[advent] alternative energy

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Alternative Energy



Recent Titles in

Historical Guides to Controversial Issues in America G C G RConstance Emerson Crooker T P -L /C D Mark Y. Herring G E Mark Y. Herring

S -S M Allene Phy-OlsenT S k L w Jennifer E. Walsh J JLaura L. Finley

T W DGreg M. Shaw T G DRichard A. McGowanC Mark PaxtonT P A D

Laura L. Finley Affi A John W. Johnson and Robert P. Green, Jr.



Alternative EnergyBrian C. Black and Richard Flarend

Historical Guides to Controversial Issues in America



Contents

List of Tables and Figures Acknowledgments Introduction: Conceiving of Alternative Energy

1 H S ’ N E 2 I R H ’

H -E E 29 3 A A G : P k , P D 4 1970 I E 5 A R w A E 6 R A 1

Appendix 1: Summaries of U.S. Legislation Provisions Related to Alternative Energy 179

Appendix 2: President Jimmy Carter’s Speech Concerning Energy , April 18, 1977 185

Appendix 3: President Jimmy Carter: The “Crisis of Confidence” Speech, July 15, 1979 191

Appendix 4: Former Vice President Al Gore at New York University , July 17, 2008 195

Bibliography 203

Index 213



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List of Tables and Figures

FIGURES

F 1.1 R w E U A S 1850 F 1.2 C B k w R w E S

C A E C U S

F 1.3 G D P I -A j Y -2000 D ; E C

F 1.4 ( ) U.S. P ( ) W P ,

w P 2100 F 1.5 P W P E C S N

F 1.6 E C GNP C S N 10

F 1.7 D I S O U S 12

F 1.8 U.S. P E C S S , 2007, Q 15

F 1.9 C G C C G G E H A

F 5.1 G w E B P R Y 124

F 5.2 M N -Z S H 12 F 5.3 W R M U S



F 5.4 W -G E U S F 5.5 G R M U S F 5.6 W O M S w

G F O EC U 14 F 5.7 G E I 1950 P F 5.8 E U H 144 F 5.9 A W 147

TABLES

1.1 E R q P P VR w M , A E R q P S M R

1.2 P R R F FE Y U C R

C 13 1.3 O E D W

U N G 18

5.1 L U U S 5.2 H W E S H

list of tables and figures



Acknowledgments

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Figure 1.1Raw Energy Used in America Since 1850




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Figure 1.2Current Breakdown of Renewable Energy Sources and Their Contribution to the AnnualEnergy Consumed in the United States





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Energy Required to Make 1 Pound (Btu)

Energy Savings (Btu)From Raw Material

From Recycled Material

A 125,000 6,300 118,700 (95%)P 55,700 6,700 49,000 (88%)S 7,300 1,800 5,500 (75%)

P 8,500 3,400 5,100 (60%)G 900 540 360 (40%)

Table 1.1Energy Required per Pound to Produce Various Raw Materials, and the Amount of Energy Required to Produce the Same Material by Recycling




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Figure 1.3Gross Domestic Product in Inflation-Adjusted Year-2000 Dollars; Energy Consumption

— - j -2000 . B. N w w

w GDP w w Source:U.S. E I A . A E R w, 2007.



Figure 1.4(a) U.S. Population and (b) World Population, with Predictions to 2100

Source:U.S. C U N D E S A




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Figure 1.5Percentage of World Population and Energy Consumption for Selected Nations





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Figure 1.6Energy per Capita and GNP per Capita of Selected Nations





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Figure 1.7Domestic and Imported Supplies of Oil in the United States





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At Current Rates of ConsumptionWith Increased Consumptiona

Proven Reserves b Resources c Resources

United StatesCoald 230 230Oil 3 15

Natural gas 10 35 All fossil fuels 65

WorldCoal 130 130Oil 45 65Natural gas 60 120 All fossil fuels 60

Table 1.2Proven Reserves and Resources of Fossil Fuels Expressed as Years of Use at theCurrent Rate of Consumption

The last column assumes a growing rate of consumption consistent with predictions by the U.S. Dpartment of Energy.

Note : Reserves and resources expressed as years of use at the current rate of consumption.aThis column assumes a growing rate of consumption consistent with predictions by the U.S. Depar

ment of Energy.b Data from the U.S. EIA.c Data from the U.S. Geological Survey.d In the case of coal, proven reserves and ultimately recoverable resources are referred to as “estim

recoverable resources.”




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Figure 1.8U.S. Primary Energy Consumption by Source and Sector, 2007, in Quads

Source:U.S. E I A . A E R




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Table 1.3Overall Efficiency of Different Ways to Use Natural Gas

Note: Utilities can use natural gas to produce electricity, and the consumer can then use the generateelectricity to produce heat. This is better than the more common approach of using a natural gas furnato generate heat directly. C.O.P. represents the coefficient of performance, which is a measure of the ficiency of a heat-pump.




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, 1976

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k w Who Killed the Electric Car ? A w

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$34 CARB w k w A ’ . , j w

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w w k w “ ” ,

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P (AEP). I 1996, AGP w - w (17,500 ) S

j - . w .

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10 - 6 M w . Oq . O , $6

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SYNTHETIC FUELS

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C .

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, ’ .” H A w G w : “W

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w : w w .

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k . D 197 A w G , “ w , w

k ” (G , 1989, 145). B 1980

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E q , , A , w

w , , k k 1970 21 , w w A ’ -

, , A k w . H w , w 1980 , A

M : SUV. W , A

’ - - , .

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w 1970 ’ . I

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W k , - q

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F E L LX-450 1996, L

1997, C E 1998, F E S q 2000. U k , SUV —

$15,000 . I , B 1990 . I

95 1990. B 1996, 44 !

SUV w w k w , , , - . B

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5

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assessing energy technologies 121

BIOMASS ENERGY

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Figure 5.1Growth in Ethanol and Biodiesel Production in Recent Years




Table 5.1Land Use in the United States

Land Use Category Millions of Acres Crop 442Forest 651Grassland pasture and range 587Special use (mostly parks and wildlife) 297Urban and residential 60Miscellaneous others 228

Total U.S. land 2,300

Source : U.S. Economic Research Service

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B w 125°F w

w k w w w 125°F w

w w z . H w , ,

w- z . G z - w .I , w

$4,000–$8,000, . A

30 , $300–$400 w 75 w . , w

, -w 10 . I w ( N w H M w , w k 15 20

Passive Solar Energy

P A w - w w

. A w w w w w

B , q . D

P w w w w , w w w

P q , , q ,

. A w w , . I k w

w w . I , . w

k , w , I ,

, , w ,




w . w w w . I

, w w . w

w , z .

Solar Thermal Electricity

. F ,

w k w - . , j k w

w 10 , w

5 k w - . , w w

w . I

, .S .

. w k

k k ,

w . w ’ w . E

8 a.m. 10 p.m. S w ’ w

k w . S . B -

, q .

WIND ENERGY W , w . w w w

k . M w

w w w . w w




w , . C k w

. k w

w , w w k w ( F 5.3). I w

w .N U S

w , w F 5.4. F , ,

, w w . w z w - w w 100 100 . S

2 w (MW) w A w

. 25 k

- , - , w w

w . A , 1,500 w

- w (1,000 MW). S 1,500 w . H w ,

q j w . I , w

w w F , - w ( 20 kW)

. w , - z w , w

w . H w , - w

, w , . W 20

, - w k w - . , w w

, 17 k w - , w . F , N w Y k,

w 10 k w -



Figure 5.3 Wind Resource Map for the United States

Source:U.S. E I A .




