agriculture in ladakh: continuity and change
TRANSCRIPT
Agriculture in Ladakh: Continuity and Change
A Status Report
By Ramila Bisht
(with Pravinkumar Shirsat, Shruti Chhabra and Varsha Patel)
June, 2008
Report prepared for Guyrja: TATA- LAHDC- Development
Support Programme, Funded by the Jamsetji Tata Trust,
Mumbai
i
Agriculture in Ladakh: Continuity and Change
A Status Report
by
Ramila Bisht
(with Pravin Shirsat, Shruti Chhabra and Varsha Patel)
June, 2008
Report prepared for Guyrja: TATA- LAHDC- Development Support Programme,
Funded by the Jamsetji Tata Trust
ii
Acknowledgements
Research support and travel grant provided under Guryrja: TATA- LAHDC-
Development Support Programme, funded by the Jamsetji Tata Trust is graciously
acknowledged.
Preparation, fieldwork and the writing of this report was made possible by the efforts of
various people and organizations and while everyone whose contribution indirectly and
directly was crucial cannot be mentioned here, we would like to express our gratitude.
Mr. Lampa Norboo, EC (agriculture) LAHDC; Mr. Aziz Mir, Dr. Farhana Ibrahim and
Prof Padma Velaskar, we greatly appreciate your help.
Special thanks to Mr.Thinles Dawa, Senior Agricultural Officer, Leh for his patience
and assistance in organizing interviews, getting secondary data and reports and sharing
his valuable experience and knowledge. Thank you, Mr. Joldan (Deputy Registrar,
Cooperative Society, LEH) for sharing information and your valuable insights.
Many people from organizations stationed in Ladakh facilitated access to essential
documents and generously shared their thoughts through interviews. Mr. Hasan (Chief
Agriculture department, LAHDC), and Mr. Norboo (Chief, Horticulture department,
LAHDC), Mr. Giri and Mr. Tundup (Planning Department, LAHDC). Mrs. Chewang
(CIBS library) Mr. Abdul Ghani Sheikh, Mr. Kahloon (Farmer’s Corporative Society,
Leh), Mr. Norphel (LNP), LDO, LEDeG, WAL and FRL.
iii
INDEXSr. No. Title Page
1 Chapter 1Introduction
1
1.1 Jammu and Kashmir 11.2 Ladakh 41.3 Recent Trends and Developments in the Region 141.4 Leh District: Essential Context 15
2 Chapter 2Agriculture in Ladakh: Traditional and Modern
18
2.1 Ladakh and Its Agro- Ecological System 182.2 Changing Political Economy of Agriculture 242.3 Impact of Change 262.4 Changes in the Agrarian System 35
3 Chapter 3Current Status of Agriculture in Ladakh
42
3.1
Agriculture: Its Current Position 42
3.2
Governmental Policy and its Impact on Agriculture 48
3.3
Conclusion 57
4 Chapter 4Opportunities and Challenges
58
4.1
Introduction 58
4.2
SWOT analysis of agriculture in Ladakh 59
4.3
Comparative advantage of Ladakh region and opportunities and challenges there in 63
4.4
Opportunities and Challenges 64
4.5
Food Processing 79
4.6
Organic farming 82
4.7
Development of market mechanisms 83
iv
4.8
Conclusion 86
5 Executive Summary 89
6 Evidence base 96Bibliography 97
List of Figures
S.No Figure No
Title Page No.
1.1 Map of Ladakh 51.2 Ladakh’s Agro Ecological System 101.3 Elevation Resources 112.1 Sources of Irrigation for Gross Area Irrigated (in ha) 222.2 Trends of Tourism in Ladakh 262.3 Trends in Occupational Structure 292.4 Area under High Yielding Variety Programme for
vegetables including potato31
3.1 Cultivated areas under crop 443.2 Irrigated Area (Ha) Crop wise 454.1 Drip Irrigation systems 714.2 Improved Low cost Greenhouse in Ladakh 76
4.3 Commercial Greenhouse in China 77
4.4 Design of Commercial Greenhouse for Ladakh 79
v
List of Tables
Table No.
Title Page No.
2.1 Crop Calendar 202.2 Growth of Urban Population in Leh 282.3 Distribution of Agricultural Implements/Machineries
(unit in nos.)
38
2.4 Livestock Population (figs. in Nos.) 38
2.5 Fertilizer Off – Take (Quantity in ‘000’ Quintals) 403.1 Land Holdings According to Different Size Classes and
Holding Sizes (1995-96)
43
3.2 Percentage of Total Irrigated Area Crop wise 453.3 Production of Food Grains and Commercial Crops in the
Year 2005-06
49
3.4 Horticulture Extension in Leh 523.5 Total allocation and expenditure under District Plan 55
vi
List of Abbreviations
DAP Diammonium Phosphate, a phosphorous based fertilizerDRDO Defense Research and Development Organization, IndiaICIMOD International Centre for Integrated Mountain DevelopmentISEC International Society for Environment and CultureFAO Food and Agriculture OrganizationFRL Field Research Laboratory of DRDOHYV High Yielding VarietiesLAHDC Ladakh Autonomous Hill Development CouncilLDO Ladakh Development OrganizationLEDeG Ladakh Ecological Development Group
LNP Leh Nutrition Project
LoC Line of Control
PDS Public Distribution System
SECMOL Student’s Educational and Cultural Movement of LadakhSQUAST Training course for framers conducted by the
Sere Kashmir University of Agriculture, Science and TechnologyWAL Women’s Alliance of Ladakh
vii
viii
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
This chapter aims to provide a brief introduction to Ladakh. This backdrop of
the region, physical, socio-economic and political would serve as the anchor
for the following chapters.
1.1 Jammu and Kashmir
Introduction:
Jammu and Kashmir covers an area of 2,22,236 sq. km. of which 78,114 sq.
km. is under the occupation of Pakistan and 37,555 sq. kms under China. In
addition to this, 5,180 sq. kms. of Jammu and Kashmir were ceded to China
by Pakistan under the March 1963 Sino-Pak. boundary agreement. The state
shares a 221- km. international boundary with Pakistan in the Jammu region
and 365 km. with China along the Ladakh region. The line of control (LoC),
which divides the Indian and Pak- occupied parts of the state, is 1001-km. long
(Jammu - 205 km. Valley - 460 km. and Ladakh/Siachin area -336 km.). The
border with China is 465 km. long. Pakistan currently governs the districts of
Dianer, Baltistan, Gilgit, Muzaffarabad, Kotii, Mirpur, Poonch and Bagh. The
Chinese-held territory is called Aksai Chin (meaning un-inhabited). According
to the 2001 census conducted after 20 years, the size of the Jammu & Kashmir
population is 10,069,917, which is 0.98 per cent of the country’s total
population1.
Administration:
Kashmir comprises three natural divisions, namely, Jammu, Kashmir and
Ladakh. For administrative purposes, the state is divided into two main
1 Cited in http ://planningcommission.nic.in/plans/stateplan/sdr_jandk/sdr_jkexecutive.pdf
1
divisions, i.e., Kashmir and Jammu Provinces. The two districts of Ladakh
region, namely, Leh and Kargil are part of the Kashmir Division for purposes
of administration. These two provinces consist of 14 districts, at present, the
Kashmir Province comprises the districts of Srinagar, Budgam, Pulwama,
Anantnag, Kupwara, Baramulla, Leh and Kargil and the Jammu Province
comprises the districts of Jammu, Kathua, Poonch, Rajouri, Udhampur and
Doda. As a single district, Ladakh was politically represented by Kushok
Bakula, the first Minister of Ladakh Affairs in J&K State (Mann, 2002: 9).
From 1979 Ladakh has been within two administrative divisions. Kargil to the
west and Leh. The districts of Ladakh have been named according to their
relative geographical position (Cunningham,1977). Nubra to the west, Lhoyal,
Zanskar in South and Changthang the Northern plains. The districts, currently,
are administered by Deputy Commissioner. Ladakh autonomous Hill
Development Council Act in 1995 gave impetus to the formation of LAHDC
that has power over land use and allotment and development works in the
district, a move towards development and participation from below (Humbert-
Droz, 2004). The Council comprises of a general body of 30 councilors (26
elected and 4 nominated by the governor). The chairman of the body is elected
by the members as Chief Executive Councilor. (Humbert-Droz, 2004:10;
website of LAHDC). Strategic location and border disputes with Pakistan and
China have assured a firm foothold for army presence since the past 50 years
(Goodall. S, 2004: 220)
Agriculture:
Agriculture, the predominant sector of the economy of Jammu and Kashmir,
supports about 80 per cent of its population. The state is divided into three
agro-climatic zones: Jammu, Kashmir and Ladakh each having its own specific
geo-climatic condition, which determines the cropping pattern and
productivity. Rice is the chief crop of Kashmir zone, followed by maize, barley
and wheat. Jammu region dominates both in maize and wheat production. In
the Ladakh region, barley is the major cereal crop followed by wheat. The
2
production of three important food crops, namely, rice, maize and wheat,
contributes a major portion of the food grain in the state and accounts for 84
percent of the total cropped area; the balance 16 per cent is shared by inferior
cereals and pulses. Nearly 75 per cent of the country’s temperate fruits, mainly
apples, are grown in the state. Jammu and Kashmir State is full of natural
resources of great economic potential. The physiographic location imposes a
number of constraints, particularly in agriculture and allied sectors. Initially,
land-use pattern in the state was purely devoted to agriculture. This has
changed over a period of time to agri-horticultural silvi-pastoral2. Although the
net area sown has remained more or less the same - 7.31 lakh hectares in 1990-
91 to 7.33 lakh hectares in 1999-2000, the area under fruit and vegetable
cultivation has marginally increased over the same period of time. In respect of
fruit, it has gone up from 176.30 thousand hectare in 1990-91 to 213.73
thousand hectare in 1998-99. Area under vegetables has shown a marginal
increase, from 14,000 hectares in 1990-91 to 14,930 hectares in 1999-20003.
Rice, the staple crop, is planted in May and harvested in late September. Maize
is the second-most important crop. The best soil for maize is reclaimed swamp
and enormous crops are raised from the black peaty land, which lies under the
banks of river Jhelum. In the high villages occupied by the Gujjar grazers, very
fine crops of maize are grown. Other important summer crops are millet,
pulses (legumes such as peas, beans and lentils), cotton and tobacco. Wheat
and barley are the chief spring crops. Food grains production has shown an
increase from 13664 thousand quintals in 1990-91 to 15253 quintals in 1998-
994. Many temperate fruits are also grown. Large orchards in the valley of
Kashmir produce apples, pears, peaches, walnuts, almonds and cherries. In
addition, Jammu and Kashmir is the largest producer of saffron in the Indian
2 Sited in http://planningcommission.nic.in/plans/stateplan/sdr_jandk/sdr_jkch1.pdf3 Indicators of Economic Development, Jammu & Kashmir-1999-2000, Directorate of Economics and Statistics, Planning and Development Department, Jammu and Kashmir, Srinagar.4 Sited in http ://planningcommission.nic.in/plans/stateplan/sdr_jandk/sdr_jkexecutive.pdf
3
subcontinent. Artificial floating gardens on the lakes are favorable for the
cultivation of flowers and vegetables.
The trend of the economic development of Jammu and Kashmir is not
encouraging. It has been lagging behind most of the states in regard to the
growth of Net State Domestic Product (NSDP) at current prices. The average
annual growth of Net State Domestic Product at current prices during 1980-81
to 1999-2000 was 12.45 per cent. In the case of the growth of Per Capita Net
State Domestic Product at current prices also, the state of Jammu and Kashmir
was lagging behind most Indian States. The average annual growth of Per
Capita Net State Domestic Product at current prices during 1980-2000 was
estimated as 9.63 per cent for Jammu and Kashmir5.
1.2 Ladakh
1.2.1 Physical Geography
Ladakh – ‘the Land of Passes’ (La-passes, dakh-land) is the largest in area
among the three main regions of the Jammu & Kashmir State viz., Jammu,
Kashmir and Ladakh. With an area of 95,876 km2 Ladakh supports a
population of 270,126 (Census 2001). Until 1979 a single district, Ladakh, is
now divided in to Leh and Kargil districts. The entire range is traversed by the
north-west and south-east Ladakh and Zanskar ranges, flanked on the north by
the Karakoram range and on the south by the great Himalayan range. The
Indus River and its major tributaries, the Shyok-Nurba, Chang-Chenmo,
Hanle, Zanskar, and Suru-dras rivers, drain the region. Glacio-fluvial processes
aided by freeze- thaw weathering have formed the high altitude landscape of
Ladakh.
5 http://planningcommission.nic.in/plans/stateplan/sdr_jandk/sdr_jkexecutive.pdf
4
1.2.2 Climate
Ladakh has an extremely harsh environment and one of the highest and driest
inhabited places on earth. Ladakh’s climate is referred to as a “cold desert”
climate due to its combined features of arctic and desert climates. These
include wide diurnal and seasonal fluctuations in temperature, from -40°C in
winter to +35°C in summer, and extremely low precipitation, with an annual
10cm to 30cm primarily from snow (Ladakh Autonomous Hill Development
Council, 2005, cited in Demenge,nd, post 2006 :3, 6). Due to high altitude and
6 Demenge, J (nd, post 2006), ‘Measuring Ecological Footprints of Subsistence Farmers in Ladakh’, IDS
5
Figure 1.1: Map of Ladakh
low humidity, the radiation level is amongst the highest in the world (up to 6-7
Kwh/mm). The soil is thin, sandy and porous. These combined factors explain
why the entire area is nearly devoid of vegetation, with the exception of valley
floors and irrigated areas (Demenge, nd, post 2006:3)
1.2.3 The Land
Ladakh in its relatively small area encompasses an enormous variety of
landscapes, their difference being based primarily on the great range of
altitude. Altitude differences entail enormous ecological diversities, and these
in turn affect the way people adapt to their environment (Rizvi, 1997). The
land surface can be broadly divided into the upper zone above 4,500 m. and
the lower zone between 4,500 and 2,700m. About 74 percent of the land
surface is above 4,500. The land below this altitude has vast stretches of
barren, rugged and rocky terrain interspersed by pockets of cultivation and a
few natural pastures. Most human settlement is situated at elevations of 2800m
to 4100m above sea level.
In Ladakh soils range from gravely and sandy loams on the alluvial fans to
sandy and silt clay loams on the flood plains of Indus. Ladakh’s soil is
described as skeletal, calcareous with alkaline reaction (Anwar,7).By and large,
soil is coarse and sandy having varying quantity of pebbles. The soils are
characterized by low organic matter content and poor water retention capacity.
The pH of soil ranges from 7.4 to 9.5. There is a potential problem of
salinization especially on the flood plains of Indus. The variety of soils in
association with elevation and moisture availability (e.g. irrigation), suggests
the need for agro-ecosystem based diversified approach to agricultural
development in Ladakh (Tulachan 1998).
