advanced calculus mv

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Multivariable Advanced Calculus

Kenneth Kuttler

October 12, 2009


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Contents

1 Introduction 9

2 Some Fundamental Concepts 11

2.1 Set Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

2.1.1 Basic Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

2.1.2 The Schroder Bernstein Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

2.1.3 Equivalence Relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

2.2 lim sup And lim i nf . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

2.3 Double Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

3 Basic Linear Algebra 23

3.1 Algebra in Fn, Vector Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

3.2 Subspaces Spans And Bases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

3.3 Linear Transformations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

3.4 Block Multiplication Of Matrices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

3.5 Determinants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373.5.1 The Determinant Of A Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

3.5.2 The Determinant Of A Linear Transformation . . . . . . . . . . 48

3.6 Eigenvalues And Eigenvectors Of Linear Transformations . . . . . . . . 49

3.7 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51

3.8 Inner Product And Normed Linear Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52

3.8.1 The Inner Product In Fn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52

3.8.2 General Inner Product Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53

3.8.3 Normed Vector Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55

3.8.4 The p Norms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55

3.8.5 Orthonormal Bases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58

3.8.6 The Adjoint Of A Linear Transformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59

3.8.7 Schurs Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62

3.9 Polar Decompositions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65

3.10 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69

4 Sequences 71

4.1 Vector Valued Sequences And Their Limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71

4.2 Sequential Compactness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74

4.3 Closed And Open Sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75

4.4 Cauchy Sequences And Completeness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78

4.5 Shrinking Diameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80

4.6 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81

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CONTENTS 5

8 The Abstract Lebesgue Integral 179

8.1 Definition For Nonnegative Measurable Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1798.1.1 Riemann Integrals For Decreasing Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . 179

8.1.2 The Lebesgue Integral For Nonnegative Functions . . . . . . . . 1808.2 The Lebesgue Integral For Nonnegative Simple Functions . . . . . . . . 1808.3 The Monotone Convergence Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1838.4 Other Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1848.5 Fatous Lemma . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1858.6 The Righteous Algebraic Desires Of The Lebesgue Integral . . . . . . . 1858.7 The Lebesgue Integral, L1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1868.8 Approximation With Simple Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1898.9 The Dominated Convergence Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1928.10 Approximation With Cc (Y) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1948.11 The One Dimensional Lebesgue Integral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1968.12 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199

9 The Lebesgue Integral For Functions Of n Variables 2079.1 Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2079.2 n Dimensional Lebesgue Measure And Integrals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208

9.2.1 Iterated Integrals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2089.2.2 n Dimensional Lebesgue Measure And Integrals . . . . . . . . . . 2099.2.3 Fubinis Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212

9.3 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2159.4 Lebesgue Measure On Rn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2169.5 Mollifiers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2199.6 The Vitali Covering Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2259.7 Vitali Coverings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2279.8 Change Of Variables For Linear Maps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231

9.9 Change Of Variables For C1

Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2369.10 Change Of Variables For Mappings Which Are Not One To One . . . . 2429.11 Spherical Coordinates In n Dimensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2439.12 Brouwer Fixed Point Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2469.13 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249

10 Brouwer Degree 257

10.1 Preliminary Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25710.2 Definitions And Elementary Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259

10.2.1 The Degree For C2

;Rn

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26010.2.2 Definition Of The Degree For Continuous Functions . . . . . . . 266

10.3 B orsuks Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26910.4 A pplications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27110.5 The Product Formula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27410.6 Jordan Separation Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27910.7 Integration And The Degree . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28310.8 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288

11 Integration Of Differential Forms 293

11.1 Manifolds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29311.2 Some Important Measure Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296

11.2.1 Eggoroffs Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29611.2.2 The Vitali Convergence Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298

11.3 The Binet Cauchy Formula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30011.4 The Area Measure On A Manifold . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301


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11.5 Integration Of Differential Forms On Manifolds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30411.5.1 The Derivative Of A Differential Form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307

11.6 Stokes Theorem And The Orientation Of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307

11.7 Greens Theorem, An Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31111.7.1 An Oriented Manifold . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31111.7.2 Greens Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313

11.8 The Divergence Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31511.9 Spherical Coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31811.10Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321

12 The Laplace And Poisson Equations 325

12.1 Balls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32512.2 Poissons Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327

12.2.1 Poissons Problem For A Ball . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33112.2.2 Does It Work In Case f = 0? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33312.2.3 The Case Where f

= 0, Poissons Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . 335

12.3 Properties Of Harmonic Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33812.4 Laplaces Equation For General Sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341

12.4.1 Properties Of Subharmonic Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34112.4.2 Poissons Problem Again . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346

13 The Jordan Curve Theorem 349

14 Line Integrals 359

14.1 B asic Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35914.1.1 Length . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35914.1.2 Orientation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 361

14.2 The Line Integral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 364

14.3 Simple Closed Rectifiable Curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37414.3.1 The Jordan Curve Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37514.3.2 Orientation And Greens Formula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 380

14.4 S tokes Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38414.5 Interpretation And Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 389

14.5.1 The Geometric Description Of The Cross Product . . . . . . . . 38914.5.2 The Box Product, Triple Product . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39014.5.3 A Proof Of The Distributive Law For The Cross Product . . . . 39114.5.4 The Coordinate Description Of The Cross Product . . . . . . . . 39114.5.5 The Integral Over A Two Dimensional Surface . . . . . . . . . . 392

14.6 Introduction To Complex Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39414.6.1 Basic Theorems, The Cauchy Riemann Equations . . . . . . . . 39414.6.2 Contour Integrals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 396

14.6.3 The Cauchy Integral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39814.6.4 The Cauchy Goursat Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 401

14.7 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 404

15 Hausdorff Measures And Area Formula 415

15.1 Definition Of Hausdorff Measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41515.1.1 Properties Of Hausdorff Measure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41615.1.2 Hn And mn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 418

15.2 Technical Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42115.2.1 Steiner Symmetrization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42315.2.2 The Isodiametric Inequality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42515.2.3 The Proper Value Of(n) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 425


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15.2.4 A Formula For (n)

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42615.3 Hausdorff Measure And Linear Transformations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42815.4 T he Area Formula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 430

15.4.1 Preliminary Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43015.5 T he Area Formula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43415.6 Area Formula For Mappings Which Are Not One To One . . . . . . . . 44015.7 The Coarea Formula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44315.8 A Nonlinear Fubinis Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 452Copyright c 2007,


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Introduction

This book is directed to people who have a good understanding of the concepts of onevariable calculus including the notions of limit of a sequence and completeness of R. Itdevelops multivariable advanced calculus.

In order to do multivariable calculus correctly, you must first understand some linearalgebra. Therefore, a condensed course in linear algebra is presented first, emphasizingthose topics in linear algebra which are useful in analysis, not those topics which areprimarily dependent on row operations.

Many topics could be presented in greater generality than I have chosen to do. I havealso attempted to feature calculus, not topology although there are many interestingtopics from topology. This means I introduce the topology as it is needed rather thanusing the possibly more efficient practice of placing it right at the beginning in moregenerality than will be needed. I think it might make the topological concepts morememorable by linking them in this way to other concepts.

After the chapter on the n dimensional Lebesgue integral, you can make a choicebetween a very general treatment of integration of differential forms based on degreetheory in chapters 10 and 11 or you can follow an independent path through a proofof a general version of Greens theorem in the plane leading to a very good version ofStokes theorem for a two dimensional surface by following Chapters 12 and 13. Thisapproach also leads naturally to contour integrals and complex analysis. I got this ideafrom reading Apostols advanced calculus book. Finally, there is an introduction toHausdorff measures and the area formula in the last chapter.

I have avoided many advanced topics like the Radon Nikodym theorem, represen-tation theorems, function spaces, and differentiation theory. It seems to me these aretopics for a more advanced course in real analysis. I chose to feature the Lebesgueintegral because I have gone through the theory of the Riemann integral for a functionof n variables and ended up thinking it was too fussy and that the extra abstraction ofthe Lebesgue integral was worthwhile in order to avoid this fussiness. Also, it seemedto me that this book should be in some sense more advanced than my calculus book

which does contain in an appendix all this fussy theory.

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12 SOME FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS

there is no way to determine to everyones satisfaction whether a given judge is anactivist. Also, just because something is grammatically correct does not meanit makes any sense. For example consider the following nonsense.

S = {x set of dogs : it is colder in the mountains than in the winter} .So what is a condition?

We will leave these sorts of considerations and assume our conditions make sense.The axiom of unions states that for any collection of sets, there is a set consisting of allthe elements in each of the sets in the collection. Of course this is also open to furtherconsideration. What is a collection? Maybe it would be better to say set of sets or,given a set whose elements are sets there exists a set whose elements consist of exactlythose things which are elements of at least one of these sets. If S is such a set whoseelements are sets,

{A : A S} or Ssignify this union.