Figure 5.4 Wind-Generated Electricity in the United States

Source:U.S. D E , N R w E L .

. I , w

S w - w ( ),

w U S CO2 , , w . W

, w jw ; , w

B , w ,

’ . W k w k , . W A M

(P W V ), k , w w k U , w z

. I w k k - , w k w w

w - j , . I , 0.01 - w .




w . (S E C ).

HYDROPOWER

H w w . M

( ) ( k ).

Traditional Hydroelectricity

H 2.5 U S

, U S w w j w ,

w , .

H w k w . w k w

w , w

. A k w , w .

S , G C D , w w P

U S , RD P . ’

w w

, w w w . F ,

w

, .H CO2 ,

. V w w . S

k , w S k

. A , ’




w . . R

- k - . U S 2.5

. , 5 . M , . ,

.

Tidal Energy . W

, w w . k , (

k ) . W

.

w w w -

, w G M , E

C , . N . B w

j .

R R F , w 240 MW ( 1,000 MW w ). A

F , N S , C , C ’ .

Hydrokinetic Energy

S w k w , w - w . I w, w

w . F , ’ w

N - k w w , , -

, E R N w Y k C . W




, w w .

k w ,

. H w ’ w

I , k w w w - w

k , k - 2 . H w-

, q . j z w . O w

, w w . S w k w , w z

, k w , w .

k j w

.

OCEAN THERMAL ENERGY CONVERSION (OTEC)

O (O EC) w , w

w . w w

w O EC, j - , F

O EC k w , O EC

w B .

w . A 500°C 50 w , 40

. 700°C -w 50

w w 25°C, . A 5 10 w w q




60 w . w w G 10 .

k w . I .O EC w CO2 . H w , 2 . A

CO2 k . I

CO2 w , E w w . 2

w w w . w w CO2 w w

. A , w W ,

z .

Energy Conservation

A “ .” w . A w ,

“E w .” A , j . w

w q

. B , ,

w . A , ’ . I , ,

.C w w

1,310 kW (30–60 W w ).

(CFL ) 280 kW , 1,030 kW . w

, w CO2 -. B w w

1,030 kW , w. E

, w w $ 30 CFL , $4,000




w . I , 80

. w w . A ,

w .F ,

w w w A 10 GDP q 10

. B 1970 , w

. R w . B

30 50 , j , - , w , ,

M , , , w-

B

k . A w

w energy intensity , . S GD

z , w U S

1950 1970. H w 1970 ,

1980 2000, w F 5.7. A j , U S

, 30 , H w , , U S

U S 50 G7 (C , F , G , I , J , U

). U S

U S w , w q , w

U S . U “ ” , q




Figure 5.7Graph of Energy Intensity from 1950 to Present Energy intensity is the ratio of total energy used and the GDP. GDP has been adjusted

for inflation to $2,000.

Source:U.S. E I A .

3,000,000 MW . , U S

( ) . R U S

. R , k U S w w- .

M - q

, . F , 10–20 , w w

. M - w - , q - w w w w-E

, -




- $40,000 $200,000 . - w 85 ,

$2,000. A , - j 20 , w

. A -

w , w O , 85 . B

$2,000 w$100,000, w . O , w -

z -

U S . F 5.8 w .

, w w . V

.

Figure 5.8Energy Use in the Home

Source:U.S. E I A .




- , , , w . E -

, - , , w ,

w k w w .

Hot-Water Savings

w w

w . w w- w w , w - w , w . F

w , - , w w , -

M w w 2.5 ( ) w

. M w 1992 w w w w- w . R

w w 5.2 w 2.5 w $200 j w . R

w- w (2.5 ) w - w- w (1.2 ) w $100 .

F - w w w .

$1,000, . A $200 w

w . B , k .

S k q k ),

. U

. E , ’ q . F - w

, , ’ w - . A - w w w , k

w . A - w w . A , w

w . C - -




Table 5.2Hot Water Energy Savings in the Home

Investment Required Annual Savings Payback Period Switch from high-flow tolow-flow showerhead

$20 $540 2 weeks

Switch from low-flow to ultralow-flow showerhead

$50 $200 3 months

Front loading washing machine $1,000 $200 5 yearsSwitch from an electric tank heater to an electric heat-pumpheater

$1,500 $300 3 years

Switch from a natural gastank heater to a naturalgas–instananeous heater or anelectric heat-pump heater

$1,500 $150 10 years

k w (HPWH ), w ( ) w 50–75 . HPWH

- , , w 5.2 w w

Appliances

N . M j q

. , w , k

. A ’ E S . I

E S , w w w . I

w k w -

w w I ’ w , - w , . R

w E S - w w $200 . w ,

. A , , w w w .

R 10 w




Figure 5.9 A WattmeterThe wattmeter manufactured by P3 International can be used to monitor the actual elec-

tricity used by various appliances to make sure they are functioning as indicated by theiroriginal energy ratings. The meter can also be used to measure phantom loads when a device is in stand-by mode.

Source:C P3 I .

S w w 10 ; w . 1990,

1970 . E S w z (://www. . / . ? =

). E w w w w

. w . A

k w w

’ w ( F 5.9 .

http://www.energystar.gov/index.cfm?fuseaction=refrig.calculator







Paying to Conserve Energy versus Energy Conservation as an Investmen

C . w

, w - . H k w

w . H w , , w

, w j ,

. B w . I - ,

. H w , - w .

S ,

$20 .

$5 $20 . C ,

w w $15 $25 . A

w w w w w w

.w w - w -

w , w w . A

$20 . O 30- , w -

w $7,000, $20,000 w . S ,

’ $20,000, w w 200,000 kW w .L k ,

, . S - , w

- q , w

w




q w w , , k

. A ,

. , q

w w $200 $160 . I ,

q w w k w w w . S

, , w w , w w

, , w , w

, w - w .

. W w

.

NUCLEAR ENERGY

N w , q w , . w

, , - . N w w 24/7— w . N w

, z A w k - w . W , ,

k w . W - w . w w w

. I - w , k ; w , w w .

, w . A , w




w . w w w .

235 (U-235). A , 80- k w U-235 w . E

, 250 ’ . I

w w ’ , w j 25 . B ’

w ’ . A U-235 , . A (U-238), w , (P -239), w ,

U-238– –P -239 , q

B , w w w ’ 200 .

R w , w w

w , U S , U K , NR ( S U ), I , P k ,

, w w500 w , k

.R w ,

k w . I U S , w 1979 (w M I , 2007. D 28 , w

w 1979. I , w w 1979. B

21 w w w. W

40 I , C , J , . 300 . A , w

w . B , 10 w ’ w .

w 2009). F , w

w , w w w




. ’ w z w

z . w q k .

w w -

.

Safety of Nuclear Power

N w w , w j

U S . w U.S. -M I 1979,

. E w w , 50 , w

w 31 20,000

N w k w U S , w k 20,000–

, k k 20,00. A k 50,000

M k w w . I

w k . F , k w . E k 1,000 k w

ALTERNATIVE FOSSIL FUELS

I , w “ ” w

w .

, CO2 w , , / w . H w

’ q . w . A

, CO2 , w . M -

q




w , w .

Oil Shale

O , , , . K

w , k . 1,500 G R

C , U , W . H w , 600

. W w , . , . A

k 1970 . C w . q q

( w ). S w , k w

- . A w

- . , w w w . , U

j 25 q 10 , w

U S . Iq 10 w C R

C , - w w .

, w .

