Africentric Programs in Youth Africentric Programs in Youth Substance AbuseSubstance Abuse

Alcohol and other drug Alcohol and other drug (AOTD) use and related drug (AOTD) use and related drug activities, such as trafficking, activities, such as trafficking, running and selling, are major running and selling, are major problems for African American problems for African American youth, especially those who youth, especially those who reside within inner citiesreside within inner cities

Some of the deleterious effects of Some of the deleterious effects of drug use include school drop-out, drug use include school drop-out, crime, incarceration, teen crime, incarceration, teen pregnancy, violence, HIV and pregnancy, violence, HIV and AIDS. AIDS.

The etiology and conditions of The etiology and conditions of drug use among youth are drug use among youth are “complex and context “complex and context dependent”.dependent”.

Program approaches and models found Program approaches and models found to be effective in one social-[cultural] to be effective in one social-[cultural] context may be less effective in others.context may be less effective in others.

Traditional prevention and intervention Traditional prevention and intervention strategies fail to consider the socially strategies fail to consider the socially determined and institutionally determined and institutionally supported conditions characterizing supported conditions characterizing African descent peoples’ experience in African descent peoples’ experience in the Americas (ex. U.S.).the Americas (ex. U.S.).

Chestang, “social injustice, societal Chestang, “social injustice, societal inconsistency and personal impotence inconsistency and personal impotence are the plight of [African] people in are the plight of [African] people in America”. America”.

Being in the face of any one of these Being in the face of any one of these conditions does cruel and unusual conditions does cruel and unusual violence to the personality of African violence to the personality of African Americans.Americans.

Being in the face of all three conditions Being in the face of all three conditions exposes the personality to severe exposes the personality to severe crippling or even destruction. crippling or even destruction.

In order for prevention and intervention In order for prevention and intervention efforts to be effective, they must consider efforts to be effective, they must consider the historical-cultural context of African the historical-cultural context of African Americans (i.e., African descent people). Americans (i.e., African descent people).

Effective prevention in communities Effective prevention in communities distinguishable by particular racial and risk distinguishable by particular racial and risk characteristics may require the use of characteristics may require the use of practices responsive to the needs and practices responsive to the needs and opportunities characteristic of that setting opportunities characteristic of that setting (Chipungu et al., 2000).(Chipungu et al., 2000).

Critical Practice Approach (Rasheed & Critical Practice Approach (Rasheed &

Rasheed (1999Rasheed (1999) ) Informed by the assumption and ongoing Informed by the assumption and ongoing

analysis of the impact of socio-cultural and analysis of the impact of socio-cultural and socio-political factors on the presenting socio-political factors on the presenting mental health problems of African American mental health problems of African American males as being an integral component of males as being an integral component of the clinical process”the clinical process”

Clear recognition of the social realities of Clear recognition of the social realities of racism and oppression and the manner in racism and oppression and the manner in which they affect the mental health of which they affect the mental health of African Americans is provided by this African Americans is provided by this approach.approach.

Principles applied to a critical practice Principles applied to a critical practice approach with African American males. approach with African American males.

There must be recognition of the systemic There must be recognition of the systemic and societal context of racism and and societal context of racism and oppression and social ideologies that are oppression and social ideologies that are infused with the virulent disease of racism. infused with the virulent disease of racism.

Such recognition allows both the Such recognition allows both the practitioner and client to become aware of practitioner and client to become aware of how their lived experience (or personal how their lived experience (or personal narrative) has been impacted by these narrative) has been impacted by these forces.forces.

Effective mental health [including drug] Effective mental health [including drug] intervention must be based on a deliberate intervention must be based on a deliberate effort of both the practitioner and the client to effort of both the practitioner and the client to be aware of how their location or position be aware of how their location or position within the social political order shapes their within the social political order shapes their identities and the context of the helping identities and the context of the helping relationship.relationship.