Something is in the Cartesian product of a set or family of sets if it consists ofa single thing taken from each set in the family. Thus (1, 2, 3) {1, 4, .2} {1, 2, 7} {4, 3, 7, 9} because it consists of exactly one element from each of the sets which areseparated by . Also, this is the notation for the Cartesian product of finitely manysets. IfSis a set whose elements are sets,

AS

A

signifies the Cartesian product.The Cartesian product is the set of choice functions, a choice function being a func-

tion which selects exactly one element of each set of S. You may think the axiom ofchoice, stating that the Cartesian product of a nonempty family of nonempty sets is

nonempty, is innocuous but there was a time when many mathematicians were readyto throw it out because it implies things which are very hard to believe, things whichnever happen without the axiom of choice.

A is a subset of B, written A B, if every element of A is also an element of B.This can also be written as B A. A is a proper subset of B, written A B or B Aif A is a subset of B but A is not equal to B, A = B. A B denotes the intersection ofthe two sets, A and B and it means the set of elements of A which are also elements ofB. The axiom of specification shows this is a set. The empty set is the set which hasno elements in it, denoted as . A B denotes the union of the two sets, A and B andit means the set of all elements which are in either of the sets. It is a set because of theaxiom of unions.

The complement of a set, (the set of things which are not in the given set ) must be

taken with respect to a given set called the universal set which is a set which containsthe one whose complement is being taken. Thus, the complement of A, denoted as AC

( or more precisely as X\ A) is a set obtained from using the axiom of specification towrite

AC {x X : x / A}The symbol / means: is not an element of. Note the axiom of specification takesplace relative to a given set. Without this universal set it makes no sense to use theaxiom of specification to obtain the complement.

Words such as all or there exists are called quantifiers and they must be under-stood relative to some given set. For example, the set of all integers larger than 3. Orthere exists an integer larger than 7. Such statements have to do with a given set, inthis case the integers. Failure to have a reference set when quantifiers are used turns


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2.1. SET THEORY 15

Definition 2.1.4 LetI be a set and let Xi be a set for each i I. f is a choicefunction written as

f iI Xiif f(i) Xi for each i I.

The axiom of choice says that if Xi = for each i I, for I a set, theniI

Xi = .

Sometimes the two functions, f and g are onto but not one to one. It turns out thatwith the axiom of choice, a similar conclusion to the above may be obtained.

Corollary 2.1.5 If f : X Y is onto and g : Y X is onto, then there existsh : X Y which is one to one and onto.

Proof: For each y Y, f1 (y) {x X : f(x) = y} = . Therefore, by the axiomof choice, there exists f10

yY f1 (y) which is the same as saying that for each

y Y, f10 (y) f1 (y). Similarly, there exists g10 (x) g1 (x) for all x X. Thenf10 is one to one because if f

10 (y1) = f

10 (y2), then

y1 = f

f10 (y1)

= f

f10 (y2)

= y2.

Similarly g10 is one to one. Therefore, by the Schroder Bernstein theorem, there existsh : X Y which is one to one and onto.

Definition 2.1.6 A set S, is finite if there exists a natural number n and amap which maps {1, , n} one to one and onto S. S is infinite if it is not finite.A set S, is called countable if there exists a map mappingN one to one and ontoS.(When maps a set A to a set B, this will be written as : A B in the future.)HereN {1, 2, }, the natural numbers. S is at most countable if there exists a map : N S which is onto.

The property of being at most countable is often referred to as being countablebecause the question of interest is normally whether one can list all elements of the set,designating a first, second, third etc. in such a way as to give each element of the set anatural number. The possibility that a single element of the set may be counted morethan once is often not important.

Theorem 2.1.7 If X and Y are both at most countable, then X Y is also atmost countable. If either X or Y is countable, then X Y is also countable.

Proof: It is given that there exists a mapping : N X which is onto. Define (i) xi and consider X as the set {x1, x2, x3, }. Similarly, consider Y as the set{y1, y2, y3, }. It follows the elements ofXY are included in the following rectangulararray.

(x1, y1) (x1, y2) (x1, y3) Those which have x1 in first slot.(x2, y1) (x2, y2) (x2, y3) Those which have x2 in first slot.(x3, y1) (x3, y2) (x3, y3) Those which have x3 in first slot.

......

......

.


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Follow a path through this array as follows.

(x1, y1) (x1, y2) (x1, y3)

(x2, y1) (x2, y2)

(x3, y1)

Thus the first element of X Y is (x1, y1), the second element of X Y is (x1, y2), thethird element of X Y is (x2, y1) etc. This assigns a number from N to each elementof X Y. Thus X Y is at most countable.

It remains to show the last claim. Suppose without loss of generality that X iscountable. Then there exists : N Xwhich is one to one and onto. Let : XY Nbe defined by ((x, y)) 1 (x). Thus is onto N. By the first part there exists afunction from N onto X Y. Therefore, by Corollary 2.1.5, there exists a one to oneand onto mapping from X Y to N. This proves the theorem. Theorem 2.1.8 If X and Y are at most countable, then X Y is at mostcountable. If either X or Y are countable, then X Y is countable.

Proof: As in the preceding theorem,

X = {x1, x2, x3, }and

Y = {y1, y2, y3, } .Consider the following array consisting of X Y and path through it.

x1 x2 x3 y1 y2

Thus the first element of X Y is x1, the second is x2 the third is y1 the fourth is y2etc.

Consider the second claim. By the first part, there is a map from N onto X Y.Suppose without loss of generality that X is countable and : N X is one to one andonto. Then define (y) 1, for all y Y,and (x) 1 (x). Thus, maps X Yonto N and this shows there exist two onto maps, one mapping X Y onto N and theother mapping N onto X Y. Then Corollary 2.1.5 yields the conclusion. This provesthe theorem.

2.1.3 Equivalence Relations

There are many ways to compare elements of a set other than to say two elements areequal or the same. For example, in the set of people let two people be equivalent if theyhave the same weight. This would not be saying they were the same person, just thatthey weighed the same. Often such relations involve considering one characteristic ofthe elements of a set and then saying the two elements are equivalent if they are thesame as far as the given characteristic is concerned.

Definition 2.1.9 LetS be a set. is an equivalence relation on S if it satisfiesthe following axioms.

1. x x for all x S. (Reflexive)


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2.2. LIMSUP AND LIMINF 17

2. If x y then y x. (Symmetric)

3. If x y and y z, then x z. (Transitive)

Definition 2.1.10 [x] denotes the set of all elements of S which are equivalentto x and [x] is called the equivalence class determined by x or just the equivalence classof x.

With the above definition one can prove the following simple theorem.

Theorem 2.1.11 Let be an equivalence class defined on a set, S and let Hdenote the set of equivalence classes. Then if [x] and [y] are two of these equivalenceclasses, either x y and [x] = [y] or it is not true that x y and [x] [y] = .

2.2 lim sup And lim infIt is assumed in all that is done that R is complete. There are two ways to describecompleteness ofR. One is to say that every bounded set has a least upper bound and agreatest lower bound. The other is to say that every Cauchy sequence converges. Thesetwo equivalent notions of completeness will be taken as given.

The symbol, F will mean either R or C. The symbol [, ] will mean all realnumbers along with + and which are points which we pretend are at the rightand left ends of the real line respectively. The inclusion of these make believe pointsmakes the statement of certain theorems less trouble.

Definition 2.2.1 For A [, ] , A = sup A is defined as the least upperbound in case A is bounded above by a real number and equals

if A is not bounded

above. Similarly infA is defined to equal the greatest lower bound in case A is boundedbelow by a real number and equals in case A is not bounded below.

Lemma 2.2.2 If {An} is an increasing sequence in [, ], then

sup {An} = limn

An.

Similarly, if {An} is decreasing, then

inf{An} = limn

An.

Proof: Let sup(

{An : n

N

}) = r. In the first case, suppose r 0 be given, there exists n such that An (r , r]. Since {An} is increasing, itfollows if m > n, then r < An Am r and so limnAn = r as claimed. Inthe case where r = , then if a is a real number, there exists n such that An > a.Since {Ak} is increasing, it follows that if m > n, Am > a. But this is what is meantby limnAn = . The other case is that r = . But in this case, An = for alln and so limnAn = . The case where An is decreasing is entirely similar. Thisproves the lemma.

Sometimes the limit of a sequence does not exist. For example, if an = (1)n , thenlimn an does not exist. This is because the terms of the sequence are a distanceof 1 apart. Therefore there cant exist a single number such that all the terms of thesequence are ultimately within 1/4 of that number. The nice thing about lim sup andlim inf is that they always exist. First here is a simple lemma and definition.


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Definition 2.2.3 Denote by [, ] the real line along with symbols and. It is understood that is larger than every real number and is smallerthan every real number. Then if {An} is an increasing sequence of points of [, ] ,limnAn equals if the only upper bound of the set {An} is . If {An} is boundedabove by a real number, then limnAn is defined in the usual way and equals theleast upper bound of {An}. If {An} is a decreasing sequence of points of [, ] ,limnAn equals if the only lower bound of the sequence {An} is . If{An} isbounded below by a real number, then limnAn is defined in the usual way and equalsthe greatest lower bound of {An}. More simply, if {An} is increasing,

limn

An = sup {An}

and if {An} is decreasing thenlim

nAn = inf{An} .

Lemma 2.2.4 Let{

an}

be a sequence of real numbers and letUn

sup

{ak : k

n

}.