I w “ ” ,

, , . E w

E . S .

w w , 50

q .




I k w w q w . H w

, . , w

,

. w w q . W

, w

.

Oil Sands

O 3–4 w w , w A , C

V z . H w , , , - j

M E . C w

w . O ,

k w w- , , w .

w . O w

. w

, w w . I C , 20

, , 80 -

30 , . ,

, w . N , w w

3.5 — w .

q w w w




w , w k .

. w

w . U , w w w

w w. w w w

. R

w . C w , w q

’ .I w q ,

, - . ,

C 20

. N , 2006, C w 1.1

, - w .

C k U S

j . P w

. U 30

q w w .

q - - C

. H w , j

C .

CONCLUSION

. U , k

S w , , . R ,




, w - w . j w

w w : , CO2 ,

— — .

. B , A w -

. P w k ,

w , .



6

Redefining Alternatives

I P ’ A w

w w .

k: W - ? I ? I ,

, —w j A ’

D , P 20 , , , -

w w , , w

, w k . , P

’ , . N w,

: , P U.S. q , w

. - k

2010: A . 1970 A




w . F , k w E

, w , , .

, q 1970 , 2010,

w w . F— —

C , w

1970 . A I , 1970 w

. M w . Y , w A 20 , w

. L 21 , , . W

w A 1980 1990 , w w

w . I , ,

—w .

2007–2008, w k z ’ . , ,

1970 . E , ,

. B 2008, . O , ,

w . U M E 1970 , 2007

. S w w k w k , w

C I I ,

, . k

( ,



redefining alternatives 159

) w k

, k , k ,

.I , —

— “ ” w k . O

, , w w

, w w k .

RISING COSTS OF FOSSIL FUELS PROMOTES ALTERN

E 21 2000, 80 ,

. E

1990 . F ( , ,

w $300 2000 2008, j . I w

, w . w

j w . S w .

A w , . A

, A w , w w

I U S , 2004, ,

z . A ,

w , . F . E -

, , : w . I , q

q , k

w -




, A w ,

k .U , ,

- . S E ’ . M

, w , - . ’

,

, , , , , , w . S

w q w . I

, w , I , - w

k . S

- , w w w . S

98 ; w — ,

1998). E q P G W. B ,

, w w

G - S ,

, ,

. A 2000 2004 C F (S , 2004):

• F U.S. w , 2,800 .

• H A , w

. z , w k .

• P w 38,200 -




I , ) j w

k w $34

w , , w k

$175 per year . w -w - . k one-time $100

w ; , w $600 each and every

year, - , 10,000 .

. I , , q . w

w I - ,

w- S , w -

1980, - (G , 1998).

A w , ,

. O 150 , 25

F ,

w .F ,

. S 1800 , 0.5–1.1 (0.3–0.6 C ). S w I

C C (IPCC) 2007 w w q , E ’ w

very likely

” (IPCC, 2007). S




w w k IPCC E w w

. j k q w

w k ,

(IPCC, 2007 ).I w IPCC

w k . M

w w (P , 2007). I , U N w

, :

w , CC IPCC' 4R .

I , w w . N w

, j E, k . (UNEP, 2

w w . , , ,

k . w w . w w

, . W w

w , zS , -

k . M w .

A

w .

,

I , w w w . I

w , . U ,




. I k , w ,

40 E (IPCC, 2007 ).

B 21 , w

2008–09 k ,

. I , , w

, w w w .B w

, , w , , w

w - ,

. A ,

—

w w . ,

W , w .

E w w , . W w

20 k w - , , w , ’ . A w ,

, w w .C k

- . F , 2005,Consumer Re-

ports j w w . F w , w

w . H w , . R

, , , w

M . C ,




, w w w - .

METHODS FOR A FULL ACCOUNTING OF ENERGY PRO

W , , , , ,

. w . I ,

q

. W , . w w w

W - , w - - w w

. A w , w

SUV. , w - w w w- O , w 10,000- SUV w

w w E w - ,

. w

. , ’

. A w

A w

-

, ’ , k

. . -

w ’ A w

.




. W , k , w

. - . I

w w . H w , q

. C A A w

. H w , w w w . I , w w

w w , w k A E P w C . w

w 2007 (U.S. EPA, 200 w w

$4.6 -w , $75

w . D w

$32 per year , k w

. w w

w - , . A w

, w

. ’ , w

q .I ,

k . A

,

- , - .

DRIVEN TO CHANGE ENERGY PATTERNS

O w U.S.

2008.




$4- - k j w

H w k wH w , A ’ w

, . A

, SUV - z k k . A B 3 w A ’ w w .

I A ’ B 3—

- — SUV k w , k . k

SUV’ F , G M . “W w k SUV’ w w k M [2008],” F ’

, A R. M , . “I w ” (BW). L , k 14

U.S. k , w 9 . M . M k SUV’

-. “W w ,” .

I F , w q k , F

M - k k E - , N A , 2010. C

C w F-SM — w U S

N A . “F -

w ,” F

V - [ w ],”

F ’ A . “W k w k . W w ”

w H , w k F Y

C . P 2006, F Y , U S A

w k




U S 2006, w .

O , - w w , k . G , -

23 2002 38 2012. Dw N A k

28 — “ .” , w w w 28

2010. , w w - , z .

O 2008, w w , B 3 U.S. k —G M , F M C G D C

19 J , -

k . 48.1 U.S. , w 4

w w, J , 50.2

A 5.6 U.S. , 44.6 U.S. (BW). E ’ w

2.4 , 7.3 k .I k

. F 2006 20

w w . E A . I , GM F

- , - w 2010. I w k w w

q . )

2008–09 k . A w ,

w . A w k A j , M w .

w w w w w

- - , w w

. ,




w , , w , w k U

. H k 1970, U S

. H w , w

w — - w .

1990 , w ,

. I 1990 , , . B , w

,

w . B , - k

w k. k

W , -

. E

- . U ,

. , w

, .

EMERGING ALTERNATIVE TECHNOLOGIES

S 1970 , . D w ,

w . A 30 ,

w w

.




Smart Grids

w

20 w q w w - , k

I w ’ ,

. A all -

w - , w , . S, w w ,

, w w M w k

- k - k . A k w k w z

. W w w w w k - k w

. , w k

, w w .

A w w -

w k w 5 p.m., ’ , ’

’ . , EV ,

M z . w

- w

Wind Energy

N w w k w .




w . M -

, w w , , w

A w U S ’

w U , w20 ’ . B ,

w -

, k . H w , w w z

T. Boone Pickens’ Plan for Breaking Wind in Texas

z w w j

. B P k 2008 A

. I , P k J 18, 2008, w

, w , w . H , , w P k w .

w : P k P —

, w .

B w w z -

w k .O J 20, 2009, w P w k . W ’ z P k P w .

w w A w — k

w A.

Y A ’ (P k )




w , , . w , , w

P ’ A M , w w w

S W , k w q .

5,000 w w w . M ’ w -

W , w 4,000 w w

j k z w . w w w w

S w - w .

$4.5

P k ’ , M P w , w

400,000 P , , w 1.3 . “W k P

w ,” P k w . P w w ’ w ,

2014. “I ’

w w w z ,”

Rebirth of Nuclear Power

P w w 2008 U.S. . D

, j w A . P

w w k . E , A w . - w

w , 26 w U S (D

2007, 30 w

j w (




, , w w

. R , w w w

w . w . w

. I w ( w ,

). N w - w . P

w . w

- . A , w , w

, w - w . B

w w - , w

, w w .