7 Alam, Anwar (nd), ‘4 Long Term Strategies and Programmes for Mechanization of Agriculture in Agro Climatic Zone 1: western Himalaya Region’, Sher-e Kashmir University of Agricultural Sciences and Technology of Kashmir , Srinagar, J&K, India
6
1.2.4 Culture
For centuries the area was home to a rich and ‘self-sustaining’ culture. Lying
on the edge of the Tibetan plateau, Ladakh as such was open to influences
other than Tibetan. Central Ladakh was the bastion of Buddhism; Western
Ladakh accepted the new religion (Islam) and much of the culture that went
with it (Ganhar and Ganhar, 1956; Shaikh, 2002). At the level of popular
culture, Ladakh evolved its own highly individual style. It has a wealth of oral
literature, some derived from the ancient pre-Buddhist past of Tibet, such as
that based on the national epic, the Kesar Saga, and some seeming to spring
from the native genius of the people. This includes a corpus of folk songs
reflecting every aspect of everyday life, and yet rich in symbolism and
imagery. Ladakh’s music, while perhaps partly derived from Islamic models,
has its own distinct flavor, as does its dance, an essential part of Buddhist
social life (Norberg-Hodge, 1991; Rizvi, 1989, 1997)
Crossing Ladakh was unavoidable for international trade between the Punjab
and Sinkiang. Situated in the centre of a network of important routes, Leh
developed over the centuries into a major trading centre. This gave the capital
something of a cosmopolitan air, which is reflected even now in the mixed
racial composition of its population. The speech of the town, a derivative of
Tibetan as everywhere in Ladakh, is enriched by an admixture of foreign
words, mainly Persian and Urdu.
1.2.5 Settlements
Most settlements in Ladakh are located below 3,600 m. The availability of
water determines the size of each village. The total village area accounts for
only 0.6 percent of the total area. Cultivated land is scarce, forming only 28
percent of the village area. Households and fields are interspersed in most
villages in Ladakh. Traditionally landholdings are not classified according to
the conventional soil quality parameters but according to the value placed by a
household to its different fields within its overall landholding. The most prized
is Marzhing, which is the best quality soil, followed by Barzhing, which is
7
middle quality soil and finally Tharzhing, which is of poorer quality. In
addition in every village one can find some Olthang, which is land on which
Ol, a kind of lucerne used for fodder is grown. As a result almost all
households own some land of differing quality in different parts of the village
(Koshal, 2001; Gupta et al, 2002).
1.2.6 The Economy
Historically, agriculture has been the mainstay of the Ladakhi economy
(Mann, 1986: 13; Shaikh, 1991). People have developed very specific
agricultural adaptations in order to survive in this harsh terrain. Through a
complex network of irrigation canals and through ingenious methods of
fertilizing soil, people historically produced more than enough food for their
needs (Moorecroft, 1841; Koshal, 2001). Despite the increase in possible
sources of income from other sources today, primarily through government
employment, military service and the growing tourism industry, the centrality
of agriculture in Ladakh persists to this day.
The vast majority of Ladakhis are self-supporting farmers, living in small
settlements scattered in the high desert. The average family holding is five
acres; occasionally a household might have as many as ten. Optimum acreage
is determined by the size of the family, roughly one acre per working member
of the household (Norberg- Hodge, 2000).
The principle crop in Ladakh is barley and about two thirds of the fields are
planted with barley, and the remainder with fast growing varieties of wheat
(Rizvi, 1989; Norberg- Hodge, 1991; Mann, 1997; Koshal, 2001). Naked
barley known in Ladakhi as grim8, comes in several varieties appropriate to
different soil and climatic conditions, and is often sown in rotation with peas, a
nitrogen-fixing crop which contributes to the fertility of the soil in parts. Most
8 “Gazeteer of Kashmir and Ladak , (1974, reprint), Compiled under the direction of the Quarter Master General (in India, in the Intelligence Branch), Vivek Publihsing House, Delhi, India. (First published in 1890 by the superintendent of Government Printing, Calcatta)
8
farmers also have small fields of peas and a garden of turnips (Angmo, 1999).
Among other vegetables raised around Ladakh are potato and cabbage (Rizvi,
1983). Pulses are raised on a very small scale. More than 90% oilseed comes
from outside. Cultivation of grain is supplemented by fruit growing- and
Ladakh is the home of the apricot, the only cash crop, apart from pashm, the
only product exported from Ladakh in any quantity. In the very highest
settlements, where not even barley will grow, people depend largely on animal
husbandry (MS Swaminathan Research Foundation, 2003). Livestock, mainly
sheep, goats, yaks, cows, dzo9, donkeys and horses, plays a central role,
providing manure, fuel, transport, labour, wool, milk, meat, hides and heat in
winter. Hence villages in upper mountains are rich in livestock and of lower
areas rich in crops.
In this manner Ladakhi subsistence economy is primarily an agro- pastoral
economy, which is based on an efficient system of utilization of different and
complementary agro-ecological zones: high elevation pastures, forests, and
lower elevation irrigated agriculture fields (See figures 1.1 and 1.2). Although
external resources are imported, the system is to a large extent self-sufficient,
especially in remote valleys, which even today are not yet connected to the
road network (Demenge, nd, post 2006; Koshal, 2001).
9 A dzo is a hybrid between the Yak and the cow. Ladakhis use different terms for the male, dzo, and the female, dzo-mo. Similarly a yak designates the male, whereas the female is called demo or dimo. We will use the terms dzo and yak indifferently for males and females.
9
Source: adapted from Demenge, J. (n.d, post 2006) Measuring Ecological
Footprints of Subsistence Farmers in Ladakh
10
Figure 1.2: Ladakh’s Agro-Ecological System
Source: adapted from Demenge, J. (n.d, post 2006) Measuring Ecological
Footprints of Subsistence Farmers in Ladakh
11
12
Figure1.3: Elevation and Resources
1.2.7 Social System in Ladakh
It is difficult to understand Ladakh’s rural economic system in isolation from
the social system, which it is a part of (Demenge, nd, post 2006). Unlike most
parts of India, there is little social stratification in Ladakhi society (Mann,
1997; Norberg-Hodge, 1991; Ripley, 199210; Koshal 2001). This makes for
greater homogeneity within the society as a whole, which leads to a sense of
equity within the system. Except for some differentiation at the extremities,
according to Ferry Erdmann, ‘in Ladakh the population is categorized into a
very large ‘phal pa’ “common”11 (Koshal,2001; Gupta et’al, 2002).
The average land holding per family is five acres; occasionally a household
might have as many as ten. Optimum acreage is determined by the size of the
family, roughly one acre per working member of the household. Beyond that,
land is not of much use (Norberg-Hodge, 2000). Culturally land is not
considered as property but cultivated land is a symbol of status (Koshal, 2001).
Thus there are very few landless in Ladakh. It is only the ‘Beda’ or those who
were traditionally beggars do not own any land, The Mons or traditional
musicians used to own very less land (Kaul, 1963; Mann, 1997; Koshal, 2001).
This is now changing with the emergence of class and alternative livelihoods.
The existence of a large ‘common layer’ of people alleviates the occurrence of
internal strife not only within a village but also between villages that have
rights over the same resource (Gupta et’al, 2002). Norberg-Hodge (1991) has
mentioned the cheerful, harmonious disposition of the Ladakhi and the value
placed culturally on community, peace and on placating potential conflicts.
Given the finite resource base, traditional Buddhist institutions in Ladakh
evolved in consonance with the limited production possibilities and were
10 Ripley,Abby, ‘Food As Ritual’, Recent Research in Ladakh 4 and 5 (1992) edited by Osmaston and Denwood11 The aristocracy (Rgyal – rig) and their official (Sku-drag) exist as a separate class with special privileges at the ‘top end’ while within the low-caste stratum, three hierarchically ordered groups are distinguished. These three strictly endogamous, “caste-like” groups are, from high to low: the Mgar-ba, the Mon, and the Be-da (Erdmann 1981:151).
13
characterized by customs such as primogeniture, polyandry, and the monastic
way of life (Rizvi, 1989; Norberg-Hodge,1991; Kingsnorth,2000). In Ladakh,
rules of inheritance were such that households and estates passed in their
entirety from generation to generation. Therefore, primogeniture was the rule
and through it avoided fragmentation of land holdings (Mann, 1997; Angmo,
1989; Norberg-Hodge, 1991; Aggarwal, R, 2004). Furthermore, scarce
resources limited the number of households that could make a living out the
land. Through polyandry and monasticism the households reduced the
reproductive capacity and affected population growth12. Monastery was and
still is an important institution in Ladakh. Monasteries still own vast lands that
are cultivated by the village as a whole. Monasteries provide security to
households in at least two ways. First, they provide extra land that can be put
under cultivation when needed. Second, monasteries offer “‘social security’ for
the whole community” (Demenge, nd, post 2006).
Finally through strong community ties, the Ladakhis managed to aggregate
labour inputs and redistribute the total output. Under the traditional socio-
economic conditions, the agro-pastoral economy and social institutions had
achieved harmony with the natural environment such that human activity was
largely confined to more or less self-sufficient village units with a balance
between the in-flow and out- flow of energy and matter. Barter was the system
of exchange, and close community ties helped to distribute output in a manner
whereby there was little difference in the standards of living within the
community (Chatterji, 1987).
1.2.8 Strategic Importance
12 Polyandrous marriage and primogeniture was outlawed in Ladakh by State legislation in the early 1940s (Mann, 1978: 27; Norberg-Hodge, 1991: 57; Rizvi, 1996: 134). Although the effects of this were not instantaneous, especially in remote regions, a slow trend away from polyandrous marriage and primogeniture was initiated. Although not conclusively linked, the decline of polyandry and primogeniture and the increase in monogamous nuclear households may at least in part be responsible for the population increase
14
Historically, Ladakh was an independent kingdom from about A.D.
950 until 1834, when Hindu Dogras (from Jammu, which is southwest of
Ladakh) invaded it. After the Dogras gained control of Kashmir, Ladakh and
the neighboring Baltistan fell under the rule of the Maharaja of Jammu and
Kashmir. Following the Indo-Pakistan war of 1947, the Baltistan region lay on
the Pakistan side of the cease-fire line, and the rest of Ladakh became part of
the Indian state of Jammu and Kashmir (Mann, 1997; Shaikh, 2000; Jina. Prem
Singh, 2000; Koshal, 2001). Today geopolitically contested borders with
Pakistan and China bind Ladakh.
Ladakh became a contested territory between the newly independent nations of
India and Pakistan. In the early 1960’s a substantial area of eastern Ladakh
was annexed by China. Due to increasing tensions between India and Pakistan,
the Chinese invasion of Tibet in the 1950s, and their occupation of the Aksai
Chin region in 1962, Ladakh has become one of India’s most important
strategic zones. Strategic location and border disputes with Pakistan and China
have assured a firm foothold for army presence since the past 50 years (Wiley,
2002; Goodall, 2004). People of Ladakh living close to the international border
have to deal with special problems arising out of their distinct geo-physical
situation and concomitant socio-economic conditions.
1.3 Recent Trends and Developments in the Region
As one of the more inaccessible parts of the Himalayas, Ladakh was a
remote, resource-poor region that witnessed little change in the technological
level over the centuries. The high-altitude harsh natural environment,
characterized by arid and cold climatic conditions, topography with steep
glaciated slopes, and lacking in forests and mineral resources, had created
conditions of environmental encapsulation with little capacity to increase the
potential of productivity levels at the operative non- mechanical level of
technology (Chatterji, 1987).
15
Border conflicts mentioned above, impressed upon the Indian government the
strategic importance of Ladakh, and two roads and an airport were hastily
constructed, increasing the flow of military personnel, merchants, and laborers
from India and Nepal, as well as Indian commodities. Continuing the trend of
migration into Ladakh, a substantial number of Tibetan refugees settled here in
the 1960s. Further, due to external influences that followed the opening of
Ladakh in 1974 leading to an influx of domestic and foreign visitors, the last
decade and a half has witnessed rapid change, especially in the urban areas.
The most important impetus to this change has been tourism and development
measures initiated by the government. While tourism has been responsible for
introducing large scale commercialization into the economy, state investment
has provided infrastructural and technological know-how, such as the
introduction of change in cropping patterns, new breeds of livestock, and small
scale industries.
1.4 Leh District: Essential Context
Until 1979 a single district, Ladakh, is now divided in to Leh and Kargil
districts. Leh is situated in the eastern portion of the Ladakh region of Jammu
and Kashmir bordering Pakistan occupied Kashmir (PoK) and Chinese-
occupied Kashmir in the north and north-west, Tibet in the east and Lahaul
area of Himachal Pradesh in the south. It is linked with the Kashmir valley by
the Zojila pass (10,098 feet) and forms part of the outer Himalayas. It is one of
the highest regions of the earth (altitude 8,800 feet to 18,000 feet
approximately) with mountains running along parallel ranges. It is the coldest
and most elevated inhabited region in the country with altitudes ranging from
2300 meters to 5900 meters above mean sea level. The district generally
remains landlocked between November and June. The district combines the
conditions of both Arctic and desert climates. The temperature fluctuates from
30° C in summer to -30° C in winter. Precipitation is very low averaging
around 9 to 10 cm (official website of LAHDC, referred in April 2008).
16
Travel in and out of the region is very tenuous. Difficult terrain as well as
severe law-and-order problems has contributed to poor connectivity. Up to
about 1987, coming into Ladakh effectively meant taking the ‘Treaty Road’
from Srinagar, via Kargil and over the three passes: Zoji-la, Namika-la and
Fatu-la13 That year, however, the old traders’ route from Manali to Leh (which
crosses four passes, three of them over 4800 meters) was made fit for motor
traffic and thrown open to tourists. However this route is open for no more
than three-and-a-half months, from the end of June to mid-
October14(Rizvi,1983; Kingsnorth,2000; Koshal,2001; Joshi and Morup,2003).
Today there are scheduled air services to Leh from Srinagar and Delhi. But
traveling in Ladakh is totally restricted to road transport or a number of
trekking routes which negotiate one or more highland passes. In terms of road
length per 100 sq. km. of area, Leh district has a very low road density of 2.58
km.
The geographical area of the district is 45,110 sq. km. with Leh as the district
headquarters. The district has two assembly constituencies, namely Nubra and
Leh and five blocks namely, Leh, Khaisi, Nubra, Nyoma and Durbuk. Deputy
Commissioner currently administers the Leh district. Ladakh Autonomous Hill
Development Council Act in 1995 gave impetus to the formation of LAHDC
that has power over land use and allotment and development works in the
district, a move towards development and participation from below. The
Council comprises a General Body of 30 councilors (26 elected and 4
nominated by the governor). The members elect the Chairman of the Body: the
Chief Executive Councilor (Humbert-Droz, 2004:10; website of LAHDC).
13 After three years the growth of militancy in Kashmir deprived the route from Srinagar of its attraction for all but the most intrepid14 For almost half its length it passes through terrain so high and so barren as to have no settled habitation. There is a minimum of infrastructural support along the way. There are no repairs or service stations between Keylang and Leh, and no petrol supply (Rizvi, 1997).
17
The district has a low population of 117637 persons and low density of 3
persons per sq. km., the lowest in the country according to the 2001 census
(official website of LAHDC, 200815). The urban population comprises 12 per
cent of the population. (Goodall, 2004). Agriculture and animal husbandry are
the most widespread sources of livelihood. Cultivation is possible only during
summer; grim, wheat, vegetables and fruits like apple and apricot are the main
crops. The region also abounds in medicinal herbs. Changthang area in Leh is
the source of pashmina goat, which produces fiber used for high quality fabric
pashmina wool. The district is rich in water resources like ponds, streams and
rivers.
