Agriculture

Chapter 10

Origins Of Agriculture

Agriculture- deliberate modification of Earth’s surface through cultivation of plants and rearing of animals to obtain sustenance or economic gain– Cultivate-to care for– Crop-any plant cultivated by people

Agriculture began when humans first domesticated plants and animals for their use

Hunters and Gatherers

Small familial groups of 50 or less who survived by gathering plants and hunting wild animals

Most of time used to search for food Lived nomadic lifestyle with few possessions Approx. 250million people sill live this way

– Isolated areas of the Arctic, the interior of Africa, Australia, and South America

Invention of Agriculture

Plant cultivation most likely evolved from a combination of accidental and deliberate experiments

Carl Sauer theorizes there are 2 types of cultivation1. Vegetative agriculture- reproduction of plants by direct

cloning from existing plants, such as cutting stems and dividing roots (earliest form)

2. Seed agriculture- reproduction of plants through annual planting of seeds that result from sexual fertilization

Location of Agricultural Hearths

Agriculture has multiple, independent points of origin

Sauer believes vegetative planting originated in SE Asia– Climate and topography encouraged wide variety

of plants suitable for dividing and transplanting– People relied on fishing which made them more

sedentary—more time to devote to plants

continued

Crops probably included roots such as taro and yam, and tree crops such as the banana and palm

Animals probably included the dog, pig, and chicken

Other early vegetative planting hearths were in West Africa and northwestern South America

Location of First Seed Agriculture

Sauer identified 3 seed agricultural hearths in the Eastern hemisphere (western India, northern China, and Ethiopia) and 2 in the Western hemisphere (southern Mexico and northern Peru)

The western India hearth diffused quickly into southwest Asia– where wheat and barley were first domesticated

– Also first to integrate domestication of herd animals such as sheep, cattle and goats

continued

Mexico was the point of origin for squash and maize Beans and cotton may have originated in Peru Diffusion occurred from these two hearths, but

agriculture was not widespread until the arrival of the Europeans

The only domesticated animals were the llama, alpaca, and turkey before the arrival of the Europeans

Classifying Agricultural Regions

The most fundamental differences in agricultural practices are between those in LDCs and MDCs

LDCs practice subsistence agriculture Production of food primarily for consumption by the

farmer’s family

MDCs practice commercial agriculture Production of food for sale

Differences Between Subsistence and Commercial Agriculture

Five principal features distinguish commercial agriculture from subsistence agriculture

1. Purpose of farming2. % of farmers in the labor force3. Use of machinery4. Farm size5. Relationship of farming to other businesses

Purpose of Farming

For own consumption Little surplus might be

sold Might not be any

surplus because of growing conditions

Products grown for sale Sold to food-processing

companies such as General Mills or Kraft

% of Farmers in the Labor Force

More than 50% involved in agriculture

Less than 10% employed in farming

Only 2% in US and Canada, yet still produce a large surplus to sell internationally

# of farmers declined drastically during 20th century

Use of Machinery

Most work is done with hand tools and animals

Use of machinery allows a small # of farmers to feed many people

Transportation improvements such as railroads and highways get fresh products out quickly

Scientific advances also used to increase productivity– fertilizers, herbicides, hybrid plants, and animal breeding

Farm Size

Farm size is relatively large esp. in US and Canada– avg. 444 acres

98% are still family owned in US

The biggest 1.4% of US farms account for 48% of all agricultural sells they average 3000 acres

About half of all US farms generate less than $5000 a year in sales (about 100 acres on average)

continued

Large size is a consequence of mechanization

Machines work more efficiently on large plots of land and they are also too expensive to justify on small farms

continued

US is losing about 1.2 million acres of farmland per year of its 1 billion acres of farmland

Prime agricultural land- most productive farmland—alarming problem

Decreasing in US because of urban sprawl

Relationship of Farming to Other Businesses

Commercial farming is closely tied to other businesses

Agribusiness-commercial agriculture char. by integration of different steps in the food-processing industry, usually through ownership by large corporations

– farmers are less than 2% of US workforce, but 20% of labor force works in food production and other services related to agribusiness such as fertilizer production, tractor manufacturing, etc.

