn new skills Earn what worth Career not a job

Good evaluations High income compared to

Accepted by others

Mean = 4.06 Mean = 3.58 Mean = 2.78 Mean = 2.84


new position. Adult learners tend not to surf for employment and generally do not renege on job offers. This is

great news for employers!

For employers, the adult learner is an ideal candidate for internships, entry-level and more advanced positions.

These students and new graduates are ideal for several reasons. One reason, they are entering college with a

strong sense of dedication and commitment to their education. The dedication and skills required to balance

work, school and family can be transferred into high quality employees. Another one of the adult learner’s goals

is to secure a career which offers a better life for themselves and their families; this they perceive must be

accomplished through education. Many adult learners already have related work experience to their program of

study; some offer 20+ years of experience. These candidates are generally seeking advancement or a career

change and need a degree in order to do so. They are ready to fill higher level positions and assignments. For

those changing careers, their previous experience in the work force is an added benefit for employers. They

understand common work place practices which allow them opportunities to advance quicker.

Finally, adult learners are not in it just for themselves. Helping the organization meet established corporate

mission and goals are also important to this group. Being a valued employee had the highest mean, 4.06, of all

four latent variables. This indicates employers can expect adult learners to bring the same level of enthusiasm

and creativity as young adults into the work place. Any employer seeking quality candidates, who are hard

working, dedicated, and enthusiastic, should look no further than adult learners. Adult learners who are

completing their degrees are looking for challenging assignments and organizations who are dedicated to

employee and customer satisfaction. They are out of the box thinkers with the creativity and enthusiasm to assist

and/or lead organizations into the future.


Endnotes

1. According to the National Center for Educational Statistics (NCES), there is no exact definition for non-

traditional student. Age and part-time status are characteristics generally associated with non-traditional

students. In a 1996 study the NCES included anyone who meets at least one of the following conditions as a non-

traditional student:

Delays enrollment (does not enter postsecondary education in the same calendar year that

he or she finished high school);

Attends part time for at least part of the academic year;

Works full time (35 hours or more per week) while enrolled;

Is considered financially independent for purposes of determining eligibility for financial

aid;

Has dependents other than a spouse (usually children, but sometimes others);

Is a single parent (either not married or married but separated and has dependents); or

Does not have a high school diploma (completed high school with a GED or other high

school completion certificate or did not finish high school).

Today, the vast majority of college students may meet at least one of these conditions, since so many 19 to 24

year old college students now work full-time while enrolled. For the purpose of this study we focused on adult

learners 24 and older who had delayed enrollment in postsecondary education after high school, or had

attempted college but did not complete their degree before the age of 25, or had completed a two-year degree

and worked before returning to attempt a four-year degree. Many of the other conditions specified above were

also prevalent in our sample population.

1. National Center for Education Statistics. "Special Analysis 2002 Nontraditional Undergraduates",

Institute of Education Sciences, U.S. Department of Education. Accessed 26 November 2010.


2. The following eight colleges and universities assisted in soliciting their students to participate in this research;

each institution had a return of 15 or more responses. Overall, these institutions generated 1,322 responses;

approximately 11% of the total survey population. Baker College students made up approximately 78% of

participants. The remaining three participating colleges and universities not listed below, 11%, provided fewer

than five responses.

Baker College

Harrison College

Indiana Tech

Indiana University Southeast

University of Wisconsin – Green Bay

Saint Mary-of-the-Woods College

Defiance College

The University of Akron

Thank you for supporting this research project!

3. The scale used by Gardner and Chao captures two dimensions: superiority and admiration.


References

Bureau of Labor Statistics (2009). College Enrollment and Work Activity of 2009 High School Graduates (BLS

Publication No. USDL 10-0533). Retrieved from http://www.bls.gov/news.release/hsgec.nr0.htm

Chao, G. (2009) Young Adults at Work: What They Want, What They Get and How to Keep Them. Retrieved

from Michigan State University, Collegiate Employment Research Institute website: http://ceri.msu.edu/

publications/pdf/yadultswk3-26-09.pdf

Gardner, P. (2007) Parent Involvement in the College Recruiting Process: To What Extent? Retrieved from

Michigan State University, Collegiate Employment Research Institute website: http://ceri.msu.edu/

publications/pdf/ceri2-07.pdf

Gardner, P. (2007) Recruiting Trends. Retrieved from Michigan State University, Collegiate Employment Research

Institute website: http://www.ceri.msu.edu/wp-content/uploads/2010/06/finalrt7-8.pdf

National Center for Education Statistics (2002) "Special Analysis 2002 Nontraditional Undergraduates, Institute of

Education Sciences, U.S. Department of Education”. Retrieved on November 26, 2010 from: http://

nces.ed.gov/programs/coe/2002/analyses/nontraditional/

Orszag J.M., Orszag P.R., & Whitmore D.M. (2001). Learning and Earning: Working In College. Retrieved on

December 8, 2010 from http://www.brockport.edu/career01/upromise.htm

Pema L. (2010). Understanding the Working College Student. Academe Online, July-August 2010. Retrieved from

http://www.aaup.org/AAUP/pubsres/academe/2010/JA/feat/pern.htm

Robbins, S. B., & Patton, M. (1985). Self psychology and career development: construction of the superiority

and goal instability scales. Journal of Counseling Psychology, (32), 221–231.


Twenge, J. M. (2006) Generation me: why today's young Americans are more confident, assertive, entitled--and

more miserable than ever before. New York, NY: Free Press.

Researcher Contact Information

Niki Perkins Director of Career Services Baker College Online & Center for Graduate Studies Flint, MI [email protected] www.hirequalified.com www.baker.edu Dr. Phil Gardner Director, Collegiate Employment Research Institute (CERI) Michigan State University East Lansing, MI [email protected] www.ceri.msu.edu


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