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Isocrates,"AgainsttheSophists"(1)

Ifallwhoareengagedintheprofessionofeducationwerewillingtostatethefactsinsteadofmakinggreaterpromisesthantheycanpossiblyfulfill,theywouldnotbeinsuchbad

reputewiththelay-public.Asitis,however,theteacherswhodonotscrupletovaunttheirpowerswithutterdisregardofthetruthhavecreatedtheimpressionthatthosewho

choosealifeofcarelessindolencearebetteradvisedthanthosewhodevotethemselvestoseriousstudy.

Indeed,whocanfailtoabhor,yestocontemn,thoseteachers,inthefirstplace,whodevote

themselvestodisputation,(2)sincetheypretendtosearchfortruth,butstraightwayatthe

beginningoftheirprofessionsattempttodeceiveuswithlies?(3)ForIthinkitismanifest

toallthatforeknowledgeoffutureeventsisnotvouchsafedtoourhumannature,butthat

wearesofarremovedfromthisprescience(4)thatHomer,whohasbeenconcededthe

highestreputationforwisdom,haspicturedeventhegodsasattimesdebatingamong

themselvesaboutthefuture(5)--notthatheknewtheirmindsbutthathedesiredtoshowusthatformankindthispowerliesintherealmsoftheimpossible.

Buttheseprofessorshavegonesofarintheirlackofscruplethattheyattempttopersuadeouryoungmenthatiftheywillonlystudyunderthemtheywillknowwhattodoinlifeand

throughthisknowledgewillbecomehappyandprosperous.Morethanthat,althoughtheysetthemselvesupasmastersanddispensersofgoodssoprecious,theyarenotashamedof

askingforthemapriceofthreeorfourminae!(6)Why,iftheyweretosellanyother

commodityforsotriflingafractionofitsworththeywouldnotdenytheirfolly;

nevertheless,althoughtheysetsoinsignificantapriceonthewholestockofvirtueand

happiness,theypretendtowisdomandassumetherighttoinstructtherestoftheworld.

Furthermore,althoughtheysaythattheydonotwantmoneyandspeakcontemptuouslyof

wealthasfilthylucre,theyholdtheirhandsoutforatriflinggainandpromisetomake

theirdisciplesallbutimmortal!(7)Butwhatismostridiculousofallisthattheydistrustthosefromwhomtheyaretogetthismoney--theydistrust,thatistosay,theverymento

whomtheyareabouttodeliverthescienceofjustdealing--andtheyrequirethatthefees

advancedbytheirstudentsbeentrustedforsafekeeping(8)tothosewhohaveneverbeen

undertheirinstruction,beingwelladvisedastotheirsecurity,butdoingtheoppositeof

whattheypreach.Foritispermissibletothosewhogiveanyotherinstructiontobe

exactinginmattersopentodispute,sincenothingpreventsthosewhohavebeenmade

adeptinotherlinesoftrainingfrombeingdishonorableinthematterofcontracts.Butmen

whoinculcatevirtueandsobriety--isitnotabsurdiftheydonottrustintheirownstudentsbeforeallothers?(9)Foritisnottobesupposedthatmenwhoarehonorableandjust-

dealingwithotherswillbedishonestwiththeverypreceptorswhohavemadethemwhat

theyare.

When,therefore,thelaymanputsallthesethingstogetherandobservesthattheteachersofwisdomanddispensersofhappinessarethemselvesingreatwantbutexactonlyasmall

feefromtheirstudents,thattheyareonthewatchforcontradictionsinwords(10)butare

blindtoinconsistenciesindeeds,andthat,furthermore,theypretendtohaveknowledgeof

thefuturebutareincapableeitherofsayinganythingpertinentorofgivinganycounsel

regardingthepresent,andwhenheobservesthatthosewhofollowtheirjudgmentsare

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moreconsistentandmoresuccessful4thanthosewhoprofesstohaveexactknowledge,

thenhehas,Ithink,goodreasontocontemnsuchstudiesandregardthemasstuffandnonsense,andnotasatruedisciplineofthesoul.