Mapping Agricultural Regions

Derwent Whittlesey (1936)identified 11 main agricultural regions plus an area of nonexistent agriculture– Subdivided between 5 regions that are important

in LDCs and six that are important in MDCs– Used climate to sort agricultural practices

Influences crops that are grown and if animals are raised instead of growing crops

continued

The correlation b/w agriculture and climate is not perfect, but it definitely exists– Geographers warn not to put too much emphasis

on climate because of environmental determinism

Cultural preferences explain some agricultural differences in areas of similar climate– Ex. No hogs in Muslim areas

Agricultural Characteristics of LDCs

There are 4 agricultural types characteristic of LDCs

1. Shifting Cultivation

2. Pastoral Nomadism

3. Intensive Subsistence Agriculture

4. Plantation Farming

Shifting Cultivation

Practiced in much of the world’s Humid Low-Latitude, or A, climate regions, which have relatively high temperatures and abundant rainfall

Prevalent in the Amazon are of SA, Central and West Africa, and SE Asia

Def- a form of subsistence agriculture in which people shift activity from one field to another; each field is used for crops for a relatively few years and left fallow for a relatively long time

Characteristics of Shifting Agriculture

1. Slash-and-burn agriculture

2. Fields are used until the nutrients are depleted then they are left fallow for many years so the soil can recover

People who practice usually live in small villages and grow food on surrounding land, which the village controls

The Process of Shifting Cultivation

Trees removed, undergrowth cleared and burned, ashes soak into the soil with rain to provide nutrients

Cleared land called by many names such as:– Swidden– Ladang– Milpa– Chena– kaingin

continued

Fields are prepared by hand with simple tools such as hoes—plows and animals are rarely used

Land is usually only good for three years before all the nutrients are used

– The second year after burning usually brings the best harvest

When the swidden is no longer fertile, a new area is prepared

The old field will be left to nature for a period of 6 to 20 years before it is used again

Crops of Shifting Cultivation

Predominately upland rice in SE Asia, maize and manioc (cassava) in South America, and millet and sorghum in Africa

Yams, sugarcane, plantain, and vegetables are also grown in some regions

Ownership and Use of Land In Shifting Cultivation

Land usually owned by the village and the chief or ruling council assigns individual patches to families

Private individuals do own the land in some places, especially in Latin America

About ¼ of World’s land area is used for shifting cultivation

continued

Future of Shifting Agriculture

Land used for shifting cultivation is declining by about 30,000 sq. miles per year

Being replaced by logging, cattle ranching, and cultivation of cash crops

Leads to a lot of deforestation in the tropics

Pastoral Nomadism

Def.- a form of subsistence agriculture based on the herding of domesticated animals– Adapted to dry climates where planting crops is

impossible

Primarily done in North Africa, the Middle East, and parts of Central Asia

Only 15 million in the World, but sparsely occupy 20% of land area

Characteristics of Pastoral Nomadism

Depend on animals for survival– Provide milk, skins and hair are used for clothing

and shelter– Usually don’t slaughter for food, but those that die

may be eaten– Grain still the main source of food

May trade for it, or plant a small amount if the land will support it

Choice of Animals

Type and # chosen based on local customs and physical characteristics of land

Camels the animal of choice in North Africa and the Middle East, followed by sheep and goats

Movements of Pastoral Nomads

Have a strong sense of territoriality Groups try to control enough territory to

contain the forage and water needed for survival

Routes are based off of best chances to find water during the various seasons of the year

continued

Some nomads practice transhumance Seasonal migration of livestock between mountains and

lowland pasture areas Pasture- grass or other plants grown for feeding grazing

animals, as well as land used for grazing

The Future of Pastoral Nomadism

Declining form of agriculture Governments try to resettle them to gain land

that can be irrigated for crops or for the mining and petroleum industries

Intensive Subsistence Agriculture

Shifting cultivation and pastoral nomadism are found only in areas of low density in LDCs—they don’t produce enough to support higher densities

In those areas intensive subsistence agriculture is used

– Form of subsistence agriculture in which farmers must expend a relatively large amount of effort to produce the maximum feasible yield from a parcel of land

continued

Done in densely populated areas of Asia Because of the high agricultural density in