There must be identification of personal There must be identification of personal narratives, cognitive distortions, and language narratives, cognitive distortions, and language that reinforce a sense of disempowerment, that reinforce a sense of disempowerment, pejorative classifications of difference, or a pejorative classifications of difference, or a truncated sense of self-esteem (e.g., truncated sense of self-esteem (e.g., identifying dichotomous or binary thinking, identifying dichotomous or binary thinking, such as “superior/inferior” or “White males are such as “superior/inferior” or “White males are good/African American males are bad”).good/African American males are bad”).

There must be support for self-There must be support for self-assertion and reaffirmation of both assertion and reaffirmation of both racial and gender identity as well as racial and gender identity as well as development of a more integrated development of a more integrated identity as an African American male.identity as an African American male.

There must be a search for increased There must be a search for increased self-mastery and achievement of self-mastery and achievement of autonomous dignity.autonomous dignity.

There must be support for the African There must be support for the African American male client in his work toward American male client in his work toward social change, by challenging anti-Black social change, by challenging anti-Black racism and other forms of bias racism and other forms of bias encountered within his particular encountered within his particular ecological niche. ecological niche.

(This principle also includes improving the (This principle also includes improving the conditions of other men, women, and conditions of other men, women, and children of color).children of color).

The shifting patterns of substance use (i.e., The shifting patterns of substance use (i.e., early initiation, increased marijuana use, early initiation, increased marijuana use, narrowing differences in gender use) and the narrowing differences in gender use) and the disproportionate socioeconomic obstacles disproportionate socioeconomic obstacles that are related to substance use among that are related to substance use among ethnically diverse adolescent females create ethnically diverse adolescent females create the need to develop ethnic and gender-the need to develop ethnic and gender-specific substance use prevention specific substance use prevention frameworks (Guthrie & Low, 2000). frameworks (Guthrie & Low, 2000).

In addition, culture specific (i.e., normed on In addition, culture specific (i.e., normed on African American populations) instruments African American populations) instruments would assist in planning more appropriate would assist in planning more appropriate treatment services, as well as, aid in the treatment services, as well as, aid in the development of culturally relevant ATOD development of culturally relevant ATOD education prevention initiatives. education prevention initiatives.

Cultural specific measurements are Cultural specific measurements are essential to the prevention of adverse essential to the prevention of adverse health consequences of ATOD use and health consequences of ATOD use and abuse among African Americans and abuse among African Americans and other racial/ethnic groups. other racial/ethnic groups.

Anderson J. Franklin (1999), “our Anderson J. Franklin (1999), “our professional competence must include professional competence must include acquiring expertise with the issues acquiring expertise with the issues formed by patients’ cultural, social, formed by patients’ cultural, social, political, and economic context political, and economic context affecting their daily lives [and their affecting their daily lives [and their communities]” (p. 18). communities]” (p. 18).

Franklin further maintained that there Franklin further maintained that there is an urgent need for innovative, is an urgent need for innovative, ethnic-appropriate interventions to ethnic-appropriate interventions to improve effective delivery of services improve effective delivery of services to African Americans. to African Americans.

Belgrave, Brome, and Hampton Belgrave, Brome, and Hampton (2000), “drug prevention presented in (2000), “drug prevention presented in culturally meaningful and relevant culturally meaningful and relevant formats is more effective in formats is more effective in inoculating youth from those factors inoculating youth from those factors associated with initiation of drug use associated with initiation of drug use and drug abuse” (p. 387).and drug abuse” (p. 387).

Africentric values and cultural Africentric values and cultural precepts, as reflected in prevention precepts, as reflected in prevention and intervention strategies, would and intervention strategies, would develop resiliency in youth which develop resiliency in youth which would mitigate against those would mitigate against those ecological stressors (e.g., family, ecological stressors (e.g., family, poverty, racial oppression, poverty, racial oppression, community) precipitating drug use. community) precipitating drug use.

There are many rich examples of the There are many rich examples of the application of Africentricity in practice. application of Africentricity in practice.