Butitisnotthesesophistsalonewhoareopentocriticism,butalsothosewhoprofessto

teachpoliticaldiscourse.(11)Forthelatterhavenointerestwhateverinthetruth,(12)butconsiderthattheyaremastersofanartiftheycanattractgreatnumbersofstudentsbythe

smallnessoftheirchargesandthemagnitudeoftheirprofessionsandgetsomethingoutof

them.Fortheyarethemselvessostupidandconceiveotherstobesodullthat,althoughthe

speecheswhichtheycomposeareworsethanthosewhichsomelaymenimprovise,

neverthelesstheypromisetomaketheirstudentssuchcleveroratorsthattheywillnot

overlookanyofthepossibilitieswhichasubjectaffords.

Morethanthat,theydonotattributeanyofthispowereithertothepracticalexperienceor

tothenativeabilityofthestudent,butundertaketotransmitthescienceofdiscourseas

simplyastheywouldteachthelettersofthealphabet,nothavingtakentroubletoexamine

intothenatureofeachkindofknowledge,butthinkingthatbecauseoftheextravaganceoftheirpromisestheythemselveswillcommandadmirationandtheteachingofdiscoursewillbeheldinhigheresteem--obliviousofthefactthattheartsaremadegreat,notby

thosewhoarewithoutscrupleinboastingaboutthem,butbythosewhoareableto

discoveralloftheresourceswhicheachartaffords.

Formyself,Ishouldhavepreferredabovegreatrichesthatphilosophyhadasmuchpower

asthesemenclaim;for,possibly,Ishouldnothavebeentheverylastintheprofessionnor

hadtheleastshareinitsprofits.Butsinceithasnosuchpower,Icouldwishthatthis

pratingmightcease.ForInotethatthebadreputewhichresultstherefromdoesnotaffect

theoffendersonly,butthatalltherestofuswhoareinthesameprofessionshareinthe

opprobrium.(13)ButImarvelwhenIobservethesemensettingthemselvesupasinstructorsofyouthwho

cannotseethattheyareapplyingtheanalogyofanartwithhardandfastrulestoacreative

process.For,exceptingtheseteachers,whodoesnotknowthattheartofusingletters

remainsfixedandunchanged,sothatwecontinuallyandinvariablyusethesamelettersfor

thesamepurposes,whileexactlythereverseistrueoftheartofdiscourse?(14)Forwhathasbeensaidbyonespeakerisnotequallyusefulforthespeakerwhocomesafterhim;on

thecontrary,heisaccountedmostskilledinthisartwhospeaksinamannerworthyofhis

subjectandyetisabletodiscoverinittopicswhicharenowisethesameasthoseusedby

others.Butthegreatestproofofthedifferencebetweenthesetwoartsisthatoratoryis

goodonlyifithasthequalitiesoffitnessfortheoccasion,(15)proprietyofstyle,andoriginalityoftreatment,whileinthecaseoflettersthereisnosuchneedwhatsoever.So

thatthosewhomakeuseofsuchanalogiesoughtmorejustlytopayoutthantoacceptfees,

sincetheyattempttoteachotherswhentheyarethemselvesingreatneedofinstruction.

However,ifitismydutynotonlytorebukeothers,butalsotosetforthmyownviews,I

thinkallintelligentpeoplewillagreewithmethatwhilemanyofthosewhohavepursued

philosophyhaveremainedinprivatelife,(16)others,ontheotherhand,whohavenever

takenlessonsfromanyoneofthesophistshavebecomeableoratorsandstatesmen.For

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ability,whetherinspeechorinanyotheractivity,isfoundinthosewhoarewellendowed

bynatureandhavebeenschooledbypracticalexperience.(17)Formaltrainingmakessuchmenmoreskilfullandmoreresourcefulindiscoveringthepossibilitiesofasubject;forit

teachesthemtotakefromareadiersourcethetopicswhichtheyotherwisehituponinhaphazardfashion.Butitcannotfullyfashionmenwhoarewithoutnaturalaptitudeinto

gooddebatersorwriters,althoughitiscapableofleadingthemontoself-improvementandtoagreaterdegreeofintelligenceonmanysubjects.