1.5 Conclusion
Strategically located along international borders, the region of Ladakh is
located in the Jammu and Kashmir state of India. For ages the high mountain
desert with its cold climate was relatively isolated. An agro-pastoral social and
economic system, self sufficiently sustained the population at a subsistence
level. Agriculture occupied all workforce and social and economic practices
were all built around agrarian lifestyle. Inclusion in the Indian state since 1945
and opening up of the region to tourists post 1974 brought a sudden influx of
changes. These develop
ment forces are transforming Ladakh and agriculture which was a crucial base
of the socio-economic organization of the past is also being transformed. The
current report sketches the status of agriculture sector in Leh district, a brief
orientation to which was provided in this chapter.
15 http://leh.nic.in/census.htm referred on 27th May 2008 at 8am
18
CHAPTER 2
AGRICULTURE IN LADAKH: TRADITIONAL AND MODERN
2.1 Ladakh and Its Agro- Ecological System
2.1.1 Introduction
Situated at the northern extremity of India, Ladakh occupies a unique niche –
physiographically, climatically and culturally. A cold desert, the region is
snowed in for almost 7 – 8 months, the remaining being the economically
productive months in the year. Despite the seemingly hostile conditions the
region has been inhabited for centuries by people living in a state of self-
sufficiency based on a tenacious if subsistent agrarian economy, livestock
rearing and the movement of goods via ancient trans-Himalayan trade routes
(Rizvi, 1983; Norberg-Hodge, 1991, Koshal, 2001; Gupta et’al 2002). People
had learnt to survive here by establishing a synergistic relationship with their
environment. The economy of most villages in Ladakh is characterized by two
elements: a high degree of self-sufficiency and internal recycling of energy and
nutrients (Norberg-Hodge, 1991; Demenge, nd post 2006). Practices and
institutions in Ladakh have evolved over centuries “by a process of constant
refinement of response to the existing climatic and environmental conditions”
(Rizvi, 1996 cited in Demenge, nd, post 2006).
Ladakhi agriculture in the past rendered the region self sufficient in food
grains. Moorecroft (1841) has praised the large wheat ears and Cunningham
(1854) described the yield which facilitated a people to sustain a subsistence
level of consumption. Though by no standards a rich one, pre- modern
19
Ladakhi’s economic independence was absolute. In spite of harsh climatic
conditions, Ladakhis had managed to develop a remarkably productive
agricultural system, with yields often comparable to and even out competing
those of European intensive regimes (Osmaston, 1994; Mankelow, 2003).
Through a judicious use of land and water resources Ladakhi people not only
managed to survive, but were able to enjoy a life of greater prosperity than that
of many other Himalayan peoples whose natural resources are more abundant
(Moorecroft, 1841; Norberg-Hodge, 2000; Kingsnorth, 2000; Koshal, 2001).
Life in this landscape is severely constrained by the availability of water.
Settlements are located in wide alluvial fans receiving water from streams
running from glacial ice or springs usually at elevations of 2800m to 4100m
above sea level. The availability of cultivable soil and, more critically, of water
tend to limit both productivity of the land and areas that can be put under
cultivation, and hence to some extent the size of villages (Koshal, 2001). Oral
histories mention the occurrence of droughts, forcing farmers to drastically
reduce the area under cultivation, to harvest earlier or to plant in remote areas
(Norber-Hodge, 2000; Osmaston et al., 1994). Much of the cultivation in
Ladakh is restricted to the main valleys of Indus, Shyok and Suru rivers.
Case Study: Fallow land in Takmachik and Shey villages
Area under cultivation is traced out by availability of water for irrigation. In the village of Takmachik, which is located in mountains and relies exclusively on steadily reducing glacier melt for irrigation water is a scarce resource. Though fallow fields are associated with social stigma, in times of acute water shortage the fields to be left fallow first are determined according to traditionally determined sequence for the village. Recently, some additional land around the fringes of the village is likely to be transferred to the village households. Farmers predict the prospective use of the additional land to be contingent upon availability of irrigation water, which highlights the crucial positioning of water resource for cultivation in this village. At the more ‘developed’, Shey village where water is more abundant, being drawn from the Indus, fallow fields are linked with social factors and the plethora of available livelihood choices rather than with the physical and geographical constraint of irrigation water.
Since the growing season is short (in most regions less than ninety days), fast-
growing species of barley, wheat and peas are planted, and at lower altitudes
20
one finds buckwheat, apricot and apple orchards. Livestock, mainly sheep,
goats, yaks, cows, dzo, donkeys and horses, plays a central role, providing fuel,
transport, labor, wool, milk, meat, hides, fuel and most importantly manure in
this ecological zone. Agricultural work is done with the help of animals, wind
and water (Rizvi, 1983. 1989; Norberg-Hodge, 1991; Mann1997; Kingsnorth,
2000; Koshal, 2001, Manjula.B, 200716).
Though a short cultivation period and scarce water resources constrain
agriculture, these constraints are overcome by following age-old institutions,
rules and deeply entrenched ethic of mutual cooperation, reciprocity and social
cohesion and as highlighted by Sanyukta Koshal (2001) each trickle of water
was harnessed for cultivation. Moreover as mentioned in the previous chapter,
socio-cultural practices of polyandry, inheritance through primogeniture and
the offering of children to the monastic institution of Buddhism ensured that
the population did not exceed the carrying capacity of the land (Crook, 1980;
Norberg-Hodge, 1991; Mann, 1997; Kingsnorth 2000) and that land holdings
remained intact as viable units of economic production. Thus, the agro-pastoral
system of leh villages was relatively self-sufficient. Efficiently, this system
was built upon combinations of various agro-ecological zones like the high
elevation pastures, forests, and lower elevation irrigated agricultural fields as
illustrated in figures 1.1 and 1.2.
2.1.2 Process of Agricultural Production
In Ladakh, there is only one cropping season-Kharif, which extends from
March to October. Depending on the altitude, the time to start agricultural
activities ranges from February to June. See table 2.1 for the cropping calendar
(Koshal, 2001).
Table 2.1 Crop Calendar
Crop Period ofSowing Harvesting
Wheat April- May September – October
16 B. Manjula, TATA-LAHDC Development Support Programme Ladakh Autonomous Hill Development Council, Leh. ‘Thoray: Planning for a People Centred Future-Kharu Block Development Report 2007’, Gyurja: TATA-LAHDC Development Support Programme.
21
Grim May- June August – SeptemberSmall Millets April – May August – September
Source: Financial Commissioner’s Office.
The farmers improve land by removing stones and smoothening and leveling
the surface of the fields to appropriately receive the water from irrigation
canals. The animal power of donkeys and human power are used to bring the
manure to the field. Teams of approximately 20 households load their donkeys
with manure which is arranged according to previously decided layers with the
most fertile dung of hen on top (Koshal, 2001). The Dzo are used to plough the
fields, by men while mostly the women level the soil surface with a ‘T’ shaped
wooden implement called a bat (Koshal, 2001). After preparation of field
sowing is carried out. Watering of the fields is done very carefully and one
person called as Churpon17 is appointed or elected from within the village for
distribution of water on rotational basis. Householders are allotted a certain
period of time every week when they can divert the main channels into their
own fields. This allocation is regulated by the Churpon.
The harvested crop is threshed with the help of combination of animals like
dzo, horses and donkeys on a large circle of packed earth near about thirty
meters in diameter. After winnowing the crop, the grain is sifted, and put into
sacks. After the harvest, the fields are ploughed once before the earth hardens
so much in the grip of winter as to become unworkable (Koshal, 2001;
Norberg-Hodge, 2002).
The practice of lhangsde, an extensive system of sharing resources, such as
farm tools and draft animals (like a pair of horse or Dzo), evolved to enable the
labor-intensive activities, for example, sowing and harvesting, to be completed
17 Integral and indispensable to the entire system of water allocation in the villages of Ladakh is the institution of Chudpon. Deriving from the word chu, meaning water, the Chudpon is an appropriator himself in whom the responsibility for overseeing that the entire system works smoothly and efficiently as laid out in the rules is vested by the people. In Leh 65% of the mode of irrigation is through this social system (Tata LAHDC Development Support Programme, 2007: p. 45).
22
as quickly as possible. This exchange is done amongst 2-3 families during the
agricultural period (Norberg-Hodge, 1991; Koshal, 2001).
2.1.3 Technology Used in the Agricultural Process
Technology used in the process of cultivation in Ladakh is of the simplest.
Irrigation for instance is still being done by the traditional irrigation systems in
which gravity reliant khuls or canals are made to carry water from snow fed
streams to fields.
…the amazingly sophisticated system of irrigation by means of channels
contouring along the mountain slopes from streams often kilometers
away is also current over the whole region, where precipitation is
minimal, and people must depend for water on the melting of the snow
on the heights.”(Rizvi, 1998)
From one main canal each and every field in the village is supplied with the
water through a network of small canals. These canals are constructed without
use of cement. Instead they are made with rough land rocks and sand.
Traditional technology and skill is used in the construction of these canals and
this system has been functioning very well for centuries in Ladakh (Koshal,
2001). As is evident in Fig 2.1 given below, canals/ khuls have remained the
major source of irrigation over the years.
23
Source: Deputy Commissioner’s Office
Manuring the fields is also done through animal dung and a system of sanitation called
“Chaksa”. They use Chaksa or dry toilets built a few feet above the ground, in which
the refuse, falling through a hole, is collected in a lower chamber, from which it is
removed at the end of winter and taken out to the fields. In the cold dry climate it
decomposes cleanly, without any offensive odour (Norberg-Hodge, 1991; Kingsnorth,
2000; Koshal, 2001; Joshi and Morup, 2003).
Case Study: Technology at Shey village
Till recently, manuring was undertaken by teams of 20 men who would load donkeys
which they would collectively pool in for manuring the fields. This practice is fading
gradually as is the quantity of manure used, as the proportion of fertilizers is on a rise.
Almost everyone has experimented with urea, DAP chemical based fertilizers and
farmers in a single breath narrate how these make the soil hard. Tractors have been used
invariably for ploughing and threshing by all families at least once in fields that are level
and large and conducive for mechanization. The water powered mills used for grinding
grain are also being replaced by fossil fuel powered instruments. Some animals get
stomach upset after consuming the hay that has been through power threshers as mud is
mixed in the process. Tractors plough superficially and weeds are more. Yet, the
machines are positively viewed in lieu of the time and labour they save and the drudgery
that they reduce. Dependency on machines in Shey village has nearly reached a point
24
Figure 2.1: Sources of Irrigation for Gross Area Irrigated (in ha)
where an 80 year old comments that after people from his generation pass away, no
villager would be able to use the traditional plough as no youngsters have learnt the art of
fixing and repairing the plough. The songs sung while ploughing are already taking on
shades of cultural artifacts to be preserved in museums. The T shaped, wooden
instrument called "but" which is used to level the soil and break mud clods along the
edges is still popularly used.
The agricultural implements used are archaic in Ladakh. The simplest and
most important being the plough, simply an iron-shod piece of wood, guided
through the earth by the farmer’s grasp on its handle, and drawn by the docile
dzo (Koshal, 2001; Mann, 1997) Other agricultural tools, the hoe and the
spade, are equally simple. The technology used for threshing is aptly described
by Norberg-Hodge:
A large circle of packed earth about thirty feet in diameter forms the
threshing floor. A number of animals, attached in a line to a central
pole, trample the crop, bending down to feast on the grains as they walk.
Dzo are the best for this purpose. Often there will be a combination of
animals, as many as twelve or so; the dzo will be on the inside, with only
a short distance to cover, while the horses and donkeys run along on the
outside. Behind them, the thresher shouts words of encouragement. To
prevent animal dung from contaminating the grain, the thresher carries
a wicker basket (Norberg-Hodge, 2002)
Transport is as simple as the other technology used for agriculture. Wheeled
transport is not majorly useful in the rugged mountainous terrain. Sturdy pack-
animals, and human power in the form of carrying heavy back loads are the
major means of transport (Rizvi, 1989). Similarly milling technology has been
locally developed to use the available resources:
…the millwheel- a circular set of paddles set horizontally and operated
by a fairly modest flow, its axis prolonged to turn the nether millstone.
25
Although this type of water-mill is in common use in Tibet as well as in
the Himalayan regions of India and Nepal, it is believed to have reached
Ladakh from Baltistan; the Baltis, though ethnically related to the
Ladakhis, have been credited with superior engineering skills. (Rizvi,
1996).
2.2 Changing Political Economy of Agriculture
As we have briefly mentioned in Chapter 1, until 1947, Ladakh had been an
isolated and remote region. Lying along the ancient Trans-Himalayan silk
route, its economic and cultural connections with the larger world outside were
few and difficult. Its takeover by the state of Jammu & Kashmir as part of the
Indian Union, in 1947 marked the beginning of a series of changes in the
region. Being a border area of extreme strategic importance, from 1947,
Ladakh was opened and developed according to the priorities of a nation-state
trying to modernize itself, located within a global political economy. It has
since been connected to a world based on an increasing movement of goods,
services and people within and across national borders (Norberg-Hodge, 1991;
Koshal, 2001). As aptly said by Gupta et’al (2002):
“From 1960s onwards, Ladakh, which had remained unchanged for
several centuries, was suddenly thrown into a time machine as if to
catch up with the developments taking place in the rest of country.”
2.2.1 Forces of Change
The transformation, taking place in the region can be attributed to three major
forces of change – the military, the tourist industry and the governmental and
bureaucratic apparatus. Considering its location and border dispute with China
and Pakistan, Ladakh today is a sensitive and strategic area for India (Jina,
Prem Singh, 2000; Goodall,2004) This has led to the deployment of a vast
military set up in this region. The most rapid changes began after the Chinese
aggression in the early 1960s when Ladakh gained significant increase in
26
public interventions. Those interventions were guided by interrelated security,
welfare and development considerations (Rigzin.T, 200518). On the one hand
the army moved in and set up camps in every major town with outposts all
along the border, while on the other hand, around the same time the central/
and state governments began to establish themselves in the region. There was
an expansion of entire bureaucratic machinery in Ladakh: several government
offices were opened; numerous conventional ‘development programs’ were
introduced.
Prior to 1974, Ladakh had been closed to tourists due to its sensitive location.
However in 1974 these restrictions were lifted. Since the opening of Ladakh
region for tourism in 1974, it has grown rapidly. Most tourists make Leh city
their base and their numbers have increased from 16959 in 1997 to 37980 in
2005 as is evident in the Fig 2.2 (Tourism Department Leh.).
Source: Tourism Department Leh
18 Rigzin, T. (2005, summer) The Impact of the Army in Ladakh: 10 years of Change’, Ladags Melong.
27
Figure 2.2: Trends of Tourism in Ladakh
Hence major changes to the socio-economic system have been taking place at
a rapid pace over the last few decades (Koshal, 2001). Further the military set
up and the tourist industry has necessitated the development of infrastructure
in the region. Proper roads have been constructed to facilitate mobility,
communication channels established, airport has been opened in Leh, and new
employment opportunities in tourism, government jobs and in the army made
available to the local people. Today, Ladakh is connected to a larger world of
commodities, ideas and cultures (Aggarwal,Ravina, 2004).