Then {Un} is a decreasing sequence. Also if Ln inf{ak : k n} , then {Ln} is anincreasing sequence. Therefore, limnLn and limnUn both exist.

Proof: Let Wn be an upper bound for {ak : k n} . Then since these sets aregetting smaller, it follows that for m < n, Wm is an upper bound for {ak : k n} . Inparticular if Wm = Um, then Um is an upper bound for {ak : k n} and so Um is atleast as large as Un, the least upper bound for {ak : k n} . The claim that {Ln} isdecreasing is similar. This proves the lemma.

From the lemma, the following definition makes sense.

Definition 2.2.5 Let{an} be any sequence of points of [, ]lim sup

nan lim

nsup {ak : k n}

lim infn

an limn

inf{ak : k n} .

Theorem 2.2.6 Suppose {an} is a sequence of real numbers and thatlim sup

nan

andlim inf

nan

are both real numbers. Then limn an exists if and only if

lim infn

an = lim supn

an

and in this case,lim

nan = lim inf

nan = lim sup

nan.

Proof: First note that

sup {ak : k n} inf{ak : k n}and so from Theorem 4.1.7,

lim supn

an limn

sup {ak : k n} lim

ninf{ak : k n}

lim infn

an.


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Theorem 2.2.8 Suppose {an} is a sequence of points of [, ] . Let = lim sup

nan.

Then if b > , it follows there exists N such that whenever n N,an b.

If c < , then an > c for infinitely many values of n. Let

= lim infn

an.

Then if d < , it follows there exists N such that whenever n N,an d.

If e > , it follows an < e for infinitely many values of n.

The proof of this theorem is left as an exercise for you. It follows directly from thedefinition and it is the sort of thing you must do yourself. Here is one other simpleproposition.

Proposition 2.2.9 Let limn an = a > 0. Then

lim supn

anbn = a lim supn

bn.

Proof: This follows from the definition. Let n = sup {akbk : k n} . For all nlarge enough, an > a where is small enough that a > 0. Therefore,

n sup {bk : k n} (a )for all n large enough. Then

lim supn

anbn = limn

n lim supn

anbn

limn

(sup {bk : k n} (a ))= (a )lim sup

nbn

Similar reasoning shows

lim supn

anbn (a + )lim supn

bn

Now since > 0 is arbitrary, the conclusion follows.

2.3 Double Series

Sometimes it is required to consider double series which are of the form

k=m

j=m

ajk

k=m

j=m

ajk

.In other words, first sum on j yielding something which depends on k and then sumthese. The major consideration for these double series is the question of when

k=m

j=majk =

j=m

k=majk .


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Next observe that

n=1 amn = b ifm = 1,

n=1 amn = a+c ifm = 2, and

n=1 amn =0 if m > 2. Therefore,

m=1

n=1 amn = b + a + cand so the two sums are different. Moreover, you can see that by assigning differentvalues of a,b, and c, you can get an example for any two different numbers desired.

It turns out that if aij 0 for all i,j, then you can always interchange the orderof summation. This is shown next and is based on the following lemma. First, somenotation should be discussed.

Definition 2.3.2 Let f(a, b) [, ] for a A and b B where A, Bare sets which means that f(a, b) is either a number, , or . The symbol, +is interpreted as a point out at the end of the number line which is larger than everyreal number. Of course there is no such number. That is why it is called . Thesymbol, is interpreted similarly. Then supaA f(a, b) means sup(Sb) where Sb

{f(a, b) : a

A

}.

Unlike limits, you can take the sup in different orders.

Lemma 2.3.3 Let f(a, b) [, ] for a A and b B where A, B are sets.Then

supaA

supbB

f(a, b) = supbB

supaA

f(a, b) .

Proof: Note that for all a, b, f(a, b) supbB supaA f(a, b) and therefore, for alla, supbB f(a, b) supbB supaA f(a, b). Therefore,

supaA

supbB

f(a, b) supbB

supaA

f(a, b) .

Repeat the same argument interchanging a and b, to get the conclusion of the lemma.

Theorem 2.3.4 Letaij 0. Theni=1

j=1

aij =

j=1

i=1

aij .

Proof: First note there is no trouble in defining these sums because the aij are allnonnegative. If a sum diverges, it only diverges to and so is the value of the sum.Next note that

j=r

i=r

aij supn

j=r

ni=r

aij

because for all j,

i=r aij n

i=r aij .Therefore,

j=r

i=r

aij supn

j=r

ni=r

aij = supn

limm

mj=r

ni=r

aij

= supn

limm

ni=r

mj=r

aij = supn

ni=r

limm

mj=r

aij

= supn

ni=r

j=r

aij = limn

ni=r

j=r

aij =

i=r

j=r

aij

Interchanging the i and j in the above argument proves the theorem.


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Basic Linear Algebra

All the topics for calculus of one variable generalize to calculus of any number of variablesin which the functions can have values in m dimensional space and there is more thanone variable.

The notation, Cn refers to the collection of ordered lists ofn complex numbers. Sinceevery real number is also a complex number, this simply generalizes the usual notionofRn, the collection of all ordered lists of n real numbers. In order to avoid worryingabout whether it is real or complex numbers which are being referred to, the symbol Fwill be used. If it is not clear, always pick C.

Definition 3.0.5 Define

Fn {(x1, , xn) : xj F for j = 1, , n} .

(x1, , xn) = (y1, , yn) if and only if for all j = 1, , n, xj = yj . When

(x1, , xn) Fn,

it is conventional to denote (x1, , xn) by the single bold face letter, x. The numbers,xj are called the coordinates. The set

{(0, , 0, t, 0, , 0) : t F}

for t in the ith slot is called the ith coordinate axis. The point 0 (0, , 0) is calledthe origin.

Thus (1, 2, 4i) F3 and (2, 1, 4i) F3 but (1, 2, 4i) = (2, 1, 4i) because, even thoughthe same numbers are involved, they dont match up. In particular, the first entries arenot equal.

The geometric significance ofRn for n 3 has been encountered already in calculusor in precalculus. Here is a short review. First consider the case when n = 1. Thenfrom the definition, R1 = R. Recall that R is identified with the points of a line. Lookat the number line again. Observe that this amounts to identifying a point on this linewith a real number. In other words a real number determines where you are on this line.Now suppose n = 2 and consider two lines which intersect each other at right angles asshown in the following picture.

23


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24 BASIC LINEAR ALGEBRA

2

6 (2, 6)

8

3(8, 3)

Notice how you can identify a point shown in the plane with the ordered pair, (2, 6) .You go to the right a distance of 2 and then up a distance of 6 . Similarly, you can identifyanother point in the plane with the ordered pair (8, 3) . Go to the left a distance of 8and then up a distance of 3. The reason you go to the left is that there is a sign on theeight. From this reasoning, every ordered pair determines a unique point in the plane.

Conversely, taking a point in the plane, you could draw two lines through the point,one vertical and the other horizontal and determine unique points, x1 on the horizontalline in the above picture and x2 on the vertical line in the above picture, such thatthe point of interest is identified with the ordered pair, (x1, x2) . In short, points in theplane can be identified with ordered pairs similar to the way that points on the realline are identified with real numbers. Now suppose n = 3. As just explained, the firsttwo coordinates determine a point in a plane. Letting the third component determinehow far up or down you go, depending on whether this number is positive or negative,this determines a point in space. Thus, (1, 4, 5) would mean to determine the pointin the plane that goes with (1, 4) and then to go below this plane a distance of 5 toobtain a unique point in space. You see that the ordered triples correspond to points inspace just as the ordered pairs correspond to points in a plane and single real numberscorrespond to points on a line.

You cant stop here and say that you are only interested in n 3. What if you wereinterested in the motion of two objects? You would need three coordinates to describewhere the first object is and you would need another three coordinates to describewhere the other object is located. Therefore, you would need to be considering R6. Ifthe two objects moved around, you would need a time coordinate as well. As anotherexample, consider a hot object which is cooling and suppose you want the temperatureof this object. How many coordinates would be needed? You would need one for thetemperature, three for the position of the point in the object and one more for thetime. Thus you would need to be considering R5. Many other examples can be given.Sometimes n is very large. This is often the case in applications to business when theyare trying to maximize profit subject to constraints. It also occurs in numerical analysiswhen people try to solve hard problems on a computer.

There are other ways to identify points in space with three numbers but the onepresented is the most basic. In this case, the coordinates are known as Cartesiancoordinates after Descartes1 who invented this idea in the first half of the seventeenthcentury. I will often not bother to draw a distinction between the point in n dimensionalspace and its Cartesian coordinates.

The geometric significance ofCn for n > 1 is not available because each copy of Ccorresponds to the plane or R2.

1Rene Descartes 1596-1650 is often credited with inventing analytic geometry although it seemsthe ideas were actually known much earlier. He was interested in many different subjects, physiology,chemistry, and physics being some of them. He also wrote a large book in which he tried to explainthe book of Genesis scientifically. Descartes ended up dying in Sweden.