I , w w . N w w

90 , w . w , - w .

w , w w w w .B w

U S . w

. I , w

w w

k w w “ k . A J , F

w , U S 30 w .

w H w , N K , P k , I , I




A , . M w w

w w - w - .

The Increasing Use of Biofuels

P . I 2006, w

G W. B A

, 21 , w ,

k , , . , w w w

w . A w

j w

A : M E

U S . , , . B

S , A D M C . M

, , . A

, - z ,

k . “B w w w : ,”

’ D P , w ’ , . M

G ).

F , w , w 500 , 50

q . P

. , w

.




2000 k , w

, M BE ’ . E

, 50 200 2008. C

w k w

, w 12 6 . A j w

k, , ). q k

w . w ,

U.S. w W W II. A w w —

. C

. F , . R

— 35 w w

w q U

. k U.S. w w , B z I

w - w w . ,

, w .

j U w k q

( w , w ). O

w k. O , . I , - k w

. F , w w w w w

, , k A

k : — -




S q w w w , -

k w k .

Giving Solar a Chance

A w w k w . N w, - w

k C . w

w w 20 2010, P G E w ’ E , w

w . O S j k - —w

k 550 w S L O C , C

S P w C , w , w w . O S w

, S P w 3.5, . , w 800

A w w W -M . A k w w

. B w w , z . S P w

20- , , . O S ’

. , w , . (O)

S , , w k , , q

. C q 20

- w w . P G E w w , w, w 2013. C q w

,




, , w k . A

w , w w . B w

j w w j

.

CONCLUSION: MAKING ALTERNATIVES PRIMARY

I w j . J w ,

w , P , w z

: N . I 2, w —w w w w N

. ’

, , w , I N , , $80 1,040 M

. I , - . M k N

w , , ’ , . S

w w U S , -z ’ -

20 , w N E

w . O , , A w

. L k , 21 ,

2009 w w . A , w 2008

L A G , I , w

W w 10 ? W w 10 ? S

w




A w ; , w w

w w - w , , .

A - z - - U.S. . H w , w

w , A w w w

. w A ’

; . E w . P

z , w . A

w . S ,

,

. N w , , . U S w

.I k ,

. A k

w w w z w ,

. G

. W

A , w w

w . w

.L w w .



Appendix 1

Summaries of U.S. Legislation Pro Related to Alternative Energy

1970 .

1978: THE ENERGY TAX ACT OF 1978 (ETA) (P.L. 95–6

R ( ) w : 30 $2,000 20

$8,000.

B : 10 , ( q ,

, ; . ., ). I , w

25 .P :

22 1978–1980 15 1983.

1980: THE CRUDE OIL WINDFALL PROFITS TAX ACT OF 1980

I E A 30 40

.



180 appendix 1

I E A , w 10 15 , D 1982 D 1985.

E z q ,

. A w -

w - - (W E) , w

1981: THE ECONOMIC RECOVERY TAX ACT OF 1981 (ERT A w (

- q ), k w A C R(ACRS); w .

P 25 (R&D).

1982: THE TAX EQUITY AND FISCAL RESPONSIBILIACT OF 1982 (TEFRA) (P.L. 97–248)

C ACRS ER A j

, .

1982–85: THE TERMINATION OF ENERGY TAX CRED

I D 1982, 1978 E A w - w :

q q z , - q

q . ,

D 31, 1985.

1986: THE TAX REFORM ACT OF 1986 (P.L. 99–514)

R 10 .E - w

(W E) w , , 10 (P



appendix 1 181

E WP 1988 15 1986, 12 1987, 1

1988; 1988 1986, 10 1987 1988;

1988 15 ; 1987 15 1986, 10 1987. (

w w D 31, 1985.)

P

1992: THE ENERGY POLICY ACT OF 1992 (EPACT) (P.L. E 10

q .E 10- , 1.5 k w - (kW )

(P C) w w - w w ( - )

1994 1993, , J 30, 1999.

I R w E P I (REPI) 1.5 kW ( j

( 1212)), ( w ), ( ), w ,

w .I 10

j .

1999: THE TAX RELIEF EXTENSION ACT OF 1999 (P.L. 1

E (P C EPAC w -

w , - w . A q

J 1, 2002. P w

1999. A 20 .

N : (

. ( )

.



182 appendix 1

2001: E S R A 2001 (P. 107–1 w w w 2002, w -

(P C) w w , - , w . , P A 1992, - j k w - q

w w, w 2001 D 31, 2003.Source : DOE, ://www. . . / / . w /

/ . .

N : : “FLEX FUEL” w : A “ ” AMFA :

) W ) W q ,

F G w

) W , 1993 1995 , A P A ,

w 513( ) ( ) , q ,

F G , w 50

w . . .

S , “ ” :

) W ) W q

F G w

AMFA NH SA w / - -

. I , AMFA , ,

, , , , . w

w q 100

http://www.eia.doe.gov/cneaf/solar.renewables/page/legislation/impact.html






appendix 1 183

- 200 q A 1996. EPAC

AMFA-q . S 301.8(A) EPAC S 513 .1.C M V I C

A “ - ” “ -“ - ” . I , “

w w q , , - q

. I w w

S E - , w .

S 6 AMFA M V I C S A

513, w CAFE . B M 1993,

q

CAFE w w , w 0.15. A ,

- w 15 w CAFE w :

FE (1/0.15)(15) 100 .

F - , w 50

, .

- 0.5 0.5

0.15 . F , 15 , CAFE w :

FE 1/(0.5/25) (0.5/100) 40 .

C . F ,



184 appendix 1

w w w . AMFA

q 100 q 0, w q

, , q 0.1(49 U.S.C. §329059( )). C j CA

- F , q ,

25 100 CAFE w :

FE (25/100) (100/0.823)(1/0.15) 203 .

, w - , w EPA

39638; A 3, 1994). AMFA w

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Appendix 2

President Jimmy Carter’sSpeech Concerning Energy,

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Appendix 3

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Appendix 4

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AC generation, 48.See alsoElectricity

Acid rain, 109 Ag Environmental Products (AEP),developer of alternative fuels, 112

Ag Processing Inc. (AGP), developer of alternative fuels, 112

Agricultural revolution, 30 Agriculture, rising costs of energy in, 159 Air pollution, 105, 161 Alcohol, as biofuel, 79

Alternative-fueled vehicles, 19, 103 Alternative fuels, development of during1970s, 115.See alsoBiofuels

Alternative Motor Fuel Act (AMFA),103

Alternative non-renewable energy sources,definition of, 119

Alternative technologies, contemporary emergence of, 168

Alternatives, definition of in relation todominant energy sources, 30 AMC, maker of Jeep, 116 American Big Three auto manufacturers,

166 “American century” concept, Henry Luce,

90 American Electric Power Co., 165 Anaerobic digestion, and biofuels, 126

Anthropocene, concept of, 109.See also

Climate change Appliances, and increased energy efficiency,146

Arab Oil Embargo, 92 Association of Licensed Automobile

Manufacturers (ALAM), development of early electric vehicles, 83.See alsoAutos;Electric vehicles

Atomic Energy: Atomic Energy

Commission, 70; boosterism and Cold War, 71; Chernobyl, 72; Einstein, Albert, 69; Fermi, Enrico, 69; nuclearaccidents, 72; nuclear fission, 14, 71;Project Plowshares, 71; Project Trinity,70; reprocessing nuclear waste, 172;Shippingport nuclear reactor, 72; ThreeMile Island, nuclear accident, 72; “toocheap to meter,” nuclear utopianism, 71;

viability of, 171 Auto emissions, 106.See alsoAutos;Emissions

Automakers, U.S., reluctance to developalternative-fueled vehicles, 103

Autos: Alternative-fueled vehicles, 19, 103; AMC, 116; American Big Three automanufacturers, 166; Benz, Karl, anddevelopment of internal combustion