2.3 Impact of Change
2.3.1 Tourism industry and its impact
Travel and Tourism is regarded as one of the most effective drivers for the
development of regional economies. It is regarded as the world’s largest
industry and creator of jobs across national and regional economies19. It can
bring significant economic benefits both locally and nationally, but it also
places great demands on fragile mountain ecosystems and isolated cultures.
In Ladakh the season of tourism is very short due to the difficult ecological
conditions, and is thus not economically viable for ‘big players’. Tourism
brings quick income while not all of the income created by tourism in Ladakh
is destined to be spent within Ladakh by Ladakhis. The tertiary activities
especially geared to tourism have become very important as providers of cash
income.
Himalayan mountain tourism is a relatively new industry that has seen
explosive but in most areas uncontrolled, demand-led growth in the past three
decades. Tourists have simply arrived in areas formerly visited only by the
occasional trader or pilgrim, and the regions have reacted to meet their needs.
19 Jobs generated by Travel and Tourism are spread across the economy - in retail, construction, manufacturing and telecommunications, as well as directly in Travel and Tourism companies. These jobs employ a large proportion of young people; are predominantly in small and medium sized companies; and offer good training and transferability (Tourism And Sustainable Development Commission on Sustainable Development Seventh Session 19-30 April 1999, New York)
28
Frequently, tourism is accompanied by trends toward intensive cash-cropping,
excessive fuel wood cutting, and a dramatic increase in livestock numbers into
once-stable traditional systems (Elizabeth Byers & Meeta Sainju 1994, pp.
213-228) .
With rapid growth of tourism, people from the district flock into Leh town in
search of jobs. The population of Leh town has increased from 68400 in 1981
to 117600 in 2001 (Goodall, 2004). The rate of growth of urban population is
much higher in the Leh district compare to the national average. Between 1981
and 2001 India’s urban population grew at an annual rate of 2.95% whereas
during the same period, urban population in Leh grew at the rate of 5.92% (see
Table 2.2).
Table 2.2: Growth of Urban Population in Leh
Total population (thousand) Annual
population
growth rate
(%) 1981-2001
Urbanization (%)
1981 2001 1981 2001
Leh district
Rural 59.7 90.1 2.0812.7 23.4Urban 8.7 27.5 5.92
Total 68.4 117.6 2.75Kargil district
Rural 62.5 105.3 2.645.3 8.6Urban 3.5 9.9 5.34
Total 66 115.2 2.82State of Jammu and Kashmir
Rural 4730 7565 2.3821 24.9Urban 1260 2505 3.5
Total 5990 10,070 2.63India
Rural 523,87 741,660 1.7523.3 27.8Urban 159,460 285,355 2.95
Total 683,330 1,027,015 2.06
Source: Census of India 1981 and 2001; adapted from Sarah K. Goodall 2004
29
Increasing opportunity to earn wages in Leh city has been primarily
responsible for the trend of immigration into the town. It has also changed the
occupational structure of the region. Total population involved in agriculture
has decreased from 65.48 percent in 1971 to 58.49 percent in 1981 and it is
further decline to 37.92 percent in 2001. Similarly there is decline in the
percentage of agriculture labor from 7.36 percent in 1981 to 4.28 percent in
2001 (see Fig. 2.3).
Source: Agriculture Department Leh
Since the tourism season and agricultural season coincide, we find that less and
less population gets engaged in agriculture. Interviews with several people
clearly pointed out to the reducing interest shown by educated Ladakhi youth
in non-remunerative, subsistence agriculture, resulting in abandonment of
agriculture at many farms. As stated by them, as an alternative to agriculture,
the tourism business, is lucrative and relatively effortless. Young people have
thus begun to move away from agriculture into tourism related businesses as
guides, using the donkeys and mules for trekking and as pack animals, as
tourist agents, running rooms for rent, operating taxis and so on.
30
Figure: 2.3: Trends in Occupational Structure
While tourism is bringing change in the economic structure, it is also putting
lot of pressure on the fragile environment of Ladakh (Norberg-Hodge, 1991;
Koshal, 2001; Joshi and Morup, 1993). The internal migration, rapid
urbanization and the increasing numbers of tourists are also putting pressure on
amenities in Leh (Goodall, 2004).
The popularity of Ladakh as a tourist destination, especially for foreigners has
been increasing over the years and more recently the share of Indian tourists
has overtaken that of the foreign tourists (official website of LAHDC).
Tourists have brought with them a whole array of influences from other parts
of the world suddenly, challenging to shake the traditional economic and
cultural value systems. With increasing contact with tourists and exposure to
different socioeconomic values, the way of life is changing rapidly. Tourism
has brought with it the intense psychological pressure to modernize for the
Ladakhis (Norberg-Hodge, 1991; Shaikh, 1992; Joshi and Morup, 1993;
Kingsnorth, 2000). There is a sudden exposure to the centrality of money in
the daily life of Ladakhis- in a society where traditionally labor which he
needed was free of charge and was obtained on a cooperative basis, and for
whom money played a minor role, mainly for obtaining luxuries such as
jewelry, silver and gold. Helena Norberg-Hodge describes what a young man
has to say about his new way of life:
“Business is great,…I have lots of customers and I am making a lot of
money…they (older generation) can be stuck in the old ways if they
want, but Ladakh will change around them. We’ve worked in the fields
long enough, Helena; we don’t want to work so hard anymore.”
(Norberg Hodge, 2002: 99)
2.3.2 Army and its impact
31
While the deployment of military in Ladakh post 1962 may appear to very
much be a national force of change, but we must not lose sight of the fact that
development of military/paramilitary units in different areas was not
specifically designed to promote development and welfare in Ladakh.
However these important interventions did help in transforming Ladakh’s
economy as a by-product of their presence in the area. They did to some extent
contribute to the growth of better transport, communication and even health
facilities for the local community (Rigzin, 2005). However most importantly,
army has emerged as the biggest employer in Leh district especially post the
Kargil war (Rigzin, 2005). The flip side of this development is that though
army has generated employment for the local people, but at the same time it
has taken away human resources from the agriculture sector (also see Figure
2.3). This has resulted in decrease in population of farmers. Further their
demand-induced contribution to the growth of vegetable and fruit farming and
marketing must also be recognized.
Apart from providing a new employment for the local peoples, the advent of
the army opened up a new market for local agricultural produce. Till now, the
army has been the greatest market for agricultural produce in Leh. Around
10000MT of vegetables are produced in Leh of which 2500 MT are supplied to
the army. Potato is the main vegetable crop supplied to the army. Vegetable
sale fetches valuable income to farmers (Kingsnorth, 2000). This induces
many farmers to adopt new crops and associated production technologies; and
initiates the process of market-oriented agriculture (See Figure 2.4). This
change is resulting in the shift in crop pattern as well as increased use of
fertilizers along with seeds of high yielding variety.
Figure 2.4: Area under High Yielding Variety Programme for vegetables
including potato
32
Source: Agriculture Department Leh.
However what is important to note is that this supply is only 40% of the
army’s requirement. 60% of the requirement is still being fulfilled through
importation from outside the region. Hence, a market exists within the army
for which production needs to be enhanced, and for which storage facilities
need to be established, as the supplies are made mainly during the production
months from May to September, and none during the off season. But this
market is not a reliable market as sales to army drop after an army division
leaves the area. This is a concern aired by several local people.
2.3.3 Developmental interventions: governmental and non-governmental
Within the last two decades afforestation, irrigation schemes, land reclamation,
improved water supply, changes in cropping pattern and changes in
agricultural methods, are the key elements of the changing traditional
economy. Infrastructure development like construction of roads, bridle paths,
and bridges; provision of electricity, schools, medical centers, post offices, and
other infrastructural amenities is happening rapidly (Chatterji, 1997). These
33
have been the result of government policies and efforts combined with those of
non-government organizations.
In this context, the most important material change has been the opening of
roads in the region, from the 1960s until now. Roads have allowed a new
access to consumption and employment opportunities, driving villages away
from their close dependency on the land and on locally available resources, for
both production and consumption. The road also influences development
opportunities available to villagers (Demenge, nd, post 2006). What is
important to note is that this extent of change is directly proportional to the
proximity of a village to Leh, which is the main commercial centre of Ladakh.
This makes it easier for villages closer to Leh to access the opportunities
afforded by the outside world.
Case Study: Different paths of transformation
Shey village, which is 30 min by bus from Leh town and enroute to the tourist
destination of Thiksey, has been the first to receive forces of development and change.
Elderly people recall the coming of the Moravian Missionaries, army in 1960's and
tourists in 1970's. Shey village has transformed along the path of conventional
development measured in monetary terms. The children access modern education and
higher education, alternative livelihood options such as the prestigious mulazim jobs
are open to them. The road links to Leh town facilitate the sale of perishable products.
Most people keep a vegetable garden while the primary sources of livelihoods are
located away from the land.
34
Contrasting is the path of change adopted by Takmachik village which is a 3 hour bus
journey away from Khaltse, the nearest urban centre. From the motorable road,
Takmachik village is a long and steep trek across the Indus. Takmachik is relatively
isolated both in terms of outside influences, presence of tourists, schools and
alternative avenues of employment. Agriculture which is self-sufficiency and
subsistence oriented occupies a majority of the population in this remote village.
Though the perishable products cannot be easily marketed, apricot and fruits for which
Takmachik holds a niche or comparative advantage are dried and sold along with bulk
sale of vegetables which are more frequently consumed on farm. Favourable climate
and a niche for horticulture products anchor the primacy of agriculture in Takmachik,
which is reinforced by the remoteness of its location and distance from motorable road
and transportation.
2.3.4 Globalization and change
Prior to independence Leh town was an important market center along the
Trans-Himalayan silk route/ trade routes connected to Central Asia and Tibet
(Rizvi, 1999). Due to the strategic location of Ladakh and the unresolved
conflict with Pakistan and China since the 1960s its borders are sealed. This
has terminated its earlier traditional ties based on trade with Tibet and Central
Asia, resulting in a significant shift in the local economy from subsistence
agriculture and trade to heavy reliance on goods imported and subsidized by
central government. Food grains, industrial commodities such as shoes,
clothes, utensils, and other items are being imported from outside (MS
Swaminathan Research Foundation, 2003). This reliance on external
economies has exposed the Ladakhi economy to fluctuations in the regional
and international market. The economy is becoming dependent on the use of
resources imported from outside the region leading to a higher consumption of
resources.
The impacts that these external influences are having on the traditional ways of
life in Ladakh are apparent from the change in certain social practices.
Altogether, these forces of change have afforded the people of Ladakh above
35
all with a plethora of new employment opportunities and livelihood options.
As stated by Gupta et’al (2002)
“These have hastened the demise of certain social practices, which had
been integral to the successful optimization of scarce resources in the
region. Most significant amongst these have been the decline in
polyandry. While in 1941 the State had passed ‘The Buddhist
Polyandrous Marriages Prohibition Act” that tried to legally ban the
practice of polyandry in Ladakh, it did not die out in the region. It is
only with the rapid onslaught of changes from the 1960s that a decline
started taking place. This is because the availability of options outside
the agrarian system gave the younger brothers of hitherto polyandrous
households, the opportunity to break off from the main household which
depended for its subsistence solely on agriculture”.
Changes in the way of life have brought about an increase in population, which
the local agricultural produce, limited by the vagaries of the terrain, the climate
and the water resources, cannot support like it has always done in the past.
Further, what have also changed are the relationships among people. Where
agriculture was a community activity carried out by cooperative labor on each
others’ field, paid labor has become the norm. With Nepali, Bihari and
Himachali migrants coming in and willing to work as laborers, these problems
increase the chances of unemployment and unrest among the local population.
As people are pulled away from agriculture into the market led economy, there
is intense competition for a very limited number of jobs, mostly in the public
sector. Balancing the demand and supply side of labor is a big constraint. So
while labor from Nepal and Bihar is coming to work as migrants in the region,
adding to the population and the pressure on the land and resources,
unemployment for local educated Ladakhis has emerged as a serious problem
in globalizing Ladakh (Shaikh, 2000).
36
2.4 Changes in the Agrarian System
As has been seen in the case of so many traditionally isolated regions and
peoples, the opening of Ladakh has led to the monetization of the region’s
economy. Trade in barter has been replaced by the supply and demand
linkages of a market economy, which in turn is changing the priorities of the
agrarian system. Market driven demand is bringing about changes in the
cultivation practices in some villages. For instance, in the villages with easier
access to the market, today majority of their land is being cultivated with
potatoes, which are in huge demand, along with other vegetables. This caters
to the needs of the huge military set up, constituting a significant proportion of
the market. On the demand side, easier access to goods, hitherto not easily
available, has brought changes in the cultivation patterns too. For instance,
with the coming up of the PDS (public distribution system), wheat and flour is
more easily available today, hence the local cultivation of wheat has reduced
(Norberg-Hodge, 1991; MS Swaminathan Research Foundation, 1993;
Kingsnorth, 2000, Koshal, 2001).
The PDS evolved with the concept of protecting the farmer and the consumer
against the vagaries of production and the market forces in order to enhance
agricultural productivity and ensure fair prices. Essential aims of the system
are the reduction in the cost of food grains procurement, storage, transportation
and distribution; and efficient delivery targeting those in need of subsidies and
support to ensure access to food grains. The state is intervening through the
Consumer Affairs and Pubic Distribution Department, which distributes
foodgrains at subsidized rates in the district of Leh. For this purpose, it
procures these items from the Food Corporation of India. The food prices are
kept depressed through PDS and foodgrains are sold at less than their
economic cost (Swaminathan, Madhura, 2000).
Subsidized food grain from the PDS has made local agriculture unviable in
many ways. Locally procured food grains cannot compare with these prices.
37
The PDS does not procure these food grains from local farmers for distribution
through the system itself. Much of the wheat produced in Ladakh lies in
godowns while cheap grains are acquired from elsewhere and sold through the
PDS in Ladakh. A major reason for this is the lack of decision-making power
by the local authorities.
The easy availability of cheap imported wheat flour and rice works to skew the
natural pattern of demand and supply by eroding the market for local produce,
and is a major threat to the traditional pattern of crops.
This is not to forget that the PDS has been welcomed by many in the face of
the growing population. The local production of staple food is not enough for
the local population, and also the army stationed in the region. The PDS serves
to provide a cushion, especially for the less well-off . Although alternatively
there is this opinion as well that the subsidized ‘government rations’ that are
trucked into the Valley during the brief summer remain, for many people, an
expensive luxury that supplement, rather than replace locally produced cereals,
vegetables and dairy products. For many Ladakhis, especially village elders, a
successful harvest is a symbol of self-sufficiency, an important element of
Ladakhi identity that is still highly valued in this region (Mankelow, 2003).
Movement of the younger generation away from the confined world of their
village to seek out education and employment outside has had an impact on the
labour force available for traditional agricultural activities. The most direct has
been the shortage of labour especially during the peak-harvesting season,
leading to the employment of paid wage laborer’s from outside the region
(Nepali, Bihari and Himachali migrants).