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3.1. ALGEBRA INFN, VECTOR SPACES 25

3.1 Algebra in Fn, Vector Spaces

There are two algebraic operations done with elements of Fn. One is addition and theother is multiplication by numbers, called scalars. In the case ofCn the scalars arecomplex numbers while in the case of Rn the only allowed scalars are real numbers.Thus, the scalars always come from F in either case.

Definition 3.1.1 If x Fn and a F, also called a scalar, then ax Fn isdefined by

ax = a (x1, , xn) (ax1, , axn) . (3.1)This is known as scalar multiplication. If x, y Fn then x + y Fn and is defined by

x + y = (x1, , xn) + (y1, , yn) (x1 + y1, , xn + yn) (3.2)

the points inFn are also referred to as vectors.

With this definition, the algebraic properties satisfy the conclusions of the followingtheorem. These conclusions are called the vector space axioms. Any time you have aset and a field of scalars satisfying the axioms of the following theorem, it is called avector space.

Theorem 3.1.2 For v, w Fn and , scalars, (real numbers), the followinghold.

v + w = w + v, (3.3)

the commutative law of addition,

(v + w) + z = v+ (w + z) , (3.4)

the associative law for addition,v + 0 = v, (3.5)

the existence of an additive identity,

v+ (v) = 0, (3.6)the existence of an additive inverse, Also

(v + w) = v+w, (3.7)

( + ) v =v+v, (3.8)

(v) = (v) , (3.9)

1v = v. (3.10)In the above 0 = (0, , 0).

You should verify these properties all hold. For example, consider 3.7

(v + w) = (v1 + w1, , vn + wn)= ( (v1 + w1) , , (vn + wn))= (v1 + w1, , vn + wn)= (v1, , vn) + (w1, , wn)= v + w.

As usual subtraction is defined as x y x+ (y) .


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3.2 Subspaces Spans And Bases

The concept of linear combination is fundamental in all of linear algebra.

Definition 3.2.1 Let {x1, , xp} be vectors in a vector space, Y having thefield of scalarsF. A linear combination is any expression of the form

pi=1

cixi

where the ci are scalars. The set of all linear combinations of these vectors is calledspan(x1, , xn) . If V Y, then V is called a subspace if whenever , are scalarsand u and v are vectors of V, it follows u + v V. That is, it is closed underthe algebraic operations of vector addition and scalar multiplication and is therefore, avector space. A linear combination of vectors is said to be trivial if al l the scalars inthe linear combination equal zero. A set of vectors is said to be linearly independent if

the only linear combination of these vectors which equals the zero vector is the triviallinear combination. Thus {x1, , xn} is called linearly independent if wheneverp

k=1

ckxk = 0

it follows that all the scalars, ck equal zero. A set of vectors, {x1, , xp} , is calledlinearly dependent if it is not linearly independent. Thus the set of vectors is linearlydependent if there exist scalars, ci, i = 1, , n, not all zero such that

pk=1 ckxk = 0.

Lemma 3.2.2 A set of vectors {x1, , xp} is linearly independent if and only ifnone of the vectors can be obtained as a linear combination of the others.

Proof: Suppose first that {x1, , xp} is linearly independent. Ifxk =

j=k

cjxj ,

then0 = 1xk +

j=k

(cj ) xj ,

a nontrivial linear combination, contrary to assumption. This shows that if the set islinearly independent, then none of the vectors is a linear combination of the others.

Now suppose no vector is a linear combination of the others. Is {x1, , xp} linearlyindependent? If it is not, there exist scalars, ci, not all zero such that

pi=1

cixi = 0.

Say ck = 0. Then you can solve for xk as

xk =j=k

(cj ) /ckxj

contrary to assumption. This proves the lemma. The following is called the exchange theorem.

Theorem 3.2.3 Let {x1, , xr} be a linearly independent set of vectors suchthat each xi is in the span {y1, , ys} . Then r s.


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3.2. SUBSPACES SPANS AND BASES 27

Proof: Define span {y1, , ys} V, it follows there exist scalars, c1, , cs suchthat

x1 =

s

i=1 ciyi. (3.11)Not all of these scalars can equal zero because if this were the case, it would followthat x1 = 0 and so {x1, , xr} would not be linearly independent. Indeed, if x1 = 0,1x1 +

ri=2 0xi = x1 = 0 and so there would exist a nontrivial linear combination of

the vectors {x1, , xr} which equals zero.Say ck = 0. Then solve (3.11) for yk and obtain

yk spanx1, s-1 vectors here y1, , yk1, yk+1, , ys

.Define {z1, , zs1} by

{z1, , zs1} {y1, , yk1, yk+1, , ys}

Therefore, span {x1, z1, , zs1} = V because if v V, there exist constants c1, , cssuch that

v =s1i=1

cizi + csyk.

Now replace the yk in the above with a linear combination of the vectors, {x1, z1, , zs1}to obtain v span {x1, z1, , zs1} . The vector yk, in the list {y1, , ys} , has nowbeen replaced with the vector x1 and the resulting modified list of vectors has the samespan as the original list of vectors, {y1, , ys} .

Now suppose that r > s and that span {x1, , xl, z1, , zp} = V where the vectors,z1, , zp are each taken from the set, {y1, , ys} and l+p = s. This has now been donefor l = 1 above. Then since r > s, it follows that l s < r and so l + 1 r. Therefore,xl+1 is a vector not in the list, {x1, , xl} and since span {x1, , xl, z1, , zp} = Vthere exist scalars, ci and dj such that

xl+1 =l

i=1

cixi +

pj=1

dj zj . (3.12)

Now not all the dj can equal zero because if this were so, it would follow that {x1, , xr}would be a linearly dependent set because one of the vectors would equal a linearcombination of the others. Therefore, (3.12) can be solved for one of the zi, say zk, interms of xl+1 and the other zi and just as in the above argument, replace that zi with

xl+1 to obtain

span

x1, xl, xl+1, p-1 vectors here z1, zk1, zk+1, , zp = V.

Continue this way, eventually obtaining

span (x1, , xs) = V.

But then xr span {x1, , xs} contrary to the assumption that {x1, , xr} is linearlyindependent. Therefore, r s as claimed.

Here is another proof in case you didnt like the above proof.


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3.2. SUBSPACES SPANS AND BASES 29

Lemma 3.2.7 Let{v1, , vr} be a set of vectors. Then V span(v1, , vr) is asubspace.

Proof: Suppose , are two scalars and let rk=1 ckvk and rk=1 dkvk are twoelements of V. What about

rk=1

ckvk + r

k=1

dkvk?

Is it also in V?

r

k=1

ckvk + r

k=1

dkvk =r

k=1

(ck + dk) vk V

so the answer is yes. This proves the lemma.

Definition 3.2.8 LetV be a vector space. Then dim(V) read as the dimensionof V is the number of vectors in a basis.

Of course you should wonder right now whether an arbitrary subspace of a finitedimensional vector space even has a basis. In fact it does and this is in the next theorem.First, here is an interesting lemma.

Lemma 3.2.9 Suppose v / span (u1, , uk) and {u1, , uk} is linearly indepen-dent. Then {u1, , uk, v} is also linearly independent.

Proof: Supposek

i=1 ciui + dv = 0. It is required to verify that each ci = 0 andthat d = 0. But ifd = 0, then you can solve for v as a linear combination of the vectors,

{u1,

, uk

},

v = k

i=1

cid

ui

contrary to assumption. Therefore, d = 0. But thenk

i=1 ciui = 0 and the linearindependence of{u1, , uk} implies each ci = 0 also. This proves the lemma.

Theorem 3.2.10 LetV be a nonzero subspace of Y a finite dimensional vectorspace having dimension n. Then V has a basis.

Proof: Let v1 V where v1 = 0. If span {v1} = V, stop. {v1} is a basis for V.Otherwise, there exists v2 V which is not in span {v1} . By Lemma 3.2.9 {v1, v2} isa linearly independent set of vectors. If span

{v1, v2

}= V stop,

{v1, v2

}is a basis for

V. If span {v1, v2} = V, then there exists v3 / span {v1, v2} and {v1, v2, v3} is a largerlinearly independent set of vectors. Continuing this way, the process must stop beforen + 1 steps because if not, it would be possible to obtain n + 1 linearly independentvectors contrary to the exchange theorem and the assumed dimension of Y. This provesthe theorem.

In words the following corollary states that any linearly independent set of vectorscan be enlarged to form a basis.

Corollary 3.2.11 LetV be a subspace of Y, a finite dimensional vector space of di-mensionn and let{v1, , vr} be a linearly independent set of vectors inV. Then eitherit is a basis forV or there exist vectors, vr+1, , vs such that{v1, , vr, vr+1, , vs}is a basis for V.


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Proof: This follows immediately from the proof of Theorem 3.2.10. You do exactlythe same argument except you start with {v1, , vr} rather than {v1}.

It is also true that any spanning set of vectors can be restricted to obtain a basis.

Theorem 3.2.12 LetV be a subspace of Y, a finite dimensional vector space ofdimension n and suppose span(u1 , up) = V where the ui are nonzero vectors. Thenthere exist vectors, {v1 , vr} such that{v1 , vr} {u1 , up} and{v1 , vr} is abasis for V.