East and South Asia, families must produce enough food for survival off a very small piece of land

Most work done by hand or with the help of animals

Virtually no land is wasted

Intensive Subsistence with Wet Rice

Wet rice- the practice of planting rice on dry land in a nursery and then moving the seedlings to a flooded field to promote growth

Occupies small part of Asia’s agricultural land but is the most important source of food

Common in SE China, East India, and much of SE Asia

continued

Growing of rice has many steps

1. Field plowed with help of oxen or water buffalo

2. Land is then flooded with water (not too much, not too little, but just right) Flooded land called a

sawah not a paddy, which actually means wet rice

continued

3. Plant seedlings on dry land then transplant them into the sawah

4. Plants are harvested by hand using knives

5. The husks (chaff) are separated from the seeds by beating them (threshing) on the ground

6. Threshed rice is put in a tray and the lighter chaff is winnowed—blown away by the wind

continued

Wet rice more easily grown on flat land

– Most takes place in river valleys and deltas

– Hillsides are often terraced t provide more land for cultivation

continued

Double cropping, harvesting two crops in one year from the same field, is used in places with warm winters to increase food production

Involves alternating between wet rice in the wetter summer months with wheat or barley in the winter

Intensive Subsistence with Wet Rice Not Dominant

The climate in some parts of Asia is not conducive to growing wet rice (interior of India and NE China)

The crop is different but the characteristics are much the same

Land used to its fullest, and hand tools and animals are used

Wheat and Barley are the most important crops grown for food

Cotton, flax, hemp, and tobacco are grown for sale

continued

In some areas crop rotation can be used to get more than one harvest

– Def. as the practice of rotating different fields from crop to crop each year to avoid exhausting the soil

Plantation Farming

Found in tropics and subtropics of Latin America, Africa, and Asia

Often owned by Europeans or North Americans and crops are made for sale in MDCs

Def.- a large farm that specializes in one or two crops– Cotton, sugarcane, coffee, rubber, and tobacco

are common crops

continued

Import workers and provide food, housing, and social services

Managers try to spread the work as evenly as possible throughout the year to make full use of the large labor force

Where climate permits, more than one crop is planted and harvested during the year

Where are Agricultural Regions in More Developed Countries?

6 main types of commercial agriculture in MDCs:

1. Mixed crop and livestock

2. Dairy farming

3. Grain farming

4. Livestock ranching

5. Mediterranean agriculture

6. Commercial gardening and fruit farming

Mixed Crop and Livestock Farming

Most common type of agriculture west of the Appalachians and in much of Eastern Europe

Most of crops are fed to animals rather than consumed by humans

The livestock supply manure to improve fertility to grow more crops

Typical farm devotes almost all land to growing crops, but gets more than ¾ of income from sale of animal products like beef, milk, or eggs

continued

This type of farming allows farmers to distribute the workload more evenly throughout the year– animals always need tending to, not just during planting and harvesting

Also reduces seasonal variations in income

continued

Crop rotation is often used in mixed crop and livestock farming

Corn is the most common crop in the US because higher yields than other crops

Some of the corn is consumed by humans directly or as oil, margarine, and other food products, but most is fed to pigs and cattle

continued

The Corn Belt, Ohio to the Dakotas, is the most important mixed crop and livestock farming region

Soybeans have become the second most important crop in US mixed commercial farming regions

Corn

Hogs and Pigs

Soybeans

Dairy Farming

Most important commercial agriculture practiced near large urban areas of the NE US, SE Canada, and NW Europe

India is now the World’s largest producer of Milk, followed by the US, Pakistan, China, and Russia

Why Dairy Farms Locate Near Urban Areas

Milkshed- the geographic ring around a city from which milk can be supplied without spoiling– Since milk is highly perishable dairy farms must

be closer to their markets than other types of farms

– Transportation improvements have allowed dairy farms to be located further away than their market

– 1840s milkshed was about 30 miles, now about 300 miles

continued

Some dairy farms specialize in products other than milk such as butter and cheese

In the US, the product selection is based upon whether the farms are within the milkshed of a large urban area

The farther away the farm from an urban area, the less milk they produce

Most farms in the East make milk, in Wisconsin most is processed into cheese and butter

Continued

Like most commercial farmers, dairy farmers do not sell their products directly to consumers

– Produce is sold to wholesalers, who distribute to retailers, who sell it to consumers

Challenges for Dairy Farmers

Face declining revenues and rising costs Farming is labor intensive-cows must be milked 2

times every day Cows must be fed in winter months when they can’t

graze on grass # of farms with milk cows declined in the US by 2/3

between 1980 and 2000, but the # of cows declined by only 1/8, and production increased by ¼

– Individual cows are producing more milk

Milk Cows

Grain Farming

Grain- the seed from various grasses, like wheat, corn, oats, barley, rice, millet, and others

On a grain farm the crops are grown for consumption– Crops sold to food manufacturers

Most important crop is wheat, which is used to make flour

Can be sold for a higher price than other grains and stores well without spoiling

It is also the World’s largest export crop

continued

US and Canada account for half of world’s wheat exports

Plains areas are called the world’s “breadbasket”

continued

The US is by far the world’s largest commercial producer of grains for sale

Canada, Argentina, Australia, France, and the UK are amongst the few others that produce grain on a large scale

continued

In North America, large-scale grain production is concentrated in three areas:

1. Winter-wheat belt (planted in autumn to develop roots before winter and harvested in early summer)- runs thru Kansas, Colorado, and Oklahoma

2. Spring-wheat belt (planted in spring and harvested in late summer)- includes the Dakotas, Montana and southern Saskatchewan

3. Washington State – Palouse region 2/3 comes from winter and spring belt

continued

Grain farming is heavily mechanized McCormick reaper (1830s) permitted large-

scale wheat production– Allowed grain to be cut while its standing in the fields

Today the combine performs in one operation the tasks of reaping, threshing, and cleaning

continued

Amount of work is not uniform throughout the year

Farms often include two sets of fields – one in spring-wheat belt and one in the winter-wheat belt to spread work to other times of year

Same set of machines can be used on both farms in this manner

Sorghum

Wheat

Livestock Ranching

Ranching- the commercial grazing of livestock over an extensive area

– Adapted to arid or semi-arid land– Done in MDCs where crops cannot be supported

Cattle not indigenous to the Americas– First brought by Columbus on his second voyage

Thrived and multiplied on plains of NA Demand for beef in Eastern US cities drove the expansion of

ranching during 1860s “Cattle drives”

Fixed Location Ranching

Cattle ranching declined in the 1880s when it began to conflict with sedentary agriculture

“open range” owned by US government, began to be sold to farmers who didn’t want cattle roaming thru their fields

Cattle ranchers now had to buy land to graze their cattle

continued

The predominant breed of cattle also was changed to be better suited to fixed location ranching– Ex. Herefords are better suited to fixed location

than longhorn who were better suited for the long drive

continued

Ranching has declined as irrigation has allowed more land to be planted with crops

Ranches are very large and are often operated by meat-processing companies

Ranching Outside the US

Rare in Europe– Except the Iberian Penn. (Spain and Portugal)

Large portions of Argentina, southern Brazil, and Uruguay are used for cattle and sheep

Australia, the Middle East, New Zealand, and South Africa have lots of sheep

Commercial Ranching is different than pastoral nomadism in that ranching is part of the meat processing industry rather than just small isolated farms

Mediterranean Agriculture

Exists primarily on lands that border the Mediterranean Sea in Southern Europe, North Africa, and Western Asia

– Also done in CA, central Chile, and southwestern South Africa

These places have similar physical environments Sea winds provide moisture, winters moderate,

summers hot, land hilly– Strips of flat land along the coast

continued

Smaller proportion of income comes from animals than in mixed crop and livestock farming

Transhumance used with sheep and goats Most crops are grown for human consumption Horticulture, the growing of fruits, vegetables, and

flowers, along with tree crops make up the bulk of Mediterranean agriculture

– Olives, grapes, fruits, and vegetables are grown here

continued

2/3 of world’s wine produced in the actual Med. Sea area – other 1/3 produced in Med. Agricultural regions

Largest supply of Olive Oil also comes from Med. Sea area

Much of Med. Sea land is also used for cereal grains to make bread and pasta

In CA, much land is devoted to fruit and vegetable horticulture –citrus fruits, tree nuts and deciduous fruits

Vegetables

Commercial Gardening and Fruit Farming

Predominant type of agriculture is SE US– Long growing season, humid climate, and accessible to

large markets in Eastern US

Often called truck farming From the Middle English word meaning bartering or the

exchange of commodities

Grow many of the fruits and vegetables that consumers demand in more developed societies

– Ex. Apples, asparagus, cherries, lettuce, mushrooms, and tomatoes

continued

Some sold fresh to consumers, but most sold to large processors for canning or freezing

Highly mechanized Hire migrant workers to keep costs down Individual farms tend to specialize in a few crops,

and sometimes a handful of farms dominate the production of some fruits or veggies

Specialty farms have spread to New England– Type of truck farm that specializes producing veggies for

wealthy markets –things like peppers, asparagus, and strawberries

Importance of Access to Markets

Purpose of commercial agriculture is to sell the produce– Therefore, the distance from the farm to the

market influences the type of crop Ex. Dairy needs to be relatively close to the market

Von Thunen Model

Attempts to explain the importance of proximity to the market in the choice of crops

First proposed in 1826 in a book called The Isolated State

Farmers look at two type of costs

1. Want a crop that can be sold for more than the land costs

2. The cost of transporting the crop to the market

continued

The value of the yield per hectare and the cost of transporting the yield per hectare are used to select the most profitable crop

Crops with higher transportation costs are grown closer to the market, distant farms are likely to select crops that can be transported less expensively

Challenges for Commercial Farmers

They are victims of their own success They produce so much that it drives down

the price Government subsidies help prop up farm

income

continued

US gov. has three policies to address the problem of excess production

1. Farmers are encouraged to avoid producing crops that are in excess supply

2. Gov. pays farmers when certain commodity prices are low (gov. sets target and pays farmers the diff. b/w target and what they actually sell it for)

3. Gov. buys surplus production and sells or donates it to foreign gov.s

continued

US spent $25 billion on farm subsidies in 2005

Farming in Europe is subsidized even more in the US

In MDCs farmers are encouraged to grow less food. whereas LDCs struggle to increase food production to match the rate of growth in the population

Sustainable Agriculture

Def.- an agricultural practice that preserves and enhances environmental qulaity– Generate lower revenues, but also have lower

costs

Organic farming is a pop. form

continued

3 practices distinguish sustainable agriculture from conventional agriculture

1. Sensitive land management

2. Limited use of chemicals

3. Better integration of crops and livestock

Sensitive Land Management

Ridge tillage- practice of planting crops on ridge tops– Helps lower production costs and increases soil

conservation

Limited Use of Chemicals

Little to no herbicides used to kill weeds– Does require more time and expense

Integrated Crop and Livestock

Sustainable agriculture is sensitive to the complexities of biological and economic interdependence between crops and livestock

Read page 353 to learn more

Challenges for Subsistence Farmers

2 major issues challenge subsistence farmers in LDCs

1. LDCs= stage 2 of demographic transition-therefore, must feed a rapidly growing pop.

2. Because of international trade approach to economic development, subsistence farmers must grow food for export rather than direct consumption

Strategies to Increase the Food Supply

1. Expand the land area used for agriculture

2. Increase the productivity of land now used for agriculture

3. Identify new food sources

4. Increase exports from other countries

There are challenges to each of these options

Expanding Cultivated Land Area

Can lead to desertification if land is not used properly

– Process of land deteriorating to desert-like conditions because of human use

Happens in semi-arid areas

Increase Food Supply Through Higher Productivity

Green revolution- the rapid development and diffusion of more productive agricultural practices during the 1970s and 1980s

Involved the introduction of higher yield seeds and the expanded use of fertilizers

Increase Food Supply By Identifying New Food Sources

Three strategies1. Cultivate oceans

2. Develop higher protein cereals

3. Improve palatability of rarely consumed foods-overcome religious values, taboos, and unattractiveness

of foods

-ex. Soybeans in America