Index



214 index

engine, 80; Big Three, American automanufacturers, 116, 166; Bureau of Public Roads, development of American

road system, 55; Cadillac Escalade, 116;CAFÉ legislation, 103, standards onvehicle efficiency, 104, 107, 115; carbonmonoxide, 105; catalytic converter, tocontrol auto emissions, 107; ChryslerCorporation, 54, 166; Cuautitlanfacility, Ford manufacturing plant, 166;decentralization, suburbanization, 86;EV1, 111; Evans, Oliver, and early

autos, 75; flex-fuel vehicles, 104; FordExpedition, 116; Ford, Henry, 54, 79;Ford Motor Company, 54, 166; Germanauto designers, 80; growing interestin electrics, U.S., 165; Honda, 104,166, 167; hybrid cars, 74; initialdevelopment of, 53; Interstate Highway Act, 55; Japanese auto manufacturers,104; Kennedy Administration acts

against lead emissions, 107; Kettering,Charles, interest in alternative fuels, 80;Model A Ford, 54; Model T Ford, 54,79; PCV valves, early auto emissionscontrol, 106; Selden, George Baldwin,and Selden patent in early auto, 82;Stanley, Freelan O., Stanley Steamer, andearly auto, 75; Suburban development,55, 85, 116; SUV, 115, 164; Toyota

Motor Company, 166– 67.See alsoElectric vehicles; Internal combustionengine (ICE); Personal transportation;Transportation

Baker, the, early electric vehicle, 75Battery technology for electricity storage,

110 Bell, Alexander Graham, predicts alcohol as

replacement for petroleum, 80Benz, Karl, and development of internalcombustion engine, 80

Bessemer steel-making, and use of energy,47

Bicycles, 74.See alsoPersonal transportationBig Three, American auto manufacturers,

116, 166.See alsoAutos

Biltmore Forest Estate and developmentof American forestry, 63.See alsoConservation

Biofuels: Ag Environmental Products (AEP),112; Ag Processing Inc. (AGP), 112; Alcohol, 79; Alternative-fueled vehicles,19, 103; Anaerobic digestion, 126; Bell, Alexander Graham, predicts alcohol asreplacement for petroleum, 80; cellulose,material for alternative fuel, 125, 174;contemporary development of by largeagricultural corporations, 173; continued

development of, 1990s surge in, 112;corn-base ethanol, 16; deforestation,124; early use of vegetable oils, ethanol,and camphene, 79; ethanol, 102, 112,122, 125, 173; farm algae, 126; farmlandfor, 124; feedstock, 123; feedstocks, 122,123, 174; Gasohol, 102; vegetable oils,as Biofuel, 79.

Biomass: camphene, early biofuel, 79;

cellulose, material for alternative fuel,125, 174; charcoal, as fuels source, 36,40; contemporary use for energy fromgrasses, 174; indirect form of solarpower, 121; lack of CO2 emissions whenburned, 120; such as wood, as energy source, 14; use as industrial fuel prior tocoal, 36.See alsoWood

Biotechnology, development of energy

sources, 102.See alsoBiofuelsBlockades of the War of 1812, influence onadoption of coal as fuel, 41.See alsoCoal

Bloomeries, in iron manufacture, 40Boston and Lowell Railroad, 45Brook Farm, and development of

Transcendentalism in UnitedStates, 60

Brown v. Vandergrift , and “rule of capture,”

50.See alsoPetroleumBuddhist Economics, and conservation ethic,99.See alsoModern environmentalism

Bureau of Public Roads, development of American road system, 55

Bureau of Reclamation, and Hydroelectricdevelopment in United States, 66.See alsoHydroelectricity



index 215

Bush, President George W.: encouragementof biofuels, 2007, 173; reluctance toregulate coal utilities, 160

Cadillac Escalade, 116CAFÉ legislation, 103; standards on vehicle

efficiency, 104, 107, 115.See alsoAutos;Modern environmentalism

CAL-START, 109.See alsoElectric vehiclesCamphene, early biofuel, 79.See also

BiofuelsCanals, and industrial development, 45

Carbon accounting, as method forquantifying overall costs of fossil fuels,158, 161

Carbon capture, 27Carbon dioxide: carbon accounting, as

method for quantifying overall costs of fossil fuels, 158, 161; carbon capture,27; carbon sequestration, 26; carbontax, 164; carbon-trading scheme, 164;

development of the idea of “smog”and air pollution, 105; greenhouse gascontributing to climate change, 24 and161; transportation contribution of,109;See alsoClimate change; Emissions;Pollution

Carbon monoxide, 105.See alsoAutos;Emissions; Pollution

Carbon sequestration, 26

Carbon tax, 164Carbon-trading scheme, 164Cargill, agricultural corporation, 173.See

alsoBiofuelsCarnegie, Andrew, 46Carpooling, 21Carson, Rachel, 98Carter, President Jimmy: addition of solar

panels to White House, 89; and federal

pursuit of alternative fuels, 102; demandsa comprehensive national energy policy,113; difficulty to lead energy transitionfrom Oval Office, 177; interest in energy conservation, 100.See also1970s andConservation

Catalytic converter, to control auto emissions,107.See alsoAutos; Emissions; Pollution

Cellulose, material for alternative fuel, 125,174.See alsoBiofuels; Biomass

Central Park, and American conservation, 61

Charcoal, as fuels source, 36, 40.See alsoBiomassChernobyl, 72.See alsoAtomic energy Chevy Tahoe, 116Chicago Edison Company, 48.See also

Electricity Chrysler Corporation, 54, 166.See also

AutosCitiCar, 110

Clean Air Act, 106, 165; 1963, 107.See alsoModern environmentalism; PollutionClean-coal regulation, 160Clean the Air Task Force, 160Climate change: anthropocene, concept

of, 109; Intergovernmental Panel onClimate Change (IPCC), 161; massextinctions associated with climatechange, 25; precipitation patterns, shifts

with climate change, 25; report of IPCC,162; sulfur dioxides from coal burning,24, 105, 160.See alsoCarbon dioxide;Pollution

Coal: as source of energy, 11–12; blockadesof the War of 1812, influence onadoption of coal as fuel, 41; clean-coalregulation, 160; coal-burning electric-power plants, 26; coal-burning power

plants, 160; coal-to-liquids (CTL), 17,20; contemporary mining methodsin Appalachia,157; Darby, Abraham,experiments with manufactureof Coke from coal, 35; formation,43; from bituminous to anthracite,41; generation of electricity, 14; greattransition in industrial power, 36;long-term supply of, 12; mountaintop

removal, 157; Pennsylvania, 44.See alsoElectricity; EmissionsColes, Thomas, romantic painting and

evolution of conservation, 59Colony Oil Shale Project, 1970s project to

develop alternative fuels, 113Columbia, The, early electric vehicle, 75Commonwealth Edison Company, 48



216 index

Compact fluorescent bulbs (CFLs), 141Compagnie Parisienne des Voitures

Electriques, 74.See alsoElectric vehicles

Comuta-car, 110Conference of Governors for Conservation,63

Conservation: and 1970s energy shortage,91, 96; Biltmore Forest Estate anddevelopment of American forestry,63; carpooling, 21; Coles, Thomas,romantic painting and evolutionof conservation, 59; Conference of