The other direct impact of labor shortage is the increasing use of machinery
especially in more prosperous villages in the Leh valley. Traditionally, the
38
technology used in agriculture was based on local knowledge, and made use of
local resources (Koshal, 2001). Whereas traditional technologies were
dependent on renewable and readily available materials and skills, dependency
is increasing on newer technologies brought from outside:
“An example is the new diesel powered mill in Leh. It grinds grain many
times faster than the old water wheels, but people have to transport their
wheat and barley many miles from the villages, and pay for it to be
ground. The greater speed has the effect of heating the grain, so that it
reduces its nutritional value. Furthermore, the mill spews polluting
fumes into the air. (Norberg Hodge, 2002: p. 105)”
Table 2.3 below shows the distribution of agricultural machinery in Ladakh
region over time period. However mechanization itself is limited due to the
difficult terrain and smallholdings.
Table 2.3: Distribution of Agricultural Implements/Machineries (unit in nos.)
Particular 1998-9 1999-0 2000-1 2001-2 2002-3 2003-4 2004-5 2005-6
Multicrop thresher with
diesel engine
32 35 33 36 43 99 0 31
Lift irrigations pump
sets.
10 20 20 20 22 52 53 51
Ladakhi Plough Share 200 00 00 300 500 592 326 -Fountain buckets 300 00 00 000 227
-
0.00 -
Garden Showel 80 700 00 000 20 600 0.00 -Iron rack 240 325 650 249 1141 250 0.00 500
39
Tool kits. 600 00 00 2600 3200 - 200(4
piece)
300
Wheel Barrow 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 200Power Tiller 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 13Others 00 581 00 95 1055 637 0.00 118
Source: Agriculture Department Leh, 2006.
The shortage of labour has also had an impact on activities such as livestock
keeping. Traditionally, being the duty of the young in a household to take the
animals to the pastures for grazing, the decline in the population of the
younger generation resident within the village and the mushrooming of schools
have led to a cutting down in size of livestock holdings (Gupta et’al, 2002;
interviews with some local farmers). As shown in the Table 2.4 number and
diversity of livestock has undergone changes over the years.
Table 2.4: Livestock Population (figs. in Nos.)
Category of Number of Heads / birdsAnimals 1987 1992 1997 2002 2003-04 2004-05 2005-06Cattle 23907 24836 27900 37829 33288 33188 33188DZo- Dzomoes 11756 11855 18525 10627 10275 10725 10725Yak 18454 19916 9256 13276 18904 18904 18904Others 12000 12355 21285 22799 22799Poultry 8659 8858 10972 20494 7547 7567 7567
Source: Livestock Census Reports/Departmental Survey 2002
According to the Sheep Development Officer, Leh “the, livestock is
decreasing in Leh as per the census of 2004”. This could perhaps be partially
related to the almost breakdown of the traditional system of communal
shepherding of animals called rarayz, in which villagers took turns during the
summer season to graze animals in high pastures known as phu20, as the
animals could not be grazed in the village due to the fields. This again is a
direct result of young people moving away from agricultural activities.
20 Vast stretches of grazing land, which lie in the vicinity of the glaciers at elevations of 15,000 to 18,000 feet serve as pasture. The animals are taken to hillsides above the valley for grazing. Upland pastures are useful for summer grazing or phu; a different one being used everyday to avoid overgrazing.
40
The roles of men and women are increasingly getting differentiated in Ladakhi
society. Once men and women used to work shoulder to shoulder on their
fields, now more and more men are leaving home to earn money in the new
monetized economy. Men thus come to be seen as the primary bread winners
and the only productive members of the society. Women, who perform most of
the agricultural work, yet do not earn money for their work, have begun to be
seen as dependents, their work “non-productive”. This adds to the feelings of
inadequacy and insecurity amongst the traditional farmers, including women,
and draws people further away from agriculture. Simultaneously, many
women have taken up teaching in neighboring village schools as an occupation
and many young girls are receiving comparatively more higher education than
their brothers who take up jobs in the army or as drivers at a younger age
(interviews with local people)
Shortage of human power and livestock has had an impact on agrarian
practices, in that synthetic fertilizers are replacing the use of animal manure
(See Table 2.5). Further, human night-soil, which was earlier used to prepare
manure for the fields, is collected in the traditional pits in lesser quantity in
Leh town with the advent of tourists as flush lavatories are fast becoming
popular (Joshi and Morup, 1993). This has given rise to many problems: the
need for water, which is a scarce resource; need for energy to pump the water
to the tanks; leaking septic tanks which have led to a rise in water-borne
diseases- from agriculture point of view it has meant increasing dependence on
chemical fertilizers to replenish the land.
Table 2.5: Fertilizer Off – Take (Quantity in ‘000’ Quintals)
Year Off – takeNitrogen Phosphorus K NPK Total
1 2 3 4 5 61992-1993 2.413 1.029 0.05 0.00 3.496
41
4 01993-1994 1.807 0.273 0.02
0
0.00
0
2.100
1994-1995 1.908 0.474 0.00
3
0.00
0
2.385
1995-1996 2.146 0.596 0.00
0
0.00
0
2.756
1996-1997 2.356 0.639 0.00
0
0.00
0
2.875
1997-1998 2.273 0.803 0.00
0
0.00
0
3.139
1998-1999 2.121 0.756 0.00
0
0.00
0
2.888
1999-2000 2.014 0.945 0.00
0
0.00
0
2.964
2000-2001 2.199 0.920 0.00
0
0.00
0
3.227
2001-2002 2.280 1.620 0.00
0
0.00
0
3.900
2002-2003 2.238 1.205 0.00
0
0.00
0
3.443
2003-2004 2.415 1.352 0.00
0
0.00
0
3.767
2004-2005 2.442 1.352 0.00
0
0.00
0
3.794
2005-2006 2.238 1.271 0.00
0
0.00
0
3.509
Source: Deputy Registrar Cooperative Societies Leh
The move of Ladakhi agriculture is towards industrial farming or agri-
business. The impetus to shift from subsistence to agri-business demands the
use of fertilizers, pesticides and mechanization and hybrid seeds of high
yielding varieties in order to increase yields and produce cash crops. This
process of development is serving to marginalize small farmers in particular.
As agriculture becomes more and more capital and energy intensive, these
groups are the ones bearing the brunt. The farmer’s capacity to buy the hybrid
seeds and the chemical inputs thus decreases, putting him into a cycle of
dependence. Also the applicability of these techniques to the intra region, local
terrain, topography and fragile environment are imperfectly understood. The
42
problems from the use of chemicals and the practice of monoculture are only
becoming evident slowly as yields are starting to show a decline.
Therefore we can conclude that the systemic transformation of the Ladakhi
way of life is not exclusively the consequence of systematic planned
development. The global expansion of markets spurs economic growth
channelizing progress towards a linear framework of development, and puts
pressure on areas to “develop” in ways which lack an understanding of the
area’s peculiar needs, and are likely to be unsuited for it. Such exogenous
change is underway in Ladakh, and is visible in its transforming agro-pastoral
way of life. Local interdependence has given way to newer political and
economic interactions.
43
CHAPTER 3
CURRENT STATUS OF AGRICULTURE IN LADAKH
3.1 Agriculture: Its Current Position
In Ladakh agriculture still remains the backbone of the economy as is noted by
the “Ladakh Vision 2025” document prepared by the LAHDC. About 70
percent population is engaged in agriculture. Cultivators as a percent of total
workers are 43.2 percent (Census 2001). Local agriculture is essentially
subsistence oriented and production is mostly consumed on farm, though
cultivation of vegetables and sometimes fodder is undertaken for the market.
3.1.1. Pattern of Landholding
As stated earlier, only 0.6 percent of the total geographical area in Ladakh is
inhabited and 28 percent of the land is under cultivation. Irrigation is the most
crucial factor for expanding area, production and productivity of crops. In Leh
district only 10,880 ha land is under assured irrigation. There is 25754 ha
barren cultivable land and 4393 ha cultivable wasteland as without irrigation
farming is not possible on this land21.
Land is owned by individual households while the practices of farming in
Ladakh are collective (Norberg-Hodge, 1991; Kingsnorth, 2000; Koshal,
2001). Land may be privately owned, part-rented or all-rented. Rent is usually
paid as a proportion of the produce. Sizeable area of the available land belongs
to monasteries (Koshal, 2001). The average land holding in Leh is 1.38 ha with
only 20.21 percent farms exceeding 2.0 ha. Majority of the holdings (49.42
percent) are below 0.5 ha and are mostly terraced (see Table 3.1). This
discourages mechanized farming and encourages dependence on animal
power. In the past fragmentation of land was avoided by transferring the
21 Draft Development strategies for agriculture and related sectors in Ladakh (ICIMOD) 1999
44
complete land holding to the eldest son; in the absence of son it would be
inherited by the eldest daughter (Singh,N.K 1997; Mann. R.S, 2002;
Aggarwal, R, 2004).
Traditionally the monasteries hold many fields, which are cultivated together
by various villagers. Polyandry and primogeniture were abolished in 1941 and
simultaneously the on take of monastic life was reduced (Fox, 1994;
Aggarwal, 1994; Jina, 1995 cited in Humbert-Droz, 2005:4, Angmo, 1999).
However and fragmentation of land is increasingly seen.
Table 3.1 Land Holdings According to Different Size Classes and Holding
Sizes (1995-96)
Class
Size
Holdings Averag
e
Holding
Size
As % age of TotalNos. Area
(ha)
Holding Area
Below 0.5 5953 1309 0.22 49.42 7.890.5 – 1.0 1224 1848 1.50 10.16 11.141.0 – 2.0 2434 3316 1.36 20.21 19.992.0 – 3.0 1195 2818 2.36 9.92 16.993.0 – 4.0 585 1929 3.30 4.86 11.634.0 – 5.0 277 1263 4.54 2.30 7.605.0 – 7.5 229 1420 6.20 1.90 8.567.5 – 10.0 83 780 9.40 0.69 4.7010.0- 20.0 32 431 13.47 0.27 2.6020. – Above 33 1474 44.67 0.27 8.89Total 1204
5
1658
8
1.38 100.00 100.00
Source: Agricultural Census 1995-96
3.1.2 Cropping Pattern
Grim or naked barley, wheat, and lucerne/alfalfa: collectively occupy about
83% of the total cropped area and, form the major cropping patterns. Among
other crops grown are vegetables including potato, pulses, and oil seeds and
fruit trees.
45
Figure 3.1: Cultivated areas under crop
As is evident in Fig 3.1 the area under barley (grim) cultivation is more than double that
under wheat cultivation and has consistently remained so except in the year 1996-97
when wheat gained prominence (also total area under cultivation increased in that year).
Thus barley is the major crop in Ladakh. Further barley being the most important crop,
the maximum area under irrigation has consistently been devoted to barley cultivation
over the years. Wheat and fodder are other important crops grown in the irrigated land
as seen in the Table 3.2 and Fig 3.2
46
Table 3.2 Percentage of Total Irrigated Area Crop wise
Year
%gr
im
% w
hea
t
% p
uls
es
% f
odd
er
% f
ruit
an
d
vege
tab
le
% O
il
seed
s
1991-92 48.94098 22.05592 3.181775 17.28325 2.598136 0.7342561992-93 42.49781 23.70089 3.275812 19.27464 2.759091 1.0334411993-94 47.23938 22.2973 3.059846 18.38803 3.030888 1.0328191994-95 45.61841 23.90221 2.972196 18.48514 3.144775 0.9587731995-96 42.22222 23.11111 1.777778 17.68889 7.644444 0.8888891996-97 36.6778 32.07637 2.711217 19.3222 2.606205 0.992841997-98 5.433746 35.46235 2.669209 18.87512 2.764538 0.7626311998-99 52.27667 28.01388 2.970512 8.380312 3.783608 0.2385081999-20 52.63043 28.17071 2.990613 8.437022 3.132504 0.2401222000-01 45.47794 24.30192 2.468312 19.59402 3.221195 0.6671112001-02 44.98717 24.74579 2.565808 19.65219 3.212012 0.6937192002-03 44.87498 25.31972 2.595915 19.75568 3.159 0.6966982003-04 43.20798 27.76285 2.388718 19.41673 3.175365 0.7003072004-05 42.96126 27.75221 2.387802 19.37092 3.202915 0.642501
Source: Deputy Commissioner’s Office Leh
Figure 3.2 Irrigated Area (Ha) Crop wise
Fodder crops play an important role in the agro-pastoral economy of Ladakh
by integrating the crop and livestock components of this economy. Alfalfa, a
47
fodder crop, is commonly grown as a perennial crop on marginal fields, and
also intercropped with fruit trees in orchards. It is cut once during September
to make Lucerne hay. Unlike the summers when animals are grazed in the phu,
during the winters animals are stall fed with lucerne hay mixed with wheat,
barley and pea bhoosa. Despite its importance, there has been a severe
shortage of fodder for the livestock, especially during the winter.
Case Study: Wheat and Fodder at Shey village
Location of Shey village near the Leh town provides it with a ready market for milk. The government is
increasingly purchasing milk through co-operatives of Shey farmers. The cows which are mainly jersey
and jersey cross have dramatically increased in number and the fodder requirements are being met by an
increased cultivation of alfalfa. Many farmers at Shey narrate using chemical fertilizers and HVY seed
and growing wheat more than barley as the longer crop stems serve as the more essential fodder for the
cows. The topography of villages situated higher in the Leh valley is more conducive to growing wheat
than barley.
The human resources which “do” the cultivation use the implements and machinery are
crucial while describing the current situation of agriculture. Traditional agricultural
process has been described previously. This process is transforming both in terms of the
implements and inputs used in agriculture, the cultivation patterns which are the output
of agriculture as well as along the dimension of the demographics of human power
which drives the agriculture process. The following case study derived largely from
fieldwork in two villages attempts to show the contemporary trends in human labour.
The case does not claim to be representative of human labour scenario in Leh and is not
necessarily generalizable.
Case study: Agriculture Labour
Fieldwork in villages of Shey and Takmachik reflects the following picture of agriculture labour in
Leh today. Alternative livelihoods and employment are steadily weaning the primary livelihood away
from the land and this aspect is reflected in the aspirations of youth who desire mulazim, white-collar
48
government jobs. Every individual has a couple of livelihoods during the short summer season when
the resource reserves for the winter months are built up. Also, agro-pastoral activities remain a stable
family side occupation. Young people who do not stay for long with the relatively new modern,
formal education system are the ones primarily engaged in agriculture in addition to the elderly.
Children and adolescents are in schools and middle aged and young adults juggle various alternative
livelihoods like employment in government, armed forces, as drivers of vehicles, travel guides,
electricians. Many women are teachers and trained as medical lab assistant technicians or are
receiving higher education.
Few individuals describe their occupations as exclusively farming and substantial income is from
other avenues. People are balancing their primary livelihoods with agro-pastoral activities, which are
also linked to their social and cultural ties with other households. Many times ploughing and sowing
are scheduled according to the availability of holidays from salaried employment rather than through
the traditional way of watching the shadows cast by sunlight and judging accordingly, the time of the
year and weather for beginning cultivation.
Migrants from Nepal, Bihar, and Uttar Pradesh are employed during harvest time when the need for
labour is high. They have introduced the monetary wage, which is affecting the previous community
agricultural practices based on mutual help and reciprocity. Systems of community sharing of labour
like langsdey, of community sheephearing, tending the dzo, managing water distribution called
rarayez, lora, chudpon respectively are also transforming. Some households are expanding their
teams to include more houses as people available for agriculture labour are lesser.