Africentric Substance ProgramsAfricentric Substance Programs

12 sites across the country, again, were 12 sites across the country, again, were part of a larger CSAP HRY initiative part of a larger CSAP HRY initiative involving 48 funded programs (Sambrano et involving 48 funded programs (Sambrano et al., 1997). al., 1997).

Chipungu et al. (2000), “the CSAP cross-site Chipungu et al. (2000), “the CSAP cross-site evaluation offered an opportunity to evaluation offered an opportunity to document, as well as add to the literature document, as well as add to the literature base, the practice of prevention base, the practice of prevention intervention programs serving youth intervention programs serving youth considered high-risk.considered high-risk.

Along with Chipungu’s review of 12 Along with Chipungu’s review of 12 multi-site CSAP programs, four multi-site CSAP programs, four additional CSAP funded and additional CSAP funded and published programs (Belgrave et al., published programs (Belgrave et al., 1997, 2000; Cherry et al., 1998; 1997, 2000; Cherry et al., 1998; Goddard, 1993) were located through Goddard, 1993) were located through searches in ProQuest, PsycINFO, and searches in ProQuest, PsycINFO, and Eric databases. Eric databases.

Hand out Tables on the ProgramsHand out Tables on the Programs

Culturally Congruent Program Culturally Congruent Program DescriptionsDescriptions

Three cultural programmatic themes Three cultural programmatic themes evident in the programsevident in the programs

First cultural category-African First cultural category-African traditions (e.g., communalism, oral traditions (e.g., communalism, oral expressiveness and affect sensitivity expressiveness and affect sensitivity to emotional cues), values (e.g., the to emotional cues), values (e.g., the Seven Principles of Kwanzaa)Seven Principles of Kwanzaa)

and spirituality (i.e., a force greater thanand spirituality (i.e., a force greater than

oneself and that the spiritual is moreoneself and that the spiritual is more

important than the material) to promoteimportant than the material) to promote

resiliency (i.e., protective and proactive resiliency (i.e., protective and proactive

factors) among African American factors) among African American children, children,

adolescents and their families. adolescents and their families.

Second category- the use of Second category- the use of historical contributions of Africans historical contributions of Africans and African Americans in the and African Americans in the development of American and world development of American and world civilizations as a means of promoting civilizations as a means of promoting positive racial identity and positive positive racial identity and positive racial group identification in America. racial group identification in America.

Contemporary culture was the third Contemporary culture was the third category of cultural congruent category of cultural congruent programming in which the programming in which the experiences of African Americans and experiences of African Americans and other people of African descent was other people of African descent was discussed with program participants in discussed with program participants in an attempt to promote an African an attempt to promote an African consciousness, as well as to “enhance consciousness, as well as to “enhance awareness of how the mainstream awareness of how the mainstream culture impacts the capacity to make culture impacts the capacity to make healthy decisions” (Chipungu et al., healthy decisions” (Chipungu et al., 2000).2000).

The other four non-multiple site The other four non-multiple site programs included a range of programs included a range of interventions (e.g., ATOD direct and interventions (e.g., ATOD direct and indirect informational services, indirect informational services, academic and vocational support academic and vocational support positive recreation and enrichment positive recreation and enrichment components, etc.) and delivery components, etc.) and delivery methods (e.g., individual, group, family, methods (e.g., individual, group, family, parenting classes, etc.) were used in parenting classes, etc.) were used in conjunction with the “use of cultural conjunction with the “use of cultural orientation as a central component of orientation as a central component of their intervention programming”. their intervention programming”.

Foster, Phillips, Belgrave, Randolph, Foster, Phillips, Belgrave, Randolph, and Braithwaite (1993), “the and Braithwaite (1993), “the Africentric orientation articulates a Africentric orientation articulates a worldview, philosophical orientation, worldview, philosophical orientation, set of social standards, norms, and set of social standards, norms, and codes of conduct that reflect core codes of conduct that reflect core African values that are essentially African values that are essentially spiritual and communal in nature” (p. spiritual and communal in nature” (p. 127). 127).