Proof: Let r be the smallest positive integer with the property that for some set,{v1 , vr} {u1 , up} ,

span (v1 , vr) = V.Then r p and it must be the case that {v1 , vr} is linearly independent because ifit were not so, one of the vectors, say vk would be a linear combination of the others.But then you could delete this vector from {v1 , vr} and the resulting list of r 1vectors would still span V contrary to the definition of r. This proves the theorem.

3.3 Linear Transformations

In calculus of many variables one studies functions of many variables and what is meantby their derivatives or integrals, etc. The simplest kind of function of many variables isa linear transformation. You have to begin with the simple things if you expect to makesense of the harder things. The following is the definition of a linear transformation.

Definition 3.3.1 LetV andW be two finite dimensional vector spaces. A func-tion, L which mapsV to W is called a linear transformation and written asL L (V, W)if for all scalars and , and vectors v, w,

L (v+w) = L (v) + L (w) .

An example of a linear transformation is familiar matrix multiplication, familiar ifyou have had a linear algebra course. Let A = (aij ) be an m n matrix. Then anexample of a linear transformation L : Fn Fm is given by

(Lv)i n

j=1

aij vj.

Here

v

v1...

vn

F

n.

In the general case, the space of linear transformations is itself a vector space. Thiswill be discussed next.

Definition 3.3.2 Given L, M L (V, W) define a new element of L (V, W) ,denoted by L + M according to the rule

(L + M) v Lv + Mv.

For a scalar and L L (V, W) , define L L (V, W) by

L (v) (Lv) .


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3.3. LINEAR TRANSFORMATIONS 31

You should verify that all the axioms of a vector space hold for L (V, W) withthe above definitions of vector addition and scalar multiplication. What about thedimension ofL (V, W)?

Before answering this question, here is a lemma.

Lemma 3.3.3 LetV and W be vector spaces and suppose {v1, , vn} is a basis forV. Then if L : V W is given by Lvk = wk W and

L

n

k=1

akvk

nk=1

akLvk =n

k=1

akwk

then L is well defined and is in L (V, W) . Also, if L, M are two linear transformationssuch that Lvk = Mvk for all k, then M = L.

Proof: L is well defined on V because, since {v1, , vn} is a basis, there is exactlyone way to write a given vector of V as a linear combination. Next, observe that L is

obviously linear from the definition. If L, M are equal on the basis, then ifnk=1 akvkis an arbitrary vector of V,L

n

k=1

akvk

=

nk=1

akLvk

=n

k=1

akMvk = M

n

k=1

akvk

and so L = M because they give the same result for every vector in V.The message is that when you define a linear transformation, it suffices to tell what

it does to a basis.

Definition 3.3.4 The symbol, ij is defined as 1 if i = j and 0 if i = j.Theorem 3.3.5 LetV and W be finite dimensional vector spaces of dimensionn and m respectively Then dim(L (V, W)) = mn.

Proof: Let two sets of bases be

{v1, , vn} and {w1, , wm}for V and W respectively. Using Lemma 3.3.3, let wivj L (V, W) be the lineartransformation defined on the basis, {v1, , vn}, by

wivk (vj ) wijk .

Note that to define these special linear transformations, sometimes called dyadics, it isnecessary that {v1, , vn} be a basis since their definition requires giving the values ofthe linear transformation on a basis.

Let L L (V, W). Since {w1, , wm} is a basis, there exist constants djr such that

Lvr =m

j=1

djr wj

Then from the above,

Lvr =m

j=1djr wj =

m

j=1n

k=1djr kr wj =

m

j=1n

k=1djr wj vk (vr)


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which shows

L =m

j=1n

k=1djk wj vk

because the two linear transformations agree on a basis. Since L is arbitrary this shows

{wivk : i = 1, ,m, k = 1, , n}

spans L (V, W).If

i,k

dikwivk = 0,

then

0 =

i,kdikwivk (vl) =

m

i=1dilwi

and so, since {w1, , wm} is a basis, dil = 0 for each i = 1, , m. Since l is arbitrary,this shows dil = 0 for all i and l. Thus these linear transformations form a basis andthis shows the dimension of L (V, W) is mn as claimed.

Definition 3.3.6 LetV, W be finite dimensional vector spaces such that a basisfor V is

{v1, , vn}and a basis for W is

{w1, , wm}.Then as explained in Theorem 3.3.5, for L L (V, W) , there exist scalars lij such that

L = ij

lij wivj

Consider a rectangular array of scalars such that the entry in the ith row and the jth

column is lij , l11 l12 l1nl21 l22 l2n

......

. . ....

lm1 lm2 lmn

This is called the matrix of the linear transformation with respect to the two bases. Thiswill typically be denoted by (lij ) . It is called a matrix and in this case the matrix ism n because it has m rows and n columns.

Theorem 3.3.7 Let L L (V, W) and let (lij ) be the matrix of L with respectto the two bases,

{v1, , vn} and {w1, , wm}.of V and W respectively. Then for v V having components (x1, , xn) with respectto the basis {v1, , vn}, the components of Lv with respect to the basis {w1, , wm}are

j

l1j xj , ,

j

lmjxj


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Proof: From the definition of lij ,

Lv = ij lij wivj (v) = ij lij wivj k xkvk=

ijk

lij wivj (vk) xk =ijk

lij wijk xk =

i

j

lij xj

wiand This proves the theorem.

Theorem 3.3.8 Let(V, {v1, , vn}) , (U, {u1, , um}) , (W,{w1, , wp}) be threevector spaces along with bases for each one. Let L L (V, U) and M L (U, W) . ThenM L L (V, W) and if (cij ) is the matrix of ML with respect to {v1, , vn} and{w1, , wp} and (lij ) and (mij ) are the matrices of L and M respectively with respectto the given bases, then

crj =

ms=1

mrslsj.

Proof: First note that from the definition,

(wiuj ) (ukvl) (vr) = (wiuj ) uklr = wijk lr

andwivljk (vr) = wijk lr

which shows(wiuj ) (ukvl) = wivljk (3.13)

Therefore,

M L =

rs

mrswrus

ij

lij uivj

=

rsij

mrslij (wrus) (uivj ) =rsij

mrslij wrvj is

=rsj

mrslsj wrvj =

rj

s

mrslsj

wrvj

and This proves the theorem. The relation 3.13 is a very important cancellation property which is used later as

well as in this theorem.

Theorem 3.3.9 Suppose (V, {v1, , vn}) is a vector space and a basis and(V, {v1, , vn}) is the same vector space with a different basis. Suppose L L (V, V) .Let(lij ) be the matrix of L taken with respect to {v1, , vn} and let

lij

be the n nmatrix of L taken with respect to {v1, , vn}That is,

L =

ij

lij vivj , L =

rs

lrsvrvs.

Then there exist n n matrices (dij ) and

dij

satisfying

jdij djk = ik


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such thatlij =

rs

dirlrsdsj

Proof: First consider the identity map, id defined by id (v) = v with respect to thetwo bases, {v1, , vn} and {v1, , vn}.

id =

tu

dtuvtvu, id =

ij

dij vivj (3.14)

Now it follows from 3.13

id = id id =tuij

dtudij (vtvu)

vivj

=tuij

dtudij iuvtvj

=tij

dtidij vtvj =

tj

i

dtidij

vtvj

On the other hand,id =

tj

tj vtvj

because id (vk) = vk andtj

tjvtvj (vk) =

tj

tj vtjk =

t

tkvt = vk.

Therefore, i

dtidij

= tj .

Switching the order of the above products showsi

dtidij

= tj

In terms of matrices, this says

dij

is the inverse matrix of (dij ) .Now using 3.14 and the cancellation property 3.13,

L =

iu

liuvivu =

rs

lrsvrvs = id

rs

lrsvrvs id

=

ij

dij vivj

rs

lrsvrvs

tu

dtuvtvu

= ijturs dij lrsdtu viv

j (vrvs) (vtvu)

=

ijturs

dij lrsdtuvivujr st =

iu

js

dij ljs dsu

vivuand since the linear transformations, {vivu} are linearly independent, this shows

liu =

js

dij ljs dsu

as claimed. This proves the theorem. Recall the following definition which is a review of important terminology about

matrices.


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Definition 3.3.10 If A is an m n matrix and B is an n p matrix, A =(Aij ) , B = (Bij ) , then if (AB)ij is the ij

th entry of the product, then

(AB)ij

= k AikBkjAn n n matrix, A is said to be invertible if there exists another n n matrix, denotedby A1 such that AA1 = A1A = I where the ijth entry of I is ij . Recall also that

AT

ij Aji . This is called the transpose of A.

Theorem 3.3.11 The following are important properties of matrices.

1. IA = AI = A

2. (AB) C = A (BC)

3. A1 is unique if it exists.

4. When the inverses exist, (AB)1 = B1A1

5. (AB)T = BTAT

Proof: I will prove these things directly from the above definition but there aremore elegant ways to see these things in terms of composition of linear transformationswhich is really what matrix multiplication corresponds to.

First, (IA)ij

k ikAkj = Aij . The other order is similar.Next consider the associative law of multiplication.