Governors for Conservation, 63;Department of Energy (DOE), creationof, 96; ecology, emergence of, 99;forest conservation, 63; George PerkinsMarsh and the conservation ethic,63; home energy savings, throughdesign, 144, 148; “learning to live with limits,” 91; Lovins, Amory, “SoftEnergy Paths,” 100; National Audubon

Society, 97; National Conservancy,97; of energy, 2, 96; Pinchot, Gifford,and development of conservation,63; primitivism, influence on early conservation, 60; Progressive movementand expansion of conservation, 62;resource use paradigm contrastingconspicuous consumption, 87, 96;Romanticism, Transcendentalism and

the development of conservation,59 – 61; scientific management, as partof conservation, 67.See also1970s;Modern environmentalism

Corn-base ethanol, 16.See alsoBiofuelsCuautitlan facility, Ford manufacturing

plant, 166Culture of conspicuous consumption,

177–78

Daimler, Gottleib, internal combustionengine auto, 80

Darby, Abraham, experiments withmanufacture of Coke from coal, 35

Decentralization, suburbanization, 86Deforestation, relationship to clearing for

biofuel agriculture, 121Demonstrated reserve base , definition of, 11

Department of Energy (DOE), creation of,96.See also1970s; Conservation

Detroit Electric, 75.See alsoElectric vehicles

Diesel fuel, as alternative to petroleum, 103Difference betweenresources and provenreserves , 11

Disease, and horse and animal waste of “organic city,” 74

Domesday Book , 30Drake, Edwin, L., discovery of commercial

oil well, 50.See alsoPetroleumDual-fuel vehicles, or flex-fuel, as

alternatively-powered transportation,103 Duquesne Light Co., 72Duryea, Charles, and Duryea Car, internal

combustion engine autos, 80 – 82Duty factor, in wind turbine use, 132Dynamo, and electricity generation, 49.See

alsoElectricity; Hydroelectricity

Earth Day 1970, 105.See alsoModernenvironmentalismEcology, emergence of, 99Economic collapse of 2008 –2009, 167Edison Electric Company, 64Edison, Thomas: development of electricity,

47; Edison’s Type A battery, 83; electricvehicles, 76; hydroelectric developmentat Niagara, 64; Insull, George,

development of electricity, 48; smartgrid development, 169; smart grids, 169,178; social expansion and, 49 and 58;variety of methods for generating, 17; Westinghouse and George Westinghouse,48 and 64.See alsoElectricity; Electricvehicles; Hydroelectricity

E85, alternative fuel for autos, 123Efficiency, energy: and conservation,

140 – 42; resistance to, 110; solar, 3Einstein, Albert, 69.See alsoAtomic energy Eisenhower, President Dwight D.: danger

of relying on foreign oil imports, 93;developing domestic program for atomictechnology, 71; federal highway system,55

Electric Home and Farm Authority, andTennessee Valley Authority, 68



index 217

Electricity: AC generation, 48; ChicagoEdison Company, 48; CommonwealthEdison Company, 48; Compact

fluorescent bulbs (CFLs), 141; DuquesneLight Co., 72; Dynamo, and electricity generation, 49; Edison ElectricCompany, 64

Electric power generation, 17Electric trolley, 3Electric truck, 79Electric vehicles: Association of Licensed

Automobile Manufacturers (ALAM),

development of early electric vehicles,83; Baker, the, early electric vehicle, 75;Battery technology for electricity storage,110; CAL-START, 109; CitiCar, 110;The Columbia, early electric vehicle,75; Compagnie Parisienne des VoituresElectriques, 74; Detroit Electric, 75;Edison and electric vehicles, 76; Edison’sType A battery, 83; EV1, 111; Hybrid

cars, 74; Hydrocarbon Association,82; Morrison, William, electric vehicledesign, 75; Nu-Klea Starlite, electricvehicle, 110; plug-in electric vehicles,167; Pope, Colonel Albert A., early electric vehicles, 78

Electrobat, early electric vehicle, 77Emerson, Ralph Waldo, development of

Transcendentalism, 59

Emissions: acid rain, 109; air pollution,105, 161; auto emissions, 106; carbonmonoxide, 105; catalytic converter, tocontrol auto emissions, 107; from coalburning, 26; Kennedy Administrationacts against lead emissions, 107; MotorVehicle and Air Pollution Act, 106;PCV valves, early auto emissionscontrol, 106; sequestration of carbon,

27; Sulfur dioxides from coal burning,24, 105, 160.See alsoCarbon dioxide;Pollution

End of energy predictions, 13Energy: American energy-intensive culture,

30; comparison between sources, 18;conservation, 141, 145; consumption of in developing nations, 10; consumptionpatterns by nation, 10; consumption

per person, 10; correlation betweenenergy and GPD, 142; costs of fossilfuel use, 159; crisis of 1970s, 28, 100;

emergency, 95; Energy Policy Act(EPACT), 103; Energy Policy Act of 1992, 102; Energy Star, 146; Energy Tax Act of 1978, 102; export/import,21; intensity of various eras in society,142; raw sources, 4; wood as mostinexpensive source of, 3

Energy and GPD, 142Energy conservation, 141, 145

Energy consumption, developing nations,10; per person, 10; world, 10,Energy cost rise, fossil fuels, 159Energy crisis, 28Energy emergency, 95Energy Policy Act (EPACT), 103Energy Policy Act of 1992, 102Energy Star, 146Energy Tax Act of 1978, 102

Energy transitions: current, 157, 178; 1800sto coal, 41; 1890s and transportation, 74;1970s and 1980s, 91, 112; post–World War II consumption, 56, 58

English cotton manufacturing, 35Enola Gay , 70Environmental accounting of sources of

energy, 161Environmental degradation of industry, 42

Environmental impact of the ICE, 108.See alsoAutos; EmissionsEnvironmental Protection Agency (EPA),

107.See alsoModern environmentalismEstimated recoverable reserves, 11Ethanol, 102, 112, 122, 125, 173.See also

BiofuelsEthic of extraction, particularly in

petroleum, 42

EV.See Electric vehiclesEvans, Oliver, and early autos, 75EV1, 111Externality on the price of energy, 23Exxon Corporation, development of

alternative fuels, 112

Farm digester, 126Federal Road Act of 1916, 54



218 index

Feedstocks, 122, 174.See alsoBiofuelsFermi, Enrico, 69.See alsoAtomic energy First Law of Thermodynamics, 2

First oil shock, Arab Oil Embargo, 94.See also1970sFlex-fuel vehicles, 104Food versus fuel, development of biofuels,

16 Ford, Henry, 54, 79.See alsoAutosFord, President Gerald, 107Ford Expedition, 116Ford Motor Company, 54, 166

Forest Conservation, 63Fossil fuels: depletion of, 11; origins of, 2;peak supply, 13; world supplies, 12.