ButIdesire,nowthatIhavegonethisfar,tospeakmoreclearlyonthesematters.ForI

holdthattoobtainaknowledgeoftheelementsoutofwhichwemakeandcomposeall

discoursesisnotsoverydifficultifanyoneentrustshimself,nottothosewhomakerash

promises,buttothosewhohavesomeknowledgeofthesethings.Buttochoosefromthese

elementsthosewhichshouldbeemployedforeachsubject,tojointhemtogether,to

arrangethemproperly,andalso,nottomisswhattheoccasiondemandsbutappropriately

toadornthewholespeechwithstrikingthoughtsandtoclotheitinflowingandmelodiousphrase(18)--thesethings,Ihold,requiremuchstudyandarethetaskofavigorousand

imaginativemind:(19)forthis,thestudentmustnotonlyhavetherequisiteaptitudebuthemustlearnthedifferentkindsofdiscourseandpracticehimselfintheiruse;andtheteacher,forhispart,mustsoexpoundtheprinciplesoftheartwiththeutmostpossible

exactnessastoleaveoutnothingthatcanbetaught,and,fortherest,hemustinhimselfsetsuchanexampleoforatorythatthestudentswhohavetakenformunderhisinstruction

andareabletopatternafterhimwill,fromtheoutset,showintheirspeakingadegreeof

graceandcharmwhichisnotfoundinothers.Whenalloftheserequisitesarefound

together,thenthedevoteesofphilosophywillachievecompletesuccess;butaccordingas

anyoneofthethings,whichIhavementionedislacking,tothisextentmusttheirdisciples

ofnecessityfallbelowthemark.

Nowasforthesophistswhohavelatelysprungupandhaveveryrecentlyembracedthesepretensions,(20)eventhoughtheyflourishatthemoment,theywillall,Iamsure,come

roundtothisposition.Butthereremaintobeconsideredthosewholivedbeforeourtime

anddidnotscrupletowritetheso-calledartsoforatory.(21)Thesemustnotbedismissed

withoutrebuke,sincetheyprofessedtoteachhowtoconductlaw-suits,pickingoutthe

mostdiscreditedofterms,(22whichtheenemies,notthechampions,ofthisdiscipline

mighthavebeenexpectedtoemploy--andthattooalthoughthisfacility,insofarasitcan

betaught,isofnogreateraidtoforensicthantoallotherdiscourse.Buttheyweremuch

worsethanthosewhodabbleindisputation;foralthoughthelatterexpoundedsuchcaptioustheoriesthatwereanyonetocleavetotheminpracticehewouldatoncebeinall

manneroftrouble,theydid,atanyrate,makeprofessionsofvirtueandsobrietyintheir

teaching,whereastheformer,althoughexhortingotherstostudypoliticaldiscourse,neglectedallthegoodthingswhichthisstudyaffords,andbecamenothingmorethan

professorsofmeddlesomenessandgreed.(23)

Andyetthosewhodesiretofollowthetruepreceptsofthisdisciplinemay,iftheywill,be

helpedmorespeedilytowardshonestyofcharacter(24)thantowardsfacilityinoratory.

AndletnoonesupposethatIclaimthatjustlivingcanbetaught;(25)for,inaword,Ihold

thattheredoesnotexistanartofthekindwhichcanimplantsobrietyandjusticein

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depravednatures.Nevertheless,Idothinkthatthestudyofpoliticaldiscoursecanhelp

morethananyotherthingtostimulateandformsuchqualitiesofcharacter.ButinorderthatImaynotappeartobebreakingdownthepretensionsofotherswhile

myselfmakinggreaterclaimsthanarewithinmypowers,IbelievethattheveryargumentsbywhichImyselfwasconvincedwillmakeitcleartoothersalsothatthesethingsaretrue.