((AB) C)ij

k

(AB)ik Ckj =

k

r

AirBrkCkj

=

r

Air

k

Brk Ckj =

r

Air (BC)rj = (A (BC))ij

Since the ijth entries are equal, the two matrices are equal.Next consider the uniqueness of the inverse. If AB = BA = I, then using the

associative law,

B = IB =

A1A

B = A1 (AB) = A1I = A1

Thus if it acts like the inverse, it is the inverse.Consider now the inverse of a product.

AB

B1A1

= A

BB1

A1 = AIA1 = I

Similarly,

B1A1

AB = I. Hence from what was just shown, (AB)1 exists andequals B1A1.

Finally consider the statement about transposes.(AB)T

ij

(AB)ji

k

Ajk Bki k

BT

ik

AT

kj BTAT

ij

Since the ijth entries are the same, the two matrices are equal. This proves the theorem.

In terms of matrix multiplication, Theorem 3.3.9 says that ifM1 and M2 are matricesfor the same linear transformation relative to two different bases, it follows there existsan invertible matrix, S such that

M1 = S1M2S

This is called a similarity transformation and is important in linear algebra but this isas far as the theory will be developed here.


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3.4 Block Multiplication Of Matrices

Consider the following problem

A BC D

E FG H

You know how to do this from the above definition of matrix mutiplication. You get

AE+ BG AF + BHCE+ DG CF + DH

.

Now what if instead of numbers, the entries, A,B,C,D,E,F,G are matrices of a sizesuch that the multiplications and additions needed in the above formula all make sense.Would the formula be true in this case? I will show below that this is true.

Suppose A is a matrix of the form

A11 A1m... . . . ...Ar1 Arm

(3.15)where Aij is a si pj matrix where si does not depend on j and pj does not depend oni. Such a matrix is called a block matrix, also a partitioned matrix. Let n =

j pj

and k =

i si so A is an k n matrix. What is Ax where x Fn? From the processof multiplying a matrix times a vector, the following lemma follows.

Lemma 3.4.1 LetA be an m n block matrix as in 3.15 and let x Fn. Then Axis of the form

Ax = j A1j xj

..

.j Arj xj

where x = (x1, , xm)T and xi Fpi.Suppose also that B is a block matrix of the form B11 B1p... . . . ...

Br1 Brp

(3.16)and A is a block matrix of the form

A11 A1m... . . . ...Ap1 Apm

(3.17)and that for all i,j, it makes sense to multiply BisAsj for all s {1, , m} and thatfor each s, BisAsj is the same size so that it makes sense to write

s BisAsj.

Theorem 3.4.2 LetB be a block matrix as in 3.16 and let A be a block matrixas in 3.17 such that Bis is conformable with Asj and each product, BisAsj is of thesame size so they can be added. Then BA is a block matrix such that the ijth block isof the form

s

BisAsj. (3.18)


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numbers in (i1, , in+1) , sgnn+1 (i1, , in+1) 0. If there are no repeats, then n + 1appears somewhere in the ordered list. Let be the position of the number n +1 in thelist. Thus, the list is of the form (i1, , i1, n + 1, i+1, , in+1) . From 3.21 it mustbe that sgnn+1 (i1, , i1, n + 1, i+1, , in+1)

(1)n+1 sgnn (i1, , i1, i+1, , in+1) .It is necessary to verify this satisfies 3.19 and 3.20 with n replaced with n + 1. The firstof these is obviously true because

sgnn+1 (1, , n , n + 1) (1)n+1(n+1) sgnn (1, , n) = 1.

If there are repeated numbers in (i1, , in+1) , then it is obvious 3.20 holds becauseboth sides would equal zero from the above definition. It remains to verify 3.20 in thecase where there are no numbers repeated in (i1, , in+1) . Consider

sgnn+1 i1, , rp, , sq, , in+1 ,where the r above the p indicates the number, p is in the rth position and the s abovethe q indicates that the number, q is in the sth position. Suppose first that r < < s.Then

sgnn+1

i1, , rp, ,

n + 1, , sq, , in+1

(1)n+1 sgnn

i1, , rp, , s1q , , in+1

while

sgnn+1i1, ,rq,

,

n + 1,

,

sp,

, in+1 =

(1)n+1 sgnn

i1, , rq, , s1p , , in+1

and so, by induction, a switch ofp and q introduces a minus sign in the result. Similarly,if > s or if < r it also follows that 3.20 holds. The interesting case is when = r or = s. Consider the case where = r and note the other case is entirely similar.

sgnn+1

i1, ,

rn + 1, , sq, , in+1

=

(1)n+1r sgnn

i1, , s1q , , in+1

(3.22)

while

sgnn+1 i1, , rq, , sn + 1, , in+1 =(1)n+1s sgnn

i1, , rq, , in+1

. (3.23)

By making s 1 r switches, move the q which is in the s 1th position in 3.22 to therth position in 3.23. By induction, each of these switches introduces a factor of 1 andso

sgnn

i1, , s1q , , in+1

= (1)s1r sgnn

i1, , rq, , in+1

.

Therefore,

sgnn+1 i1, ,

rn + 1, , sq, , in+1

= (1)n+1r sgnn i1, , s1q , , in+1


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Proof: Let (1, , n) = (1, , r, s, , n) so r < s.

det(A (1, , r, , s, , n)) = (3.27)

(k1,,kn)

sgn(k1, , kr, , ks, , kn) a1k1 arkr asks ankn ,

and renaming the variables, calling ks, kr and kr, ks, this equals

=

(k1,,kn)

sgn(k1, , ks, , kr, , kn) a1k1 arks askr ankn

=

(k1,,kn)

sgnk1, , These got switched kr, , ks , , kn

a1k1 askr arks ankn= det(A (1, , s, , r, , n)) . (3.28)

Consequently,det(A (1, , s, , r, , n)) =

det(A (1, , r, , s, , n)) = det(A)Now letting A (1, , s, , r, , n) play the role of A, and continuing in this way,switching pairs of numbers,

det(A (r1, , rn)) = (1)p det(A)

where it took p switches to obtain(r1, , rn) from (1, , n). By Lemma 3.5.1, thisimplies

det(A (r1, , rn)) = (1)p

det(A) = sgn (r1, , rn)det(A)and proves the proposition in the case when there are no repeated numbers in the orderedlist, (r1, , rn). However, if there is a repeat, say the rth row equals the sth row, thenthe reasoning of 3.27 -3.28 shows that A (r1, , rn) = 0 and also sgn (r1, , rn) = 0 sothe formula holds in this case also.

Observation 3.5.5 There are n! ordered lists of distinct numbers from {1, , n} .

With the above, it is possible to give a more symmetric description of the determinantfrom which it will follow that det (A) = det

AT

.

Corollary 3.5.6 The following formula for det(A) is valid.

det(A) = 1n!

(r1,,rn)

(k1,,kn)

sgn(r1, , rn)sgn(k1, , kn) ar1k1 arnkn . (3.29)

And also det

AT

= det(A) where AT is the transpose of A. (Recall that for AT =aTij

, aTij = aji .)

Proof: From Proposition 3.5.4, if the ri are distinct,

det(A) =

(k1,,kn)

sgn(r1, , rn)sgn(k1, , kn) ar1k1 arnkn .


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3.5. DETERMINANTS 41

Summing over all ordered lists, (r1, , rn) where the ri are distinct, (If the ri are notdistinct, sgn(r1, , rn) = 0 and so there is no contribution to the sum.)

n!det(A) =(r1,,rn)

(k1,,kn)

sgn(r1, , rn)sgn(k1, , kn) ar1k1 arnkn .

This proves the corollary. since the formula gives the same number for A as it doesfor AT.

Corollary 3.5.7 If two rows or two columns in an nn matrix, A, are switched, thedeterminant of the resulting matrix equals (1) times the determinant of the originalmatrix. If A is an n n matrix in which two rows are equal or two columns are equalthen det(A) = 0. Suppose the ith row of A equals (xa1 + yb1, , xan + ybn). Then

det(A) = x det(A1) + y det(A2)

where the ith row of A1 is (a1, , an) and the ith row of A2 is (b1, , bn) , all otherrows of A1 and A2 coinciding with those of A. In other words, det is a linear functionof each row A. The same is true with the word row replaced with the word column.

Proof: By Proposition 3.5.4 when two rows are switched, the determinant of theresulting matrix is (1) times the determinant of the original matrix. By Corollary3.5.6 the same holds for columns because the columns of the matrix equal the rows ofthe transposed matrix. Thus if A1 is the matrix obtained from A by switching twocolumns,

det(A) = det

AT

= det AT1 = det(A1) .If A has two equal columns or two equal rows, then switching them results in the same

matrix. Therefore, det (A) = det(A) and so det(A) = 0.It remains to verify the last assertion.

det(A)

(k1,,kn)

sgn(k1, , kn) a1k1 (xaki + ybki) ankn

= x

(k1,,kn)

sgn(k1, , kn) a1k1 aki ankn

+y

(k1,,kn)

sgn(k1, , kn) a1k1 bki ankn

x det(A1) + y det(A2) .

The same is true of columns because det AT = det (A) and the rows of AT are thecolumns of A.

The following corollary is also of great use.