Fulling, textile manufacture, 31Futurama, 87

Garage, 85Gas lines, 94.See also1970sGasohol, 102.See alsoBiofuels

General Motors Corporation, 54, 111, 166General Motors Pavilion, at Futurama, 57Geothermal Energy, 120, 135German auto designers, 80.See alsoAutosGlobal Warming,see Climate changeGMC Yukon, 116Gore, Al, 176Great transition to agriculture, 36Greenhouse effect, 109

Greenhouse gases, 106Greensward, plan for Central Park, 61.See alsoConservation

Ground-level ozone, 24Groves, Leslie, 70.See alsoAtomic energy

Haagen-Smit, Arie, 105.See alsoPollutionHamilton, Alexander,Report on

Manufactures , 37

Hardin, Garrett, 98Healthcare costs related to fossil fuel use,162

Higgins, Patillo, 52.See alsoPetroleumHigh-energy existence, particularly U.S., 51,

58, 72, 85, 90, 115, 160 – 63High gasoline prices, 2008, 19History of the Standard Oil Company , 51.See

alsoPetroleum

Home energy savings, through design, 144,148.See alsoConservation

Honda, 104, 166, 167

Hoover Dam, 67Horses, use for transportation, 73.See alsoPersonal transportation

Hudson River School, and evolution of conservation, 61

Hunter-gatherer phase in human life, 30Hybrid cars, 74.See alsoElectric vehiclesHydrocarbon Association, 82.See also

Electric vehicles

Hydroelectricity: Bureau of Reclamation,and Hydroelectric development inUnited States, 66; general developmentof, 65– 68; general feasibility of,137–39; Hoover Dam, 67; NiagaraFalls, and hydroelectric development,64; Tennessee Valley Authority,1930s hydroelectric development, 68;Theodore Roosevelt Dam, 66.See also

WaterpowerHydrogen-based energy economy, 19Hydrogen pipelines, 20Hydrokinetic energy, 138

Import quotas on petroleum, 93Industrial Revolution, 29Industrialization, 10Insull, George, development of electricity,

48.See alsoElectricity Integrated-gasification combined-cycle(IGCC), 27

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change(IPCC), 161.See alsoClimate change

Intermediate energy forms, 16Internal combustion engine (ICE):

component of high-energy existence,58; environmental impact of, 105–7;

powering personal transportation, 72,81– 82.See alsoAutos; EmissionsInterstate Highway Act, 55Investment markets, influence on energy

prices, 23Iron manufacturing, 40Isle of Wight, textile manufacturing, 31

Japanese auto manufacturers, 104



index 219

Kennedy Administration acts againstlead emissions, 107.See alsoAutos;Emissions

Kettering, Charles, interest in alternativefuels, 80.See alsoAutosKier, Samuel, early use of petroleum, 50

Laissez-faire era of government oversight of industry, late 1800s, 51

Lead emissions from autos, 107“Learning to live with limits,” 91.See also

Conservation; 1970s

Leland, Henry M., and mass production of auto, 54Levittown, and suburbanization, 86Life cycle of energy sources, 178Lightbulb, electric, 3, 48Light truck category for U.S. fleet, 115.See

alsoAutos; CAFÉ Standards; 1970sLiquefaction, of coal to make gasoline, 17Los Angeles, California, and impact of

automobile, 108Lovins, Amory, “Soft Energy Paths,”100.See alsoConservation; Modernenvironmentalism

Lowell, Francis Cabot, early hydrodevelopment in Lowell, Massachusetts,38

Lowell Massachusetts, early hydro devel-opment, 38, 45

Luce, Henry, “American Century Concept,”90

Making alternatives primary, 176“Malaise” Speech, 90.See alsoCarter; 1970s

Man and Nature , George Perkins Marsh, 62.See alsoConservation

Manhattan Project, 95.See alsoAtomicenergy

Manufacturing, social implications of,31–34 Marsh, George Perkins, 62Mass extinctions associated with climate

change, 25.See alsoClimate changeMass transportation, defeat of in the early

1900s, 73Merrimack River, early hydro development,

38

Mesa Power, wind power in Texas, 171Methane, energy from waste products, 126Methyl tertiary-butyl ether (MTBE), 123

Middlesex Canal, early industry, 45Midland, Archer Daniels, agriculturalcorporation, 173

Milling, various power sources, 31Model A Ford, 54Model T Ford, 54, 79Modern Environmentalism: Buddhist

Economics, and conservation ethic, 99;CAFÉ legislation, 103; Carson, Rachel,

98; Clean Air Act, 106, 165, of 1963,107; Earth Day 1970, 105; Ecology,emergence of, 99; EnvironmentalProtection Agency (EPA), 107; Lovins, Amory, “Soft Energy Paths,” 100;National Audubon Society, 97; popularmovement that becomes known as, 96;standards on vehicle efficiency, 104, 107,115

Monasteries, and early industry, 31Morgan, J. P., financing early electricity, 48Morrison, William, electric vehicle design,

75.See alsoElectric vehiclesMotor Vehicle and Air Pollution Act, 106.

See alsoAutos; Emissions; PollutionMountaintop removal, 157.See alsoCoalMuskie, Edwin, 106

National Audubon Society, 97.See alsoConservation; Modern environmentalismNational Conservancy, 97; nongovernmental

organizations (NGOs), 97; “Tragedy of the commons,” 98.See alsoConservation; Modern environmentalism

National electric grid, update needed to, 20National Parks and Conservation Society,

97.See alsoConservation; Modern

environmentalismNational Security, energy as a matter of,163

National Wildlife Federation, 97.See alsoConservation; Modern environmentalism

Natural Food Company, and developmentof hydroelectricity at Niagara, 65

Natural gas: as energy source, 14; efficiency,18; transport of, 21



220 index

Natural-gas powered vehicles, 19Nature of Energy, 1Nelson, Gaylord, first Earth Day, 106.See

alsoModern environmentalismNetherlands, current expansion of windpower in, 176

New Deal and hydroelectric development,68

New England Electric Vehicle Company, 76Newcomen engine, and early industry, 37Niagara Falls, and hydroelectric development,

64.See alsoHydroelectricity

1970s: alternative fuels, development of during 1970s, 115; Colony Oil ShaleProject, 1970s project to developalternative fuels, 113; Department of Energy (DOE), creation of, 96; firstoil shock, Arab Oil Embargo, 94; gaslines, 94; Gasohol, 102; “learning to live with limits,” 91; “Malaise” Speech, 90;Muskie, Edwin, 106; odd/even rationing,

94; Project Independence, reaction to1970s Oil Crisis, 95; Public UtilitiesRegulatory Poly Act of 1978, 102;rationing of petroleum, 1970s, 95.See alsoCarter

1960s counterculture, 961939 Futurama, 571939 World’s Fair, 57Nixon, President Richard, 90, 93, 95

Nongovernmental organizations (NGOs),97.See alsoModern environmentalismNu-Klea Starlite, electric vehicle, 110.See

alsoElectric vehiclesNuclear accidents, 72.See alsoAtomic energy Nuclear energy.See Atomic energy Nuclear fission, 14, 71.See alsoAtomic

energy Nuclear fuel reprocessing, 150.See also

Atomic energy Nuclear weapons proliferation, 150.See also Atomic energy

Obama administration, rethinks energy, 177Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion

(OTEC), 119, 139Octane of petroleum, 80.See alsoPetroleumOdd/even rationing, 94.See alsoPetroleum;

1970s

Oil sands and shale, 152–53; in situconversion, 152

Olds, Ransom E., early automobiles, 53

Olmsted, Frederick Law, park design, 61Omnibus, and mass transportation, 73Oppenheimer, Robert J., 70OptiSolar, 175Organic city, urban pollution in late 19th

century, 73Organization of the Petroleum Exporting

Countries (OPEC), 92.See alsoPetroleum

Overshot wheels, and early water power,33

Papin, Denis, piston design for steamengine, 37

Passive solar energy, 130Patch towns, in early mining for coal, 44Paterson, New Jersey, and early water power,

37

Pawtucket Falls, and early water power, 39PCV valves, early auto emissions control,106