Foster et al. further contend that Foster et al. further contend that certain features are common to that certain features are common to that orientation: attendance to spiritual orientation: attendance to spiritual beliefs, the importance of beliefs, the importance of relationships and the relationship relationships and the relationship building process, acknowledgement building process, acknowledgement of culture as a force, and a key of culture as a force, and a key determinant in day to day determinant in day to day experiences.experiences.

Stevenson et al. (1997) & Tatum Stevenson et al. (1997) & Tatum (1997) that learning about African (1997) that learning about African history and highly developed African history and highly developed African cultures addresses issues of racial cultures addresses issues of racial identity that confront African identity that confront African American youth particularly as they American youth particularly as they approach and enter adolescence. approach and enter adolescence.

An array of recreational and An array of recreational and enrichment activities enhances enrichment activities enhances participants’ awareness and promotes participants’ awareness and promotes positive identity. positive identity.

By focusing on contemporary culture, By focusing on contemporary culture, the participants are made aware of the participants are made aware of the multiple risks and negative the multiple risks and negative influences on members of a minority influences on members of a minority culture from a social-historical culture from a social-historical context. context.

Chipungu et al. (2000), “youth Chipungu et al. (2000), “youth served by the 12 multi-site programs served by the 12 multi-site programs are given a basis for identifying are given a basis for identifying positive orientations and behaviors positive orientations and behaviors that connect a positive identity with that connect a positive identity with community and tradition to give community and tradition to give them a context for standing up them a context for standing up against external risks” (p. 379). against external risks” (p. 379).

The traditional features of program The traditional features of program strategies, such as informational, risk strategies, such as informational, risk and protection, were not replaced, and protection, were not replaced, but rather were enhanced by but rather were enhanced by culturally congruent Africentric culturally congruent Africentric prevention intervention programs. prevention intervention programs.

Packaging programs to incorporate Packaging programs to incorporate Africentric traditions and values, Africentric traditions and values, African American history and African American history and awareness of the current awareness of the current circumstances of minorities in the circumstances of minorities in the

United States enriches them with a United States enriches them with a concrete and relevant context for theconcrete and relevant context for the

inculcation of prevention strategies.inculcation of prevention strategies.

The use of traditional, spiritual and The use of traditional, spiritual and community African values guides life community African values guides life choices and promotes the choices and promotes the development of positive values development of positive values (Chipungu et al., 2000). (Chipungu et al., 2000).

Chipungu et al. maintained that this Chipungu et al. maintained that this approach emphasizes the approach emphasizes the development of protective factors by development of protective factors by creating a meaningful focus for creating a meaningful focus for positive differentiation and identity. positive differentiation and identity.

They continued that the principles They continued that the principles and values articulated in the cultural and values articulated in the cultural tradition provide a context for the tradition provide a context for the development of belief in self, self-development of belief in self, self-control, family bonding, and control, family bonding, and accomplishment. accomplishment.

Intervention and Comparison Intervention and Comparison Groups in the Culturally Congruent Groups in the Culturally Congruent

ProgramsPrograms

Prevention programs utilized Prevention programs utilized intervention and comparison groups. intervention and comparison groups. Comparison groups are used for Comparison groups are used for exploratory or descriptive purposes exploratory or descriptive purposes that aid in evaluating the that aid in evaluating the effectiveness of the intervention.effectiveness of the intervention.

Culturally Congruent Program Culturally Congruent Program Locations Locations

All of the programs were in diverse All of the programs were in diverse contextualized (i.e., programs were contextualized (i.e., programs were situated in the communities in which situated in the communities in which services were provided) settings. services were provided) settings. Program settings are program Program settings are program characteristics (e.g., community and characteristics (e.g., community and organizational environment) that can organizational environment) that can also condition program implementation also condition program implementation (Sambrano et al., 1997).(Sambrano et al., 1997).

Population Characteristics in the Population Characteristics in the Culturally Congruent ProgramsCulturally Congruent Programs

Provided services to children and Provided services to children and adolescents. The youth were the adolescents. The youth were the primary targeted population for primary targeted population for intervention, with their parents as a intervention, with their parents as a secondary targeted group for secondary targeted group for intervention (e.g., parenting training, intervention (e.g., parenting training, job skills development and job skills development and enhancement, mentoring in rites of enhancement, mentoring in rites of passage programs, etc.). passage programs, etc.).

Findings in the Culturally Findings in the Culturally Congruent ProgramsCongruent Programs

All of the studies showed the impact All of the studies showed the impact of Africentric programming on drug of Africentric programming on drug use, including drug knowledge and use, including drug knowledge and attitudes toward drugs, among attitudes toward drugs, among African American children and African American children and adolescents. adolescents.

Personal salience (i.e., satisfaction Personal salience (i.e., satisfaction with Africentric programming and its with Africentric programming and its relevance) increased among program relevance) increased among program participants. participants.

For example, although in Belgrave’s For example, although in Belgrave’s later study (Belgrave et al., 2000) later study (Belgrave et al., 2000) cultural values (i.e., Africentric values cultural values (i.e., Africentric values and racial identity) were modest and racial identity) were modest predictors of drug knowledge, drug predictors of drug knowledge, drug attitudes and drug use, they attitudes and drug use, they maintained that the inclusion of maintained that the inclusion of Africentric values or racial/ethnic Africentric values or racial/ethnic identity-related material may play an identity-related material may play an important role as a protective factor important role as a protective factor with certain drug outcomes. with certain drug outcomes.

Belgrave et al. stated that positive Belgrave et al. stated that positive African American racial identity was African American racial identity was a stronger predictor of intolerant a stronger predictor of intolerant drug attitudes than it was for the drug attitudes than it was for the other drug outcomes (e.g., drug use other drug outcomes (e.g., drug use and drug knowledge).and drug knowledge).

Africentric values (e.g., collective Africentric values (e.g., collective work/responsibility and cooperative work/responsibility and cooperative economics) were significant economics) were significant predictors of attitudes toward drugs.predictors of attitudes toward drugs.

Collective work/responsibility and Collective work/responsibility and spirituality (i.e., attendance at spirituality (i.e., attendance at religious services and discussions of religious services and discussions of religion and spiritual topics in the religion and spiritual topics in the home) were significant predictors of home) were significant predictors of perceived drug harmfulness. perceived drug harmfulness.

Age and spirituality were significant Age and spirituality were significant predictors of drug use among the predictors of drug use among the study sample, too. study sample, too.

Older children were more likely to Older children were more likely to report drug use than younger report drug use than younger children, and as well, had higher children, and as well, had higher levels of drug knowledge than levels of drug knowledge than younger children. Children with younger children. Children with greater spiritual beliefs reported less greater spiritual beliefs reported less drug use than those without drug use than those without spiritual/religious beliefs. spiritual/religious beliefs.

School behaviors (e.g., rule School behaviors (e.g., rule compliance, increased school compliance, increased school interest, etc.) improved among the interest, etc.) improved among the fifth and sixth grade intervention fifth and sixth grade intervention groups.groups.

Cherry et al. also reported that the Cherry et al. also reported that the sixth grade intervention students sixth grade intervention students were rated by the teachers as having were rated by the teachers as having fewer problems than the sixth grade fewer problems than the sixth grade comparison students in the project. comparison students in the project.

Goddard (1993), “ children and Goddard (1993), “ children and adolescents in the AAADP program adolescents in the AAADP program showed improvement in school showed improvement in school performance (i.e., grades) and school performance (i.e., grades) and school behavior, including a reduction in behavior, including a reduction in suspensions from school”. suspensions from school”.

Significant changes in the participants’ Significant changes in the participants’ self-esteem and other areas of social self-esteem and other areas of social life. Ex. as a result of the participants’ life. Ex. as a result of the participants’ community involvement, social bonds community involvement, social bonds were developed with peers who were developed with peers who reflected and reinforced their sense of reflected and reinforced their sense of identity (i.e., Africentric, racial pride, identity (i.e., Africentric, racial pride, and drug free). and drug free).

Goddard mentioned that the greatest Goddard mentioned that the greatest success was reported in those youth success was reported in those youth who had gone through all three who had gone through all three phases of the program. phases of the program.

Phase I is a general orientation and Phase I is a general orientation and evaluation stage in which the evaluation stage in which the participants receive basic participants receive basic information about alcohol and other information about alcohol and other drugs. drugs.

Phase II is a structured seven-week Phase II is a structured seven-week program of individual and family program of individual and family therapy. During this phase, program therapy. During this phase, program participants are involved in an participants are involved in an intensive Africentric group. intensive Africentric group.

Phase III is an outreach stage in Phase III is an outreach stage in which youth and their families which youth and their families participate in an extended recovery participate in an extended recovery program at their neighborhood program at their neighborhood satellite center. satellite center.

Preliminary data indicated that among Preliminary data indicated that among this group there was no recidivism in this group there was no recidivism in alcohol and other drugs use and abuse alcohol and other drugs use and abuse among 40 to 50 percent of the among 40 to 50 percent of the participants. participants.

In addition, program participants had In addition, program participants had achieved some success in terms of achieved some success in terms of self-reported decreases in the self-reported decreases in the frequency and the amount of alcohol frequency and the amount of alcohol and other drugs (ATOD) use and and other drugs (ATOD) use and abuse. abuse.

Personal salience, Personal salience,

Slightly less than two-thirds of the Slightly less than two-thirds of the African Americans in the 12 culturally African Americans in the 12 culturally congruent study programs liked their congruent study programs liked their programs more than African programs more than African Americans in other programs or non-Americans in other programs or non-African American program African American program participants. participants.

The differences were substantial for The differences were substantial for African Americans in the culturally African Americans in the culturally congruent programs (65.4%) when congruent programs (65.4%) when compared to (42.2%) of the African compared to (42.2%) of the African Americans in other programs and Americans in other programs and (44%) of non-African American youth (44%) of non-African American youth who liked their programs. who liked their programs.

African American youth in the African American youth in the culturally congruent programs were culturally congruent programs were much more likely to feel positive about much more likely to feel positive about their participation in the programs their participation in the programs than those in other programs. than those in other programs.

Chipungu et al. found that Chipungu et al. found that approximately one-third of the African approximately one-third of the African American youth in non-Africentric American youth in non-Africentric programs (33.1%) and of the non-programs (33.1%) and of the non-African American youth (32.2%) African American youth (32.2%) expressed negative assessments (i.e., expressed negative assessments (i.e., not important) of their programs. not important) of their programs.

On the other hand, they stated that On the other hand, they stated that only 16.6% of the African American only 16.6% of the African American youth in the culturally congruent youth in the culturally congruent study programs felt that their study programs felt that their programs were unimportant.programs were unimportant.

Chipungu et al. (2000), “this clearly Chipungu et al. (2000), “this clearly shows that Africentric programming shows that Africentric programming strengthens appeal and salience for strengthens appeal and salience for African American youth” (p. 381). African American youth” (p. 381).

Furthermore, they maintained that Furthermore, they maintained that for service providers, who face the for service providers, who face the daily challenges of providing daily challenges of providing meaningful meaningful

prevention services for youth at high prevention services for youth at high risk, this was a finding of great risk, this was a finding of great importance for the design of importance for the design of prevention programming.prevention programming.

Limitations in the Culturally Limitations in the Culturally Congruent ProgramsCongruent Programs

Belgrave et al.’s (1997, 2000) studies Belgrave et al.’s (1997, 2000) studies by restricting the analysis to pre-test by restricting the analysis to pre-test data, the study became a cross-data, the study became a cross-sectional of two groups. The sectional of two groups. The researchers assumed that Africentric researchers assumed that Africentric values preceded drug attitudes and values preceded drug attitudes and behaviors, but they admitted that behaviors, but they admitted that causality could not be inferred. causality could not be inferred.

Encountered measurement Encountered measurement difficulties. Belgrave et AL. reported difficulties. Belgrave et AL. reported that although while adequate for the that although while adequate for the most part the instrument (e.g., Drug most part the instrument (e.g., Drug Usage) was insensitive to the Usage) was insensitive to the respondents due to their young ages, respondents due to their young ages, ranging 8½ to 13 years. ranging 8½ to 13 years.

An additional limitation concerned An additional limitation concerned self-report measures self-report measures

Response bias and other testing Response bias and other testing constraints (e.g., anonymity during constraints (e.g., anonymity during data collection, literacy, data collection, literacy, comprehension, etc.) probably comprehension, etc.) probably interfered with valid reporting of interfered with valid reporting of attitudes and beliefs about drug attitudes and beliefs about drug outcomes. outcomes.

Another criticism was confidentiality. Another criticism was confidentiality. Many of the program participants Many of the program participants lived in the same neighborhoods and lived in the same neighborhoods and attended the same classes. attended the same classes.

A final limitation was the reliability of A final limitation was the reliability of the Children’s Racial Identity Scale the Children’s Racial Identity Scale (CRIS). It had a low alpha (.42), (CRIS). It had a low alpha (.42), making its internal consistency making its internal consistency suspect in measuring racial identity suspect in measuring racial identity stages of development in young stages of development in young African American children. African American children.

Handouts – Additional limitationsHandouts – Additional limitations

ConclusionConclusion Chipungu et al.’s (2000), whose study Chipungu et al.’s (2000), whose study

analysis of the 12 CSAP cross-sites resulted analysis of the 12 CSAP cross-sites resulted in several observations:in several observations:

(a) Africentric programming was widely (a) Africentric programming was widely applied by service providers serving African applied by service providers serving African American youth; American youth;

(b) the study indicated how culturally (b) the study indicated how culturally congruent programs serve multiple congruent programs serve multiple functions in making prevention intervention functions in making prevention intervention strategies more meaningful to the lives of strategies more meaningful to the lives of participating youth; participating youth;

(c) the study documented that cultural (c) the study documented that cultural materials are an important resource materials are an important resource for program activities and continuity; for program activities and continuity; and, and,

(d) the study suggested that (d) the study suggested that Africentric programming contributes Africentric programming contributes to African Americans’ youth to African Americans’ youth satisfaction and program satisfaction and program engagement. (pp. 382-383)engagement. (pp. 382-383)

Chipungu et al. are concerned, their Chipungu et al. are concerned, their assessment of Africentric programming assessment of Africentric programming confirmed its appeal and usefulness for confirmed its appeal and usefulness for enhancing substance abuse prevention enhancing substance abuse prevention among African American youth. among African American youth.

The researchers stated that cultural The researchers stated that cultural factors may serve a more prominent factors may serve a more prominent protective role than other factors, protective role than other factors, depending on the drug outcomes depending on the drug outcomes targeted for a particular activity or targeted for a particular activity or intervention. intervention.

Another example is Cherry et al. Another example is Cherry et al. (1998), who maintained that their (1998), who maintained that their study showed more program effects study showed more program effects on protective factors, as opposed to on protective factors, as opposed to ATOD attitudes and behaviors.ATOD attitudes and behaviors.

Hence it and other culturally Hence it and other culturally congruent programs may promote congruent programs may promote protective factors for other risk protective factors for other risk behaviors (e.g., violence, teenage behaviors (e.g., violence, teenage pregnancy, school drop-out).pregnancy, school drop-out).