Corollary 3.5.8 Suppose A is an n n matrix and some column (row) is a linearcombination of r other columns (rows). Then det(A) = 0.

Proof: Let A =

a1 an

be the columns of A and suppose the conditionthat one column is a linear combination of r of the others is satisfied. Then by us-ing Corollary 3.5.7 you may rearrange the columns to have the nth column a linearcombination of the first r columns. Thus an =

rk=1 ckak and so

det(A) = det a1 ar an1 rk=1 ckak .


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By Corollary 3.5.7

det(A) =r

k=1 ck det a1 ar an1 ak = 0.The case for rows follows from the fact that det (A) = det

AT

. This proves the corol-lary.

Recall the following definition of matrix multiplication.

Definition 3.5.9 If A and B are n n matrices, A = (aij ) and B = (bij ),AB = (cij ) where

cij n

k=1

aikbkj .

One of the most important rules about determinants is that the determinant of a

product equals the product of the determinants.

Theorem 3.5.10 LetA and B ben n matrices. Then

det(AB) = det (A)det(B) .

Proof: Let cij be the ijth entry of AB. Then by Proposition 3.5.4,

det(AB) =

(k1,,kn)sgn(k1, , kn) c1k1 cnkn

=

(k1,,kn)

sgn(k1, , kn)

r1

a1r1br1k1

rn

anrnbrnkn

=

(r1,rn)

(k1,,kn)

sgn(k1, , kn) br1k1 brnkn (a1r1 anrn)

=

(r1,rn)

sgn(r1 rn) a1r1 anrn det(B) = det (A)det(B) .

This proves the theorem.

Lemma 3.5.11 Suppose a matrix is of the form

M =

A 0 a

(3.30)

or

M =

A 0 a

(3.31)

where a is a number and A is an(n 1)(n 1) matrix and denotes either a columnor a row having length n 1 and the 0 denotes either a column or a row of length n 1consisting entirely of zeros. Then

det(M) = a det(A) .


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Proof: Denote M by (mij ) . Thus in the first case, mnn = a and mni = 0 if i = nwhile in the second case, mnn = a and min = 0 if i = n. From the definition of thedeterminant,

det(M) (k1,,kn)

sgnn (k1, , kn) m1k1 mnkn

Letting denote the position of n in the ordered list, (k1, , kn) then using the earlierconventions used to prove Lemma 3.5.1, det (M) equals

(k1,,kn)

(1)n sgnn1

k1, , k1,

k+1, ,n1kn

m1k1 mnkn

Now suppose 3.31. Then if kn = n, the term involving mnkn in the above expressionequals zero. Therefore, the only terms which survive are those for which = n or inother words, those for which kn = n. Therefore, the above expression reduces to

a (k1,,kn1)

sgnn1 (k1, kn1) m1k1 m(n1)kn1 = a det(A) .

To get the assertion in the situation of 3.30 use Corollary 3.5.6 and 3.31 to write

det(M) = det

MT

= det

AT 0 a

= a det

AT

= a det(A) .

This proves the lemma. In terms of the theory of determinants, arguably the most important idea is that of

Laplace expansion along a row or a column. This will follow from the above definitionof a determinant.

Definition 3.5.12 LetA = (aij ) be an nn matrix. Then a new matrix calledthe cofactor matrix, cof (A) is defined by cof (A) = (cij ) where to obtain cij delete theith row and the jth column of A, take the determinant of the (n 1) (n 1) matrixwhich results, (This is called the ijth minor of A. ) and then multiply this number by

(1)i+j . To make the formulas easier to remember, cof (A)ij will denote the ijth entryof the cofactor matrix.

The following is the main result.

Theorem 3.5.13 LetA be an n n matrix where n 2. Then

det(A) =n

j=1aij cof (A)ij =

n

i=1aij cof (A)ij . (3.32)

The first formula consists of expanding the determinant along theith row and the secondexpands the determinant along the jth column.

Proof: Let (ai1, , ain) be the ith row ofA. Let Bj be the matrix obtained from Aby leaving every row the same except the ith row which in Bj equals (0, , 0, aij , 0, , 0) .Then by Corollary 3.5.7,

det(A) =n

j=1

det(Bj )

Denote by Aij the (n 1) (n 1) matrix obtained by deleting the ith row and thejth column of A. Thus cof (A)ij (1)i+j det A

ij

. At this point, recall that from


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Proposition 3.5.4, when two rows or two columns in a matrix, M, are switched, thisresults in multiplying the determinant of the old matrix by 1 to get the determinantof the new matrix. Therefore, by Lemma 3.5.11,

det(Bj ) = (1)nj (1)ni det Aij 0 aij = (1)i+j det

Aij

0 aij

= aij cof (A)ij .

Therefore,

det(A) =n

j=1

aij cof (A)ij

which is the formula for expanding det (A) along the ith row. Also,

det(A) = det AT =n

j=1 aTij cofATij=

nj=1

aji cof (A)ji

which is the formula for expanding det (A) along the ith column. This proves thetheorem.

Note that this gives an easy way to write a formula for the inverse of an nn matrix.Theorem 3.5.14 A1 exists if and only if det(A) = 0. If det(A) = 0, thenA1 =

a1ij

where

a1ij = det(A)1 cof (A)ji

for cof (A)ij the ijth

cofactor of A.

Proof: By Theorem 3.5.13 and letting (air) = A, if det (A) = 0,n

i=1

air cof (A)ir det(A)1 = det(A)det(A)1 = 1.

Now considern

i=1

air cof (A)ik det(A)1

when k = r. Replace the kth column with the rth column to obtain a matrix, Bk whosedeterminant equals zero by Corollary 3.5.7. However, expanding this matrix along the

kth

column yields

0 = det (Bk)det(A)1

=

ni=1

air cof (A)ik det(A)1

Summarizing,n

i=1

air cof (A)ik det(A)1 = rk .

Using the other formula in Theorem 3.5.13, and similar reasoning,

n

j=1arj cof (A)kj det(A)

1 = rk


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This proves that if det (A) = 0, then A1 exists with A1 = a1ij , wherea1ij = cof (A)ji det(A)

1 .

Now suppose A1 exists. Then by Theorem 3.5.10,

1 = det (I) = det

AA1

= det (A)det

A1

so det(A) = 0. This proves the theorem. The next corollary points out that if an n n matrix, A has a right or a left inverse,

then it has an inverse.

Corollary 3.5.15 LetA be annn matrix and suppose there exists annn matrix,B such that BA = I. Then A1 exists and A1 = B. Also, if there exists C an n nmatrix such that AC = I, then A1 exists and A1 = C.

Proof: Since BA = I, Theorem 3.5.10 implies

det B det A = 1

and so det A = 0. Therefore from Theorem 3.5.14, A1 exists. Therefore,

A1 = (BA) A1 = B

AA1

= BI = B.

The case where CA = I is handled similarly.

The conclusion of this corollary is that left inverses, right inverses and inverses areall the same in the context of n n matrices.

Theorem 3.5.14 says that to find the inverse, take the transpose of the cofactormatrix and divide by the determinant. The transpose of the cofactor matrix is calledthe adjugate or sometimes the classical adjoint of the matrix A. It is an abominationto call it the adjoint although you do sometimes see it referred to in this way. In words,A1 is equal to one over the determinant of A times the adjugate matrix of A.

In case you are solving a system of equations, Ax = y for x, it follows that if A1

exists,

x =

A1A

x = A1 (Ax) = A1y

thus solving the system. Now in the case that A1 exists, there is a formula for A1

given above. Using this formula,

xi =

n

j=1

a1ij yj =

n

j=1

1

det(A) cof (A)ji yj .

By the formula for the expansion of a determinant along a column,

xi =1

det(A)det

y1 ... ... ... yn

,where here the ith column of A is replaced with the column vector, (y1 , yn)T, andthe determinant of this modified matrix is taken and divided by det (A). This formulais known as Cramers rule.


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Definition 3.5.16 A matrixM, is upper triangular if Mij = 0 wheneveri > j.Thus such a matrix equals zero below the main diagonal, the entries of the form Mii asshown.

0 . . . ......

. . .. . .

0 0

A lower triangular matrix is defined similarly as a matrix for which all entries abovethe main diagonal are equal to zero.

With this definition, here is a simple corollary of Theorem 3.5.13.

Corollary 3.5.17 Let M be an upper (lower) triangular matrix. Then det(M) isobtained by taking the product of the entries on the main diagonal.

Definition 3.5.18 A submatrix of a matrix A is the rectangular array of num-bers obtained by deleting some rows and columns of A. LetA be an m n matrix. Thedeterminant rank of the matrix equals r where r is the largest number such that somer r submatrix of A has a non zero determinant. The row rank is defined to be thedimension of the span of the rows. The column rank is defined to be the dimension ofthe span of the columns.

Theorem 3.5.19 If A has determinant rank, r, then there exist r rows of thematrix such that every other row is a linear combination of these r rows.

Proof: Suppose the determinant rank of A = (aij ) equals r. If rows and columnsare interchanged, the determinant rank of the modified matrix is unchanged. Thus rowsand columns can be interchanged to produce an r

r matrix in the upper left corner of

the matrix which has non zero determinant. Now consider the r + 1 r + 1 matrix, M,a11 a1r a1p...