Peak oil, 158, 168.See alsoPetroleumPersonal Transportation: Alternative-fueled

vehicles, 19, 103; AMC, 116; AmericanBig Three auto manufacturers, 166;and 1970s energy transition, 91, 102;bicycles, 74; Comuta-car, 110; horses,

used for transportation, 73; ICE as mostlikely solution for in early 1900s, 81;mass transportation, defeat of in the early 1900s, 73

Petroleum:Brown v. Vandergrift , and “ruleof capture,” 50; Drake, Edwin, L.,discovery of commercial oil well, 50;Higgins, Patillo, 52;History of the Stan-dard Oil Company , 51; Kier, Samuel,

early use of petroleum, 50 Octane of petroleum, 80; odd/even rationing,94; Organization of the PetroleumExporting Countries (OPEC), 92; peak oil, 158, 168; scarcity, of petroleumsupply, 91, 158; Spindletop, Texas,petroleum discovery, 52, 81; StandardOil, 50

Photochemical smog, 24.See alsoPollutionPhotosynthesis, as energy transfer, 30



index 221

Photovoltaic solar power, efficiency of, 127Pickens, T. Boone, wind power development

in Texas, 170–71

Pinchot, Gifford, and developmentof Conservation ethic, 63.See alsoConservation

Piper, H., patent for early Electric Vehicle,74

Piston, development of steam engine, 37Pittsburgh seam, coal mining in, 43Plug-in electric vehicles, 167.See also

Electric vehicles

Policies for Alternative Development: Alternative Motor Fuel Act (AMFA),103; Energy Policy Act (EPACT), 103;Energy Policy Act of 1992, 102; Energy Star, 146; Energy Tax Act of 1978, 102

Pollution: Acid rain, 109; Air pollution,105, 161; Auto emissions, 106; Carbonmonoxide, 105; Catalytic converter,to control auto emissions, 107; Clean

Air Act, 106, 165, of 1963, 107; Cleanthe Air Task Force, 160; deaths frompollutants, 24; Haagen-Smit, Arie,105; Healthcare costs related to fossilfuel use, 162; Kennedy Administrationacts against lead emissions, 107; MotorVehicle and Air Pollution Act, 106;Photochemical smog, 24; Sulfur dioxidesfrom coal burning, 24, 105, 160.See also

Carbon dioxidePope, Colonel Albert A., early electricvehicles, 78.See alsoElectric vehicles

Population growth, expected, and effect onenergy demand, 6

Post mills, early wind power, 32Precipitation patterns, shifts with climate

change, 25.See alsoClimate changePrimitivism, influence on early Conservation,

60.See alsoConservationProgressive movement and expansion of Conservation, 62.See alsoConservation

Project Independence, reaction to 1970s OilCrisis, 95

Project Plowshares, 71Project Trinity, 70Proven reserves, petroleum, 11Public Utilities Regulatory Policy Act of

1978, 102

Railroads, industrial expansion and, 44 – 45Ranch-style house, suburbanization, 85Rationing of petroleum, 1970s, 95

Reagan, President Ronald, attitude towardalternative power, 89Reclamation Act of 1902, 66.See also

Hydroelectricity Regional planning and TVA, 69.See also

Hydroelectricity Renaissance and Reformation, early trade

and industry, 31Renewable energy, 119, 120; costs of, 120

Reprocessing nuclear waste, 172.See also Atomic energy Rhode Island System of water power, 38Rifle, Colorado, 1970s expansion of oil shale

operation, 112Rockefeller, John D., 50Romans, use of water power, 31Romanticism and evolution of conservation,

59

Roosevelt, Franklin D., New Deal use of hydroelectric development, 67Roosevelt, Theodore, use of Progressivism to

expand conservation, 63Ruckelshaus, William D., EPA Chief focuses

on lead, 108“Rule of capture,” in petroleum

development, 50

Sadat, Anwar, Arab Oil Embargo, 93Scarcity, of petroleum supply, 91, 158.See alsoPetroleum

Schumacher, E. F., 99Scientific management, as part of

Conservation, 67.See alsoConservationScrubbers in coal-powered electric plants,

160.See alsoCoalSelden, George Baldwin, and Selden patent

in early auto, 82Seneca Oil Company, 50Sequestration of Carbon, 27Shippingport nuclear reactor, 72.See also

Atomic energy Shredded Wheat Company, water power at

Niagara, 65Sierra Club, 97Silent Spring , and Modern Environmental

Movement, 98



222 index

Silt, Colorado, developing coal shale, 113Six Companies, western water development,

67

Slater, Samuel, early water power, 37–38Small Is Beautiful , by Schumacher, E. F., 99Smart grids, 169, 178.See alsoElectricity Smith, Billy, early petroleum development, 50“Soft Energy Paths,” by Amory Lovins, 100Solar energy: current efforts to develop.

175–76; description of, 119, 127;for heating water, 130; panels on the White House, 90; solar-thermal energy,

14; thermal collectors, 128; thermalelectricity, 131“Sorry, No Gas Today,” 1970s gas crisis, 94SoyGold, agricultural corporation in

biofuels, 112Spindletop, Texas, petroleum discovery, 52, 81Standard Oil Corporation, 50Stanley, Freelan O., Stanley Steamer, and

early auto, 75

Steam engine, and industrial development,36, 42Steel manufacture, 46Storage of energy, 20Strip-mining of coal, 157Strutt, Jedediah, early water power, 37Suburban development, 55, 85, 116.See also

AutosSulfur dioxides from coal burning, 24, 105,

160.See alsoCoal; Emissions; PollutionSustainability, 96SUV, Sports Utility Vehicle, 115, 164Synfuels, Synthetic Fuels Corporation, 114Szilard, Leo, early nuclear development, 69

Tarbell, Ida, takes on Standard Oil, 51Taylor, Frederick Winslow, and scientific

management, 79

Tennessee Valley Authority, 1930s hydro-electric development, 68Textile industry, early water power, 38Textile milling, 31Theodore Roosevelt Dam, 66Thoreau, Henry David, 59Three Mile Island, nuclear accident, 72Tidal energy, as current potential energy

source, 138

Tidal mills, in early industry, 33“Too cheap to meter,” nuclear utopianism, 71Toyota Motor Company, 166– 67

“Tragedy of the commons,” 98Transcendentalism, and TranscendentalClub, 59 – 60

Transportation,See Autos; Masstransportation; Personal transportation

Transportation fuels, 162008/2009 global recession, 17

Undershot wheels, early water power, 33

Unitarianism, development of Romanticism,60 United Nations IPCC, 24Urbanization, 34Urban reform, of organic city, 74

Vaux, Calvert, design of Central Park, 61Vegetable oils, as Biofuel, 79Versailles fountains, early water power, 34

Vertical mill, early water power, 32Volatility of energy prices, general, 21Volkswagen Beetle, “People’s Car,” 104

Walden , and Walden Pond, 60 War of 1812, 41 Watergate and 1970s, 91, 95 Waterpower, prior to hydroelectric

development, 37 and 64

Watt, James, steam power, 42 Westinghouse and George Westinghouse, 48and 64.See alsoElectricity

Who Killed the Electric Car? , 111 Wilderness Society, 97 Wind energy: contemporary potential of,

131–32; 169; cost of, 132; land use of,132; negative impacts of, 134; Pickens’splan for development in Texas, 170 –71;

windmilling, early, in Asia, 32 Wood, as energy source, 36.See alsoBiomass Wood shortage, Europe, 35 WWI, adoption of ICE, 85 WWII, creation of American “Conspicuous

Consumption,” 17, 69

Zero-energy homes, for energy conservation,128

[advent] alternative energy

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