Notes

(1)Isocratesregardshimselfasoneofthesophists,butsetshimselfapartfromthe

"commonherd."

(2)Captiousargumentationinthefieldofethics.HeisnotthinkingofSocrates,whodidnotteachforpay,norofPlato'sdialectic,whichwasnotyetfamous,butoftheminorSocratics,

especiallyAntisthenesandEucleides,whotaughtformoneywhileaffectingcontemptforit.IngeneralheisthinkingofsuchquibblersasarelatershownupinPlato'sEuthydemus.

(3)Theirsisacloudmorality,nottruthtolivebyonearth.

(4)Thereis,accordingtoIsocrates,nosciencewhichcanteachustodounderall

circumstancesthethingswhichwillinsureourhappinessandsuccess.Lifeistoo

complicatedforthat,andnomancanforeseeexactlytheconsequencesofhisacts--the

futureisathingunseen.Allthateducationcandoistodevelopasoundjudgment(as

opposedtoknowledge)whichwillmeetthecontingenciesoflifewithresourcefulnessand,

inmostcases,withsuccess.Thisisafundamentaldoctrineofhisphilosophywhichhe

emphasizesandechoesagainandagaininoppositiontotheprofessorsofascienceof

virtueandhappiness.

(5)Homer'sepicpoem,theIlliad,describestheGreekconquestofTroy,awarinwhichthe

godsaredepictedastakingsides.

(6)SocratesspeakswiththesamesarcasmofasophistnamedEvenus,whoprofessedto

teachallthevirtuesnecessarytoagoodmanandagoodcitizenforfiveminae.

(7)Thatis,tomakethemallbutgods.

(8)Fortheirsecurity,theyrequiredthatthefeeschargedtotheirstudentsbedeposited

withthirdpartiesuntiltheendofthediscourse.

(9)Cf.thesameridiculeinPlato.Gorg.519c,Plato.Gorg.460e.

(10)Theaimoferistic(herismeanscontention)istoshowupthecontradictionsintheacceptedmorality.

(11)Thewholefieldofdeliberativeoratory,butthemostusefulbranchofitinlitigiousAthenswastheforensic.

(12)Theirinterestwasnotinthetriumphofjusticebutinmakingtheworsereasonappear

thebetter.

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(13)Cf.Antid.168.

(14)Thatis,mechanicalformulasarenotsufficient.Theremustbeinventiveness,

resourcefulness,inaword,creativeimagination.

(15)Afundamentalrequisite.

(16)Isocrateshimself.

(17)Isocratesinsiststhattherequisitesofagoodoratorarefirstnaturalability,secondpracticalexperience,andthirdformaltraining.SeeAntid.186-188

(18)Proseshouldhavethesamefinishandcharmaspoetry.

(19)UnmistakablythisphraseisparodiedinPlato.Gorg.463a:dokeitoinunmoi,Gorgia,

einaitiepitdeumatechnikonmenou,psuchsdestochastikskaiandreiaskaiphuseideins

prosomileintoisanthropois

(20)Thesophistbeforementioned.Theteachingoftheoldersophistsisdiscussedinthe

Antidosis.

(21)Especiallythefirsttowritesuchtreatises,CoraxandTisiasofSyracuse.techn,likears

inLatin,wastheacceptedtermforatreatiseonrhetoric.

(22)AgainandagainIsocratesexpresseshisrepugnancetothiskindoforatory,andin

generalitwasinbadodor.ThepreceptsofCorax(Crow),forexample,werecalledthebad

eggsofthebadCorax.

(23)ThesamecomplaintismadebyAristotle.Rhet.1.10.

(24)ForthekindofpoliticaldiscoursewhichIsocratesextols,anditsethicalinfluencesee

Antid.275

(25)SeeAntid.274ff.