......

ar1 arr arpal1 alr alp

where C will denote the r r matrix in the upper left corner which has non zerodeterminant. I claim det (M) = 0.

There are two cases to consider in verifying this claim. First, suppose p > r. Thenthe claim follows from the assumption that A has determinant rank r. On the otherhand, if p < r, then the determinant is zero because there are two identical columns.

Expand the determinant along the last column and divide by det (C) to obtain

alp = r

i=1

cof (M)ipdet(C)

aip.

Now note that cof (M)ip does not depend on p. Therefore the above sum is of the form

alp =r

i=1

miaip

which shows the lth row is a linear combination of the first r rows of A. Since l isarbitrary, This proves the theorem.


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Corollary 3.5.20 The determinant rank equals the row rank.

Proof: From Theorem 3.5.19, the row rank is no larger than the determinant rank.

Could the row rank be smaller than the determinant rank? If so, there exist p rows forp < r such that the span of these p rows equals the row space. But this implies thatthe r r submatrix whose determinant is nonzero also has row rank no larger than pwhich is impossible if its determinant is to be nonzero because at least one row is alinear combination of the others.

Corollary 3.5.21 If A has determinant rank, r, then there exist r columns of thematrix such that every other column is a linear combination of these r columns. Alsothe column rank equals the determinant rank.

Proof: This follows from the above by considering AT. The rows of AT are thecolumns of A and the determinant rank of AT and A are the same. Therefore, fromCorollary 3.5.20, column rank of A = row rank of AT = determinant rank of AT =

determinant rank of A.The following theorem is of fundamental importance and ties together many of the

ideas presented above.

Theorem 3.5.22 LetA be an n n matrix. Then the following are equivalent.

1. det(A) = 0.

2. A, AT are not one to one.

3. A is not onto.

Proof: Suppose det(A) = 0. Then the determinant rank of A = r < n. Therefore,

there exist r columns such that every other column is a linear combination of thesecolumns by Theorem 3.5.19. In particular, it follows that for some m, the mth columnis a linear combination of all the others. Thus letting A =

a1 am an

where the columns are denoted by ai, there exists scalars, i such that

am =

k=m

kak.

Now consider the column vector, x 1 1 n T. ThenAx = am +

k=m

kak = 0.

Since also A0 = 0, it follows A is not one to one. Similarly, AT is not one to one by thesame argument applied to AT. This verifies that 1.) implies 2.).

Now suppose 2.). Then since AT is not one to one, it follows there exists x = 0 suchthat

ATx = 0.

Taking the transpose of both sides yields

xTA = 0

where the 0 is a 1 n matrix or row vector. Now if Ay = x, then

|x|2 = xT (Ay) = xTAy = 0y = 0


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contrary to x = 0. Consequently there can be no y such that Ay = x and so A is notonto. This shows that 2.) implies 3.).

Finally, suppose 3.). If 1.) does not hold, then det (A) = 0 but then from Theorem3.5.14 A

1

exists and so for every y Fn

there exists a unique x Fn

such that Ax = y.In fact x = A1y. Thus A would be onto contrary to 3.). This shows 3.) implies 1.)and proves the theorem.

Corollary 3.5.23 Let A be an n n matrix. Then the following are equivalent.

1. det(A) = 0.2. A and AT are one to one.

3. A is onto.

Proof: This follows immediately from the above theorem.

3.5.2 The Determinant Of A Linear Transformation

One can also define the determinant of a linear transformation.

Definition 3.5.24 LetL L (V, V) and let{v1, , vn} be a basis forV. Thusthe matrix of L with respect to this basis is (lij ) ML where

L =

ij

lij vivj

Then define

det(L)

det((lij )) .

Proposition 3.5.25 The above definition is well defined.

Proof: Suppose {v1, , vn} is another basis for V and

lij ML is the matrix of

L with respect to this basis. Then by Theorem 3.3.9,

ML = S1MLS

for some matrix, S. Then by Theorem 3.5.10,

det(ML) = det

S1

det(ML)det(S)

= det S1Sdet(ML) = det (ML)because S1S = I and det (I) = 1. This shows the definition is well defined.

Also there is an equivalence just as in the case of matrices between various propertiesof L and the nonvanishing of the determinant.

Theorem 3.5.26 Let L L (V, V) for V a finite dimensional vector space.Then the following are equivalent.

1. det(L) = 0.

2. L is not one to one.

3. L is not onto.


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3.6. EIGENVALUES AND EIGENVECTORS OF LINEAR TRANSFORMATIONS 49

Proof: Suppose 1.). Let {v1, , vn} be a basis for V and let (lij ) be the matrix ofL with respect to this basis. By definition, det ((lij )) = 0 and so (lij ) is not one to one.Thus there is a nonzero vector x Fn such that

jlij xj = 0 for each i. Then letting

v nj=1 xjvj ,Lv =

rs

lrsvrvs

nj=1

xj vj

= j

rs

lrsvrsjxj

=

r

j

lrj xj

vr = 0Thus L is not one to one because L0 = 0 and Lv = 0.

Suppose 2.). Thus there exists v = 0 such that Lv = 0. Say

v =i xivi.Then if{Lvi}ni=1 were linearly independent, it would follow that

0 = Lv =

i

xiLvi

and so all the xi would equal zero which is not the case. Hence these vectors cannot belinearly independent so they do not span V. Hence there exists

w V \ span(Lv1, ,Lvn)and therefore, there is no u V such that Lu = w because if there were such a u, then

u = i

xivi

and so Lu =

i xiLvi span(Lv1, ,Lvn) .Finally suppose L is not onto. Then (lij ) also cannot be onto Fn. Therefore,

det((lij )) det(L) = 0. Why cant (lij ) be onto? If it were, then for any y Fn,there exists x Fn such that yi =

j lij xj . Thus

k

ykvk =

rs

lrsvrvs

j

xjvj

= L

j

xj vj

but the expression on the left in the above formula is that of a general element of V

and so L would be onto. This proves the theorem.

3.6 Eigenvalues And Eigenvectors Of Linear Trans-

formations

Let V be a finite dimensional vector space. For example, it could be a subspace ofCnorRn. Also suppose A L (V, V) .

Definition 3.6.1 The characteristic polynomial ofA is defined asq() det( id A)where id is the identity map which takes every vector in V to itself. The zeros of q()inC are called the eigenvalues of A.


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Lemma 3.6.2 When is an eigenvalue of A which is also inF, the field of scalars,then there exists v = 0 such that Av = v.

Proof: This follows from Theorem 3.5.26. Since F,

id A L (V, V)and since it has zero determinant, it is not one to one so there exists v = 0 such that( id A) v = 0.

The following lemma gives the existence of something called the minimal polynomial.It is an interesting application of the notion of the dimension of L (V, V).Lemma 3.6.3 LetA L(V, V) where V is either a real or a complex finite dimen-sional vector space of dimension n. Then there exists a polynomial of the form

p () = m + cm1m1 + + c1 + c0

such that p (A) = 0 and m is as small as possible for this to occur.

Proof: Consider the linear transformations, I , A , A2, , An2 . There are n2 + 1 ofthese transformations and so by Theorem 3.3.5 the set is linearly dependent. Thus thereexist constants, ci F (either R or C) such that

c0I+n2

k=1

ckAk = 0.

This implies there exists a polynomial, q() which has the property that q(A) = 0.

In fact, one example is q() c0 +

n2

k=1 ckk. Dividing by the leading term, it can

be assumed this polynomial is of the form m + cm1m1 +

+ c1 + c0, a monic

polynomial. Now consider all such monic polynomials, q such that q(A) = 0 and pickthe one which has the smallest degree. This is called the minimial polynomial and willbe denoted here by p () . This proves the lemma.

Theorem 3.6.4 LetV be a nonzero finite dimensional vector space of dimensionn with the field of scalars equal to F which is eitherR orC. Suppose A L (V, V) andfor p () the minimal polynomial defined above, let F be a zero of this polynomial.Then there exists v = 0, v V such that

Av = v.

IfF = C, thenA always has an eigenvector and eigenvalue. Furthermore, if{1, , m}are the zeros of p () inF, these are exactly the eigenvalues of A for which there exists

an eigenvector in V.

Proof: Suppose first is a zero of p () . Since p () = 0, it follows

p () = ( ) k ()where k () is a polynomial having coefficients in F. Since p has minimal degree, k (A) =0 and so there exists a vector, u = 0 such that k (A) u v = 0. But then

(A I) v = (A I) k (A) (u) = 0.The next claim about the existence of an eigenvalue follows from the fundamental

theorem of algebra and what was just shown.


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3.7. EXERCISES 51

It has been shown that every zero of p () is an eigenvalue which has an eigenvectorin V. Now suppose is an eigenvalue which has an eigenvector in V so that Av = vfor some v V, v = 0. Does it follow is a zero of p ()?

0 = p (A) v = p () v

and so is indeed a zero of p (). This proves the theorem. In summary, the theorem s

advanced calculus mv

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