Changes in land use also are associated with changes in labour requirements, like growing fodder
requires less labour and vegetables need not require men for ploughing. Women and girl’s work
which is more than that of men and boys respectively, is linked to non monetary rewards and
tremendous physical energy and input requirements equaling almost 12 to 15 hours in farming season
(Spalzes Angmo,1999). In the changing technological scenario, women mostly cultivate vegetables,
while men handle the machines, chemical inputs for farming.
These changes are sharper in Shey village, than Takmachik. At Shey in the Leh valley, with it’s
cooler climate and comparatively less fertile land, few people are largely engaged in agricultural
pursuits other than milk production which is easily marketed through corporatives to Leh town. The
process is facilitated by the low requirement of labour for growing fodder. In Takmachik, due to
relative marginality, inaccessibility combined with the difficult mountain terrain and lesser access to
external forces of development and change the transitions are more gradual and the niche offered by
apricot cultivation is anchoring agriculture, as it is more viable as a livelihood.
3.2 Governmental Policy and its Impact on Agriculture
3.2.1 Agricultural Policy and Programs in Leh
49
Agriculture and animal husbandry are the mainstay of the people, but Ladakh
is deficient in food grains. As the scope for increasing food grain production is
very limited, the Administration is emphasizing the cultivation of vegetables
through the auspices of several multiplication-cum-demonstration farms. To
meet the needs of growing population of Ladakh, emphasis is given to
introduce modern technology and to establish well-organized efficient credit
and extension services in the field of agriculture. The policy emphasis in the
district is on increasing the overall productivity of agriculture within the
constraints and challenges faced by the farming community. In this context,
the policy promotes an increase in the production of cash crops, such as
vegetables, pulses, oilseeds, and so on rather than growing unprofitable
traditional crops such as wheat and barley.
The emphasis is on making agriculture an attractive option for the farmer. For
this purpose, the government has resorted to mechanization as a solution. It has
introduced small machines such as the power tiller, crop reaper, multi-crop
thresher, water lifting pump and other improved tools and implements in a big
way. The aim is to remove the drudgery in traditional agriculture in order to
make it an attractive occupational option for the young generation. The
Administration is distributing potato and vegetable seeds, fertilizer and
pesticides, and the vegetable requirements of the army are now being met
locally. Connectivity and transport is very important so the Public Works
Department has spread a network of motorable roads and mule tracks
throughout Ladakh. The construction of irrigation channels is not easy under
existing conditions, but strenuous efforts are being made to provide irrigation
to all arable lands, as without irrigation agriculture is not possible.
Afforestation is another acutely felt need in Ladakh and the vannmahotsnun
(tree planting weeks) program is observed on an extensive scale. The
Administration is encouraging local bodies and individuals to start tree
plantations, for which they receive both subsidies and free plants.
50
The main objective is to improve overall productivity per hectare of land by
providing inputs including high yielding varieties. For this purpose, schemes
are organized such as: Intensive Agriculture Production Programme; Fodder,
Vegetable, Pulse, Oilseed and Floriculture Development Programme; Farm
mechanization and Agriculture Extension Programme. The effect of these
schemes has been an increase in the area under cultivation. An area of about
11000 ha has been brought under cultivation and 280 ha have been made
available for more than one sowing in the agricultural year. In the year 2003-
04, 99 multi-crop threshers with diesel engines and 42 lift irrigation pumps
were distributed (Agriculture Department, Leh). Further through promotion of
green houses, the agricultural season has been extended to five months,
especially with the aim of producing off-season vegetables for home
consumption and in some cases for marketing. Productivity has increased (see
table 3.3). However the promise is uncertain.
Table 3.3 Productions of Food Grains and Commercial Crops in the Year 2005-06
CROP QUANTITY (MTs) AREA (in Ha.)Wheat 3860 2973Barley 7000 4463Pulses 130 272Oilseeds 205 65Vegetables 9600 310Fodder 47650 2089
Source: Department of Agriculture; Commissioner’s office, Leh-Ladakh
Key issues influencing direction of agricultural policy include the following:
1. The possibility of increasing the area under cultivation vis-à-vis the ecological
consequences.
2. Strengthen the traditional production system to accommodate new appropriate
technologies and ideas.
3. To make agriculture an easy and economically profitable activity.
4. Research in agriculture sector
51
5. Changes in the cropping pattern and techniques to give higher output and a more
varied and nutritious diet. Conservation of water resources.
Agriculture in Ladakh has traditionally been intensive-especially in terms of
labor- than extensive. With the new policy initiatives currently the trend is
toward making it more extensive by bringing in modern techniques of
cultivation, and changing the crop patterns. The major crops being grown in Leh
include Grim (naked barley), wheat, alfalfa, collectively covering an area of 82%
of total gross cropped area. The remaining croplands are put under vegetables,
pulses, oats, oilseeds and fruit trees. Cultivation of cash crops is on the rise. The
area under vegetables has gone up by about 400% and because of intensive
farming; the production has gone upto 10,000 tonnes with 400-500 tonnes of
surplus vegetables per year (Tulachan 1998). The cultivation of traditional crops
(wheat and barley) has now become uneconomical in the district due to change
in the food habit and lifestyle of the people, and the introduction of subsidized
ration food. The overall income of the farming community needs to be
improved, and the avenue being sought for this is the cultivation of cash crops.
The Ladakh 2025 Vision Document lucidly gives the Ladakh’s vision of
agriculture:
The Ladakh 2025 Vision Document
To follow the change with continuity but without compromising on its identity, the Ladakh Autonomous Hill Development Council (LAHDC) has come out with "Ladakh 2025 Vision Document" which emphasizes the need to integrate old with new and deal with the problem of decline in its resources.
The Vision statement envisages that Ladakh will emerge as the country's best model of hill area development in a challenging environment, with its sustainability embedded in ecological protection, cultural heritage and human development.
The vision for the agricultural sector wants to overcome all the barriers like lack of adequate irrigation, depletion of water resources, neglected pastures, coupled with small agricultural holdings etc. that have made the agriculture profession non-remunerative.
Some of the salient points mentioned in the Vision are:
52
1. Promotion of traditional Ladakhi agriculture while making judicious use of already scarce resources to achieve best possible productivity
2. Value addition to the local produce through food processing
3. Making organic agriculture a profitable venture by exploring external markets for the local produce
4. Venturing into more profitable areas like horticulture etc. without jeopardizing the food security in the area.
Agricultural Programmes and Schemes
Schemes under implementation in the District are:Vegetable Development ProgrammeHigh-yielding varieties of seeds of different vegetables are distributed to farmers on 50% subsidy. 998 quintals of HYV seeds worth Rs. 54.16 lakhs have been distributed in the past three years. Also, construction of vegetable cellars has been taken up in a big way to store surplus vegetables produced in summers for the winter months. 601 cellars have been completed till now. Trench cultivation of vegetables in winter months is also being explored. 50% subsidy ,upto Rs. 2000 per unit is being provided for construction of trenches.
Fodder DevelopmentAlfalfa is cultivated as a cash crop. Alfalfa seeds are distributed on 50% subsidy to farmers (30 quintals distributed in past three years). Local peas and oats seeds are also distributed on 50% subsidy to be cultivated for fodder purpose in areas where alfalfa cannot grow (1878 quintals distributed in past three years).
Farm MechanizationMachineries and improved tools and implements worth Rs. 67.31 lacs in the past three years have been distributed to farmers at subsidized rates. These include:
Power tiller 25 nos.Multicrop threshers 161 nos. Water lifting pump sets 122 nos.Improved agri. Tools and implements 2877 nos.
Agriculture Extension Programme42 training camps for farmers have been conducted where 8400 farmers have been trained to adopt modern techniques of agriculture in day to day farming. Three Agriculture Expos have been conducted at the district headquarters and an amount of Rs. 3 lakhs was awarded to the best exhibits.
Pulse Development Programme90% of the current requirement of pulses is imported even though the soil and climatic conditions of Leh are suited for pulse cultivation. In order to capitalize this potential, pulse development programme has been taken up and 1208 nos. of kits of lentils and beans have been distributed to farmers on 100% subsidy in the past three years.
Oilseed Development Programme90% of the oil requirement is imported, whereas there is potential to meet the requirement locally. Oilseed Development Programme has been launched, wherein 666 nos. of mustard seeds minikits have been distributed to farmers on 100% subsidy.
3.2.2 Horticultural policy and programs in Leh
Apples and apricots are the main fruit crops of Leh, and other temperate fruits
like walnut, grapes, peach, pear, almond etc. are being grown in the warmer
belts of the region. Estimated area under fruits is 1279 ha. Out of which apricot
53
occupies 707 ha. With an annual production of about 2956 MT. (Chief
Horticulture Officer, Leh-Ladakh, 2006). See Table 3.4 below.
Table 3.4 Horticulture Extension in Leh
Year Area (Ha) under
fruits
Number of Plants Qty. of
fungicide
s/pesticid
es
issued on
Equipment issued
A
pr
ic
ot
Ap
ple
Ot
he
rs
Available Distribut
ed
Tool kit
set
(Nos)
Foot
Sprayer
(Nos.)
1 2 3 4 6 7 8 9 101992-93 NA NA NA 39529 6291 0 NA NA1993-94 NA NA NA 48500 5000 0 NA NA1994-95 NA NA NA 32757 31000 0 NA NA1995-96 NA NA NA 31300 47663 0 NA NA1996-97 NA NA NA 46700 34300 0 NA NA1997-98 NA NA NA 62269 42399 38.5 NA NA1998-99 NA NA NA 23350 23350 0 NA NA1999-2000 608.00 450.20 55.31 46666 17605 0 NA NA2000-01 621.00 465.00 56.00 20308 1500 0 NA NA2001-02 633.00 479.00 49.00 46300 14758 NA NA NA2002-03 652.00 488.00 58.00 60288 20150 21.20 ltrs. 335 302003-04 678.00 513.00 58.00 67016 36456 0 250 562004-05 695.00 525.00 59.35 86042 43537 0 80 16Total:- 7.00 33.60 59.4 85612 42035 0 141 51
Source: Department of Horticulture
With the aim of promoting horticulture, the Department’s main strategies are: increase
in the area under fruit crops, introduction of newer crops, introduction of newer
techniques and technologies. New irrigation projects are being commissioned in order to
bring in more and more cultivable land under horticulture. The potential area for
horticulture in the district is more than 8000ha excluding 3000 to 4000 ha. of newly
created command areas. For capitalizing this opportunity presented by horticulture, the
Department has introduced high density apple plantation, strawberry cultivation,
osmotic dehydration technology for value addition of dry apricots, polyhouse type solar
drier, technology for extracting virgin apricot oil and also demonstrated the method for
making apricot jam, R.T.S., squash, papad, tomato puree etc. The strategy is to train
54
farmers, and make available the technologies at a subsidized rate. An example is the
provision of poly greenhouses to almost every family in the district. The approach to the
development of horticulture in the area has been one of integrated management,
whereby all processes are carried out simultaneously.
The following are some of the Schemes Promoted by Horticulture Department, Leh:
Schemes Promoted By Horticulture Department, Leh
Top working of inferior apricot trees:
Under this scheme the farmers are imparted training in respect of budding and grafting techniques for
converting their inferior quality apricot trees to commercially and qualitatively superior cultivars. An
amount of Rs. 20 per tree is paid as incentive to the farlomers for each such conversion with minimum 5
successful buds per tree. During the past ten years, 88577 nos. of inferior type apricot trees have been top
worked and converted to commercial cultivars.
Osmotic Dehydration of inferior quality apricot fruit
Training camps are conducted to educate farmers for adoption of osmotic dehydration technology for
drying their local ‘inferior’ quality apricots to make these ‘consumer acceptable’, and kits are provided to
needy farmers on 75% subsidy. In the past ten years, a total of 1900 osmotic dehydration sets have been
55
distributed. The local Khantey type apricots which were otherwise going waste are now fetching good
remuneration to the growers with the adoption of this technology.
Increasing area under fruit crops
A subsidy for walling/fencing of upto Rs. 20,000 for each orchard established on a minimum area of 2
kanals is provided as an incentive to increase the area under fruit crops. 659 orchards have been set up in
the private sector in the past ten years.
Popularization of greenhouse technology
Greenhouses have been provided to almost all families in the district (14038 families in the past ten
years) to enable the cultivation of vegetables during winter months.
Popularization of high density apple plantation
Fruit plants particularly of apple propagated on colonel root stocks are imported and provided to the
interested farmers. This concept is gaining ground because high density apple plants have a juvenile
period of only one year and come to bearing in the second year.
Plant protection
Pesticides are made available at block headquarters for farmers to use against pests and diseases. 50%
subsidy is provided on plant protection machinery for needy farmers.
Production and supply of quality plant material
Three governmental fruit plant nurseries are being maintained to supply quality plant materials.
Supply of horticulture tool kits
Pruning scissors and saw, budding-cum-grafting knife-are all supplied to fruit growers at 50% subsidy as
part of horticulture tool kit.
Supply of poly house type solar drier for apricot
Polyhouse type solar drier along with solar exhaust fan is provided to the apricot growers of the district
on 75% subsidy for value addition and hygienic drying of apricots.
The estimated tree population of fruit trees/plants has increased from 2.20 lacs
in 1995-96 to 3.45 lacs in 2006-07; with a corresponding increase in the area
under fruit tree cultivation from 863 ha. to 1344 ha. Consequently fruit
production increased from 4110 MT of fresh and 83 MT of dry (excluding dry
apricot) to 6606 MT of fresh and 110 MT of dry during the last ten years. The
dried apricot which was about 375 MT estimated in 199-96 has gone upto 530
MT in 2006-07. Plan allocation has also been increased from Rs.10.72 lakhs in
1996-97 to Rs. 80.84 lakhs in 2006-07. Table 3.5 below shows the government
outlays for horticulture department, which have been continuously increasing,
indicating the priority accorded to it by the government.
Table 3.5 Total allocation and expenditure under District Plan
56
Year Approved
outlay
(revenue)
(Rs. In
lakhs)
Financial
achievemen
t (Rs. In
lakhs)
Approved
outlay (capital)
(Rs. In lakhs)
Financial
achievement
(Rs. In lakhs)
Total outlay
(Rs. In lakhs)
Total expdt. (Rs.
In lakhs)
2002-03 25.27 23.56 26.32 26.11 51.59 49.672003-04 26.79 26.22 34.92 32.33 61.71 58.552004-05 27.08 26.42 43.70 41.70 70.78 68.122005-06 30.42 29.96 39.47 32.56 69.89 62.52
Source: Chief Horticulture Officer, Leh-Ladakh, 2006
57
3.2.3 Policy and Programs Related to Animal Husbandry
Animal husbandry is also receiving considerable attention in recent years. The
policy objective of animal husbandry is to maximize production. For this
purpose, emphasis is laid on introduction of diversity of livestock, adapted to
the peculiar temperature and atmospheric pressure of the region. The strategy
is to undertake livestock developmental programmes to improve the breeds.
Also, veterinary services are being provided in the region.
Currently, Leh district has 86,838 animals of various types: out of which
33,188 are cattle type, 10,725 are plough animals and 16,345 pack animals.
Out of the total cattle population, 22.1% is the upgraded population with
“various levels of jersey exotic inheritance”. Upgraded dairy cows yield 1500
liters per lactation as against an average lactation yield of 450 liters by local
cows. The district is producing 8500 MT milk annually against a requirement
of 11750 MT. This represents the need for improving production, and also the
potential market, which can be tapped. There is also a scanty population of
poultry and bacterian camel. 587 Backyard poultry units have been established
in the last three years. (Chief Animal Husbandry Officer, LAHDC, Leh; 2006-
07). The FRL of DRDO is currently experimenting with poultry.
A cattle breeding and research farm has been set up at Murtse, and there are
veterinary hospitals at Leh and Kargil and a veterinary dispensary at Chushul.
Wool has long been of basic importance to the economy of Ladakh, and
weaving centers at Leh and Kargil have been set up with a view to imparting
training in modern techniques of spinning, weaving, carpet -making, dyeing
and milling.
58
Schemes Promoted By Animal Husbandry Department, Leh
Rehbar-e-Pashupalan
The LAHDC has launched this programme from 2006-07, where the youth of villages are trained and
later put on a job in their respective villages on fixed honorariums. This way, not only is capacity being
built, but the gap of Livestock Centre requirement is also being filled.
Sheep Extension Centers
Sheep and goat rearing being the main occupation of the rural populace, the Department of Sheep
Husbandry is making efforts to provide veterinary cover through extension activity. 52 Sheep Extension
Centers and 13 First Aid Centers.
Fodder Production Farms
Three fodder production farms have been set up:
1. Pashmina Goat Farm, Upshi
2. Russian Merino Farm, Matho
3. Fodder Development Farm, Stakna
A Fodder Development Farm, Tirith Nobra is under stabilization
With this, the department is self sufficient with respect to fodder, and supplies the surplus to other sister
departments.
3.3 Conclusion
Agriculture forms the foundation of Ladakh’s culture and social structure,
though its significance as a source of employment and revenue generation has
been declining. The number of cultivators as percentage of the population has
decreased over the decades from 65.1% in 1971 to just 37.6% in 2001. Further
its contribution to the economy is also estimated at an insignificant 1-2% in
monetary terms. Even then in absolute numbers, agriculture today accounts for
main occupation of large number of population. This brings us to the challenge
of making agriculture a commercial, yet non-exploitative activity in tune with
the ethos that makes Ladakh unique- and hence attempt to meet the aims of the
“Ladakh 2025 Vision Document”. Therefore we need to analyze and reflect on
the economic and social potential of farming which will be our effort in the
last and final chapter of this Report.
59
CHAPTER 4
OPPORTUNITIES AND CHALLENGES
4.1 Introduction
Globalization is a worldwide phenomenon, which is increasing connectivity
and interdependence socially, culturally, environmentally, economically as
well as politically. Globalization has resulted in a shrinking of the virtual
space between different isolated or autonomous groups, even those which are
living far from each other and thus activities of one group have an impact on
the others. World population is moving towards cities. Newer developments in
technologies resulting in urbanization are reducing the gaps between people to
bring massive socio-cultural and economic changes in their lives.
These changes are increasingly evident in Ladakh, which is rapidly adapting to
the process of globalization. The industry of tourism has been the greatest
contributor to the socio-cultural and livelihood changes in place in the region.
The role of the army is also substantial. These newer avenues of livelihood and
newer ways of life have impacted agriculture in very many ways: shift away
from agriculture as a means of livelihood to alternative sources corresponds to
the changes in land use from exclusive subsistence cultivation towards
transforming crop patterns from staple foodgrains to cash crops. A shift away
from the traditional to modern technology-intensive agriculture and mounting
pressure of the population is leading to an increased pressure on the scarce,
fast shrinking and fragile land and water resources of Leh. The major
challenge in this scenario is ensuring food security22 for the local population.
The ways in which the transformations have occurred in and impacted
agriculture sector in Ladakh are varied and context specific and have adapted
22 Food and Agricultural Organization, “Food for All”, Report prepared on the occasion of World Food Summit, 13-17 November, 1996, has defined food security as a situation, “when all people, at the same time, have physical and economic access to sufficient, safe and nutritious food to meet their dietary need and food preferences for an active and healthy life.”
60
according to the niche and constraints of local regions. The analysis of Ladakhi
agriculture in a glimpse as well as the opportunities and challenges highlighted
in this section are not a universal prescription for Ladakhi agriculture but are
suggestions drawing from generic trends which have to be interpreted,
contextualized and applied in the light of micro realities and even intra village
specificities.
This chapter first presents a brief overview of Ladakhi agriculture and it’s
various related aspects which hold a commercial tinge and potential which we
have identified as necessary for sustaining the agriculture process in the world
moving along the tune of economic growth and development with which
Ladakh is speedily being integrated both monetarily and socio-culturally. After
the overview, we highlight the niche or comparative advantage of Ladakh
region and proceed to move towards the challenges and opportunities facing
the future of agriculture in Ladakh. A generic conclusion ties up this report.
4.2 SWOT Analysis of Agriculture in Ladakh
A working paper titled ‘Working Paper No 1 Agriculture & Agribusiness’ by
Sabharwal and Singh, (2005) from the Center for Development of Corporate
Citizenship, S P Jain Institute of Management & Research Mumbai aptly
outlines the current situation of Ladakhi agriculture and its various related
dimensions like food grains, cereals, vegetables and horticulture.
The SWOT analyses for aspects of Ladakhi agriculture presented here is
largely derived from the paper by Sabharwal and Singh, (2005) while it is
adapted in accordance with our secondary research and fieldwork.
61
4.2.1 SWOT Analysis of Grains and Cereals
62
4.2.2 SWOT Analysis of Vegetables
Strength
• Hardy, cold resistant varieties of vegetables
available which enable cultivation in severe
agro-climatic conditions
• Off-season cultivation compared to rest of India
• Overall cold, dry climate enable storage and
transportation for longer periods of time,
without the expense of refrigerated transport.
• Organic cultivation methods make it possible to
achieve premium prices in external markets
Weakness
• Resource and labour restrictions limit production
• Lack of proper storage facilities for vegetables
produced in summer for catering to winter demand
• Weak, non-standardized and small scale vegetable
processing capabilities
• Geographic marginality and inaccessibility make
transportation of this perishable product tough and
make marketing unfeasible for certain locations.
• Short season of cultivation cannot match the Kashmiri
vegetables in duration of availability as they flood the
Ladakhi market early in the season and stay till after
Ladakhi vegetables are ripe for sale.
• Every household has a vegetable garden. Hence local
sale-purchase turnover is low, the only substantial
market being the army
Opportunity
• Obtaining organic certification for farm
produce, and catering to vast Indian and
foreign market for fresh/processed organic
vegetables
• Climate ideal for production of high
quality European/continental vegetables
which can be import substitutes
• Greenhouse cultivation to increase
productivity
• Local market represented by army
• Combining distinctive agricultural
practices, organic farming and tourist appeal
into agro-tourism modeled on communes in
Israel, and Australia
Threat
• Unstable market
• Reducing water resources as glaciers recede
and snowfall lessens
• Vegetable cultivation is increasingly being
seen as the work of and an opportunity for women
(drawing from Spalzes Angmo, 1999). The process is
labour intensive and time consuming and this
opportunity may put additional pressure on women
to earn an income.
• Most farmers produce vegetables in adequate
quantities in Leh for self-consumption. The
vegetables in Leh are ripe at the same time for most
households, hence there are few local customers for
these and often the farmers experience a mini glut of
turnips without appropriate and speedy access to
external markets for the perishable products.
63
Strength
• Strong cultural compulsion to cultivate own
grains which prevents people from abandoning
fields despite absence of economic viability
• Traditional agricultural system has high
productivity grains
Weakness
• Economic non-viability in face of
subsidized grains from plains and PDS
• Changing food habits which are not in
favour of barley, wheat and millet
• Step fields and mountain terrain make large
scale production tough
• Fragile resource base, which requires
continuous labour and inputs to sustain higher
levels of productivity.Opportunity
• Catering to health conscious tourists with
mixed/whole grain bakery products could be an
option for regions near Leh town
• Highly nutritious, high fiber grains are part
of the dietary tradition. The value of these crops is
increasingly being recognized in many parts of
India and abroad, representing new markets.
• Development and promotion of lighter, more
‘modern’ products from traditional grains like
millet biscuits, roast barley breakfast cereal,
flavored tsampa etc which are likely to find a
market as purely organic cereals.
• Crossbreeding traditional hardy varieties
with high-yield varieties and growing/selling same.
• Farmers use a combination of local manure
and fertilizers and there is potential in organic food
production.
• Seed production, which is favoured
climatically, and its distribution.
• Storage of seed, which is facilitated naturally
by the dry, arid climate.
Threat
• Total dependence on imported food grains
that adversely impacts food security and leads to a
monetary drain from Ladakh
• Loss of biodiversity and natural gene bank
due to extinction of hardy, disease resistant grain
varieties
• Movement away from agriculture by youth
and a simultaneous decline in human resources
engaged in agro-pastoral activities.
• Fragmenting nature of land holdings that
threatens the very availability of land for farming
• The quantity produced of the organic grain
for marketing purposes is less owing to the fragile
resource base and logistically marketing these is a
challenge
• Focus on monetary income is welcoming
vegetable cultivation mainly for the army and
even horticulture and alternative land use
displacing the primary emphases accorded
previously to cultivation of cereals.
4.2.3 SWOT Analysis of Fruits
Strength
• Unique, high value products like Seabuckthorn
and Apricot
• Peak season that coincides with off-season for
fruits in the rest of India
• Organic means of cultivation that reduce input
costs
• Relatively low demand for water and fertilizers,
natural or chemical
• High value Seabuckthorn available for free, with
no cultivation costs
• Presence of world class research institute like FRL
• Climate change making horticulture possible in
high altitudes since the past 12 years
Weakness
• Scattered production which makes
consolidation of produce for
marketing/processing a challenge
• Logistics issues in delivering
product to the rest of the country
• Absence of qualified food
technologists, which makes processing
possibly non-standard and deprives
entrepreneurs of technical support
Opportunity
• Possibility of obtaining organic certification which
can overcome the transportation cost problem by
justifying a price premium
• Less perishable horticultural crops can be dried,
stored and marketed throughout the year. This way fruits
can escape constraints inherent in marketing of perishable
products.
• Sunshine is abundant during summer months and
can aid in drying of fruits, hygienic drying procedures
could be looked into farther.
• Number of educated youth who can be trained in
food processing and be attracted by the high margins
• Possibility of substituting imports of Afghani dried
apricot with locally processed apricot
• Local market of tourists for processed products
• Greater availability of loans and technical support
as micro-finance and SHG projects are implemented
Threat
• Cheap, bulk imports of
Seabuckthorn products from China
• Seabuckthorn disperses seed
widely and may encroach farming land, is
seen by some farmers as spreading like a
weed.
• Longer incubation period for fruit
cultivation projects may deter farmers
• Absence of marketing mechanism
and expertise
• Commoditization and patenting of
local fruits is seen by some as a threat to
farmer’s autonomy
• Regions are differentially placed
for fruit cultivation and local specificities
need to be considered.
64
4.3 Comparative Advantage of Ladakh Region
Ladakhi agriculture enjoys comparative advantage broadly in the following
areas:
- Growing season: the Ladakhi summer allows farmers to grow fruits and
vegetables when the rest of India cannot. This provides the farmers with
an opportunity to sell off-season vegetables and fruits with virtually no
competition except from cold-storage/processed products. The
simultaneous challenge is built into the duration and cycle of Ladakh’s
farming season. By the time vegetables and fruits grow in Ladakh, the
products from Kashmir valley reach their positions in the local Leh
market.
- Organic Agricultural tradition: while other regions may have to go
through
a time-consuming and expensive transition to organic agriculture,
Ladakh’s tradition of organic techniques gives it an advantage.
- Disease/pest free environment: this translates into disease-free seeds and
planting material for export, low/no pesticide costs and high yields under
correct conditions.
- The dry climate with low moisture content is conducive for storage of
seed
which is a requirement for a food producing nation.
- The climate of Ladakh and altitude of location of many fields are
favourable for cultivation of barley and fruits which grow best in the
combination of conditions available in Ladakh. Seabuckthorn in Nubra
and apricot in Sham region comprise the niche or comparative advantage
of these regions within Ladakh. Pashm wool that comes from the
pashmina goats reared by Changpa herders in Changthang region also
adds significantly to the comparative advantage of Ladakh region in
terms of production from the primary sector.
65
In the section below we highlight the opportunity and challenges for taking
advantage of this economic and social potential of agriculture and converting it
to a commercially viable activity, at the same time ensuring that it remains in
tune with the cultural ethos of Ladakh.
4.4 Opportunities and Challenges
The biggest challenge linked with the agriculture sector for Ladakh as for most
remote regions with fragile resource bases with limited land-use characteristics
is food security. Food security while variously defined has come to expand its
reach beyond a mere quantity of food to include a varied balanced diet. The
following case study depicts some people’s perceptions of food security in
Leh.
Case study: People’s Perceptions of Food Security in Takmachik and Shey villages
Narratives of elderly people in two villages in Leh district describe a past where food was less in quantity and hunger common. In the past, as narrated by Leh residents, “people did not die of starvation”, owing to strong community bonds and reciprocity. Barley followed by wheat comprised the staple diet with meat, a few wild leafy vegetables, peas and lentils. At present the elderly and most middle-aged persons consume barley while children and youth rely on rice acquired from the PDS. Frequently, there is khambir or kholak with pickle or vegetables for breakfast, paba for lunch and thukpa for dinner.
“Food is good now as we get rice, atta and sugar from the ration depot and children bring money from Leh to buy food. However, food in past gave strength and kept illness away and people lived longer” (84 years old, woman of Takmachik village)
“Paba is not tasty but keeps the tummy full throughout the day. Even if we eat twice now, the rice in the stomach would not last for long” (woman, 75 years old, Shey village)
The following comments capture the views of a majority of persons regarding quantity and quality of food which is also illustrated by a 55 year old man of Takmachik village who shares that chhang, the local barley beverage is weaker today compared to the past when it was strained 2 to 3 times more. Apprehensions regarding adulteration of packaged food also find their way in discussions regarding food.Diet at present is varied and linkages with the market and PDS are intertwined with continuous access to adequate food as acknowledged by 60-year-old resident of Shey.
Life without the food depot from which come the rice and wheat is imagined by residents of Shey, a village where food crops are dwindling and land use diversifying to be problematic and many point towards the inaccessible location of Ladakh where transport linkages are tougher despite a secured income to purchase edibles and other resources. A 45-year-old man from Shey attributes the continuous supply of adequate quantity and quality of food to the PDS and to mulazim (white collar jobs), which make the purchase of food from the PDS possible.
66
Elderly residents of Takmachik village on the other hand perceive themselves to be more food secure as they produce “everything but rice” and for them the route back to subsistence, frugal diet of the past is simpler to follow.
The youth across the two differing contexts speak from the understanding of a higher standard of living and of an understanding of food security, which expands beyond mere quantity to include an array of nutritious and tasty meals. As mentioned by a young schoolteacher, rice is now a given and must remain so. While it is perceived that access to sufficient quality and quantity of food is uncertain, being dependent upon the market and the larger economy, the idea of what is sufficient has expanded and a higher yardstick is taken as a baseline today.
Thus security of food in Leh according to people of two villages, is associated with efficient functioning of and affordable access to the PDS which is distributing subsidized food-grain in Leh villages. Also, monetary income to purchase the food like rice is deemed essential and also contributes to food security. The villagers stationed closer to town, who rely on alternative livelihoods and salaried employment identify cash as the tool securing their access to food. Residents of the remote Takmachik village point to the existence of agro-pastoral activities and cultivation in their village, which anchors their food consumption and is the current source of continuous access to food. Takmachik dwellers are more comfortable with the thought of absence of the food depot and suggest the path of subsistence cultivation. People’s perceptions at Shey give impetus to exploration of alternative avenues and possibilities.
4.4.Diversification of crop patterns
4.4.1 Horticulture
The horticulture sector encompasses a wide range of crops e.g., fruit crops,
vegetables crops, potato and tuber crops, ornamental crops, medicinal and
aromatic crops, spices and plantation crops. Over the years, horticulture has
emerged as one of the potential agricultural enterprises in accelerating the
growth of economy. Its role in the country's nutritional security, poverty
alleviation and employment generation programmes is becoming increasingly
important. It offers not only a wide range of options to the farmers for crop
diversification, but also provides ample scope for sustaining large number of
Agro-industries, which generate huge employment opportunities. At present,
horticulture is contributing 24.5% of GDP from 8% land area23.
The unproductive lands belonging to the farmers, particularly those affected by
salinity / alkalinity and other erosion and land degradation problem can be
utilized profitably by introducing horticulture in these areas. This will not only
help in increasing the production of the much-needed horticultural produce but
23 Report of the working group on horticulture development (fruits, vegetables, tuber crops, floriculture, medicinal & aromatic plants, spices, plantation crops including tea, coffee and rubber) for the Tenth Five Year Plan
67
also help in rehabilitating the degraded area thereby providing remuneration to
the farmer.
Area expansion and the use of modern technology can lead to increased
production and improvement in productivity. This improvement needs to be
supplemented by adequate commercialization of horticulture production
through the improvements in quality of produce with scientific and technology
inputs, proper post-harvest management with development of infrastructure for
storage, processing, transport and distribution, backward linkages through
contract farming, etc. and marketing related programmes, with value addition
and product formulation.
Case study: Challenge posed to agriculture by economically viable alternative land use
options in Takmachik and Shey villages
Diversified land use in Ladakh is also reflected by the presence of poplar and willow trees,
which bring income. These line the fields in many villages and comprise an opportunity held
within the primary sector, which many farmers have identified. The tender tree trunks in the
villages of Shey and Takmachik are protected from being goat food by used cans of tinned food.
These trees are a recent addition and so are the tin cans and reduced number of sheep and goats.
Trees then are gradually displacing crops and livestock is decreasing, which in the past went
together with productive crops.
In the Shey, Thicksey, Chushoot belt land-use patterns have shifted to include the economically
remunerative activity of brick-making and Nepali migrants are employed for this commercial
task. While most people recount that the process hardens the soil, making it infertile, in the same
breath they highlight the fact that bricks fetch income more easily and in more quantity than
cultivation in the cooler Leh valley. The brick-making sites which dot Shey belt are nearly
absent from the fields of Takmachik in the warmer Sham valley where agriculture is more
productive and transport links for marketing finished bricks weaker.
4.4.2 Herbal medicine
In the national as well as international market the demand for herbal medicine
is increasing; According to the World Health Organization the estimated
68
global demand for medicinal plants is approximately US $14 billion per year24.
This demand for medicinal plant is growing at the rate of 15 to 20 percent per
year. In India, trade related to medicinal plants is estimated to be US $1 billion
per year approximately. The quantity of exports of these medicines has been
increasing rapidly, tripling in the year 2002-03 compared to 2001-0225.
The opportunity presented by the traditional medical systems of Ladakh need
to be thoroughly explored and realized. Time honoured medical traditions of
northern India such as Ayurveda and Tibetan are valued for their potential in
curing complex disease with minimal side effects at relatively low cost. The
plants used for various therapies are readily available, are easy to transport,
and have a relatively long shelf life. The success of this sector mainly depends
on the awareness and interest of the farmers as well as other stakeholders,
supportive government policies, availability of assured markets, profitable
price levels, and access to simple and appropriate agro-techniques. The
successful realization of the potential of medicinal plants sector may help raise
rural employment, boost commerce around the world, and contribute to the
health of millions.
Currently, the Field Research Laboratory of DRDO has initiated research in
possible combinations of herbs, which are useful for various purposes. The
FRL is demonstrating and experimenting on growing many of these herbs and
displays on shelves a number of these processed herbs, and herbal products
like medicines, health- promotive tonics, cosmetics which are patented by and
are the property of the FRL. In case an amchi is directly associated with a use
of a certain combination of herbs which is gauged useful and potential for
marketing is seen here by the FRL, then the local amchi is given a
predetermined proportion of patent rights over the final product. These herbal
patents easily enter the global market. Protection of Ladakhi people over the
herbs and natural resources of their land by government policy and
24 Developing the medicinal plants sector in northern India: challenges and opportunities Kala etal, August 200625 ibid
69
instrumental frameworks gains ground in a competitive research and business
environment where Ladakhis are marginally placed.
Case Study: Traditional form of medicine: Amchi
Amchi medicine, based on Tibetan traditions, is a form of medicine practiced in Tibet and
Ladakh. Herbal medicine practitioners known as Amchis are the principal health care
providers in many communities.
A total of 56 high-altitude plant species from 21 families are used to treat colds, coughs,
and fevers alone or in combination with other plants. These plants include yarrow
(Achilleamillefolium), Aconitum spp., Berberis lyceum, Chrysanthemum pyrethroides,
Ephedra
gerardiana, geranium (Geranium pratense), yellow sweetclover (Melilotus officinalis), P
Nepeta spp., depressed plantain (Plantago depressa), Himalayan mayapple
(Podophyllumhexandrum), black nightshade (Solanum nigrum), dandelion (Taraxacum
officinale), Waldheimia stoliczkai, Indian madder (Rubia cordifolia), and Rhodiola
heterodonta. The main plant families are Asteraceae (11 species), Gentianaceae (5 species),
Lamiaceae (4 species), Scrophulariaceae (3 species), and Orchidaceae (3 species). Of the 56
species, 24 are used to treat fever alone, 18 are used to treat cold, cough, and fever, and 13
are used to treat cold and cough. One plant, whorled mallow (Malva verticillata), is used to
treat whooping cough. The plant parts used are primarily whole plants (40%), fresh or dried
roots (25%), flowers (11%), and leaves (9%). Other parts used are the fruits, seed and leaf
combinations, tubers, stems, and flower and fruit combinations.(Chaurasia B, 2007).
There is an opportunity to popularize this storehouse of traditional wisdom. Production,
processing and marketing of these medicines is another area, which can be looked at to give
new dimension to Ladakhi agriculture.
4.4.3 Seed Production and Storage
The most important determinant of agricultural production is seed of
appropriate characteristics suited to the particular agro-climatic condition and
cropping systems. In India, the seed sector has made impressive progress over
the last three decades. The area under certified seeds has increased from less
than 500 hectares in 1962-63 to over 5 lakh hectares in 1999-2000. The
70
quantum of quality seed has crossed 100 lakh quintals26. Globalization and
economic liberalization have led to new opportunities in this sector. Currently,
India’s share in global seed export is less than 1%. The national goal is to raise
this to 10% by the year 202027. Also, enhanced seed production is necessary to
meet the national food security needs. Production and especially storage of
seed is in itself a potential opportunity, a service which can be profitable in the
market.
Ladakh provides excellent soil and climate for seed production28. The dry climate
of Ladakh region with low moisture content has been identified as naturally
suitable for preservation of seeds. Experimentation in the development and
production of seeds may be actively encouraged by the government. While not
a part of the traditional seed growing area, Ladakh has a potential to be a
special agro-climatic zone for seed production and storage and can be
developed as a Seeds Export Promotion Zone, as emphasized by the National
Seeds Policy, 2002. National markets can also be tapped. For example, potato
seeds will have a ready demand in Himachal Pradesh, Haryana and Western Uttar
Pradesh.
Seed Associations and Cooperatives
Seed associations and cooperatives are opportunities for seed producers to organize themselves
for spreading technical knowledge about quality seed production; providing services to members
such as credit, extension, processing and storage, and advocating with the government and other
institutions on behalf of their members. These associations can help members produce seed,
procuring from them after harvest, and finally process and market the seed. This seed supply
system where members support and manage themselves and do not rely on external sources can \
prove sustainable.
4.4.4 Irrigation as a challenge
26 National Seeds Policy, 2002. Available at: http://agricoop.nic.in/seedpolicy.htm27 Ibid 28 Jammu & Kashmir Development Report State Plan Division, Planning Commission, Government of IndiaAvailable at http://www.planningcommission.nic.in/plans/stateplan/stplsf.htm
71
Irrigation plays an important role in maintaining, raising and stabilizing food
production. The scarcity of water is the most pressing problem limiting the
expansion of agricultural productivity in Ladakh. Increasing the coverage of
irrigation can help bring more land under cultivation.
Traditional canals and khuls have well served the purpose of irrigating the
fields, but can be certainly modified more to optimally utilize the limited water
supply especially in the light of growing needs of the region. The water in
these canals is exposed directly to the strong sunlight and prone to get lost
through evaporation. Additionally the exposure to newer ways of life is
leading to a breakdown in the traditional cultural systems of cooperative
farming and water management, including the traditional Churpon system
(Thoray: Planning for People Centered Future, 2007)
Urbanization has further over-burdened the water eco-system of Ladakh.
Wastage of water has become a considerable problem with the change in
lifestyles, especially the increasing use of Western style toilets in urban Leh
(Joshi.S and Morup, T, 2003). With increase in tourism and population
pressure, the deficiencies are mounting. This has impacted availability of
precious water for irrigation (Kingsnorth. Paul, 2000). Therefore while the
scarcity of water is the chief limiting factor for agricultural productivity, the
introduction of fertilizer and pesticide-based agricultural technologies and high
yielding varieties of crops consume more quantity of water.
Rational use of scarce water resources with the help of appropriate
technologies suited to the peculiar landscape and climatic conditions of the
area is a challenge facing the local farmer as well as the administration. The
coarse sands and gravels of Ladakh, where moisture storage capacity is very
low and where the conveyance and spreading of water by surface flooding
would cause too much seepage, can be irrigated even on sloping ground by
means of drip, trickle, micro-sprayer or soil-embedded porous emitters that
apply the water frequently or continuously to the root zone at a controlled rate.
72
Such a well-managed irrigation system would control the spatial and temporal
supply of water so as to promote growth and yield, and enhance the economic
efficiency of crop production by applying water in amounts and at frequencies
calibrated to answer the time-variable crop needs. The system will optimize
growing conditions and also serve to protect the field environment against
degradation in the long term, helping in the efficient and sustainable use of
water and land29.
The suggested new irrigation systems would convey water to the field in
concrete-lined channels so as to avoid seepage losses, or preferably in closed
conduits that avoid pollution and allow pressurizing of the water thus
delivered. In the field, the water can be distributed via low-cost, weathering-
resistant plastic tubes, and be applied to the root zone by means of drip
emitters, micro-sprayers or porous bodies placed at or below the soil surface.
Human labour and local materials may substitute for industrially produced
devices where such are unavailable or too expensive, while retaining the
principles of efficient irrigation.
Figure 4.1 Drip Irrigation Systems
(Adapted from FAO (1997) Small-scale irrigation for arid zones: Principles
and options)
29 FAO (1997) Small-scale irrigation for arid zones: Principles and options
available at http://www.fao.org/docrep/W3094E/w3094e08.htm
73
The shortcomings of the new system need to be prepared for. The crop
depends vitally on the continuous operation of the system. Any short-term
interruption of the irrigation (whether caused by neglect, mechanical failure or
water shortage) can quickly result in severe distress to the crop. The imperative
to maintain continuous operation is difficult to meet if the system depends on
costly and vulnerable equipment imported from abroad. The system must
therefore be simplified so as to make the local farmers self-reliant. This
requires adaptation of technology to local needs through efforts in research and
development, supplemented with adequate training imparted to the end user.
The above suggestion works on the judicious use and distribution of scarce
water resources. The availability of water in Ladakh which comes primarily
from snow melt from glaciers (Cunningham, 1854; Singh, 1997; Gutschow,
1998; Koshal, 2001; Mann, 2002) and a few rivers is decreasing and is linked
to climate change and global warming. The government had encouraged
artificial glaciers for the storage of precipitation and for securing adequate
water for irrigation purposes for the summer season in few areas of Leh. Due
to the manpower and labour required for running this technology of artificial
glaciers in winter months and owing to the huge capital costs of promoting
newer models of artificial glaciers, this intervention has taken a backseat and is
seen as a costly investment by many experts. Opinions vary even at that level
and some feel that capturing the trickling water that gets wasted via artificial
glaciers is a more appropriate intervention than an exclusive focus on
conservation of water during it’s distribution. Both measures may
simultaneously lend to water a more secure place for irrigation purposes.
Case Study: Evolving Community Practices of water management at Shey village
The wide water canal of Shey village in Leh valley is built with earth. Drawing water from the Indus
which is at about the same altitude as the village terrain the canal has had abundant water till recently.
Recognizing this availability of water, the system of yurpun or the duty of assigning to each household
equitable stretches of the canal to clean and maintain had evolved unlike the villages in mountains facing water
scarcity where chudpons look into equitable water distribution. According to most Shey villagers, there was no
need for a chudpon in Shey till recently. The chudpon, a system which has now emerged in few hamlets of the
74
village as an adaptation to the needs of growing water scarcity which is also traced to climate change.
Adaptation of the chudpon system in villages like Sangkar and Gompa near Leh are outlined by Gutschow
(1998). The chudpons in these villages were paid the wage of the sweeper, sourced by the Ladakh government
after the decision was taken by the villagers themselves. People cleaned the roads themselves as they did in the
past, channelizing the available money to secure the office of the locally crucial chudpon.
4.4.5 Animal Husbandry
Decline in the livestock is a serious concern, as animal husbandry and the
agriculture are closely inter-related. Animals play a central role in an agro-
pastoral economy. The introduction cross-bred Jersey programme has had a
fair degree of success, without noticeable environmental problems, and milk-
yields have increased dramatically (Rizvi, Janet, 1996). Again, reducing
mortality among the animals and increasing the stocks are other important
areas to be looked at. Gauging the monetized orientation of the people, the
government has introduced some schemes like a monetary wage for rarezee’s
or office bearers who collectively heard sheep and goats. Despite interventions
the livestock strength has continued to dwindle. For most households, tending
livestock is fast becoming economically non-viable and is accentuated by the
shortage of labour as people take up alternative occupations and community
systems organizing the agro-pastoral lifestyles decline. Food and clothes which
earlier came from the land can be now purchased which is associated with a
fall in the need for manure which would have created better crops. As
livestock is dwindling, the future potential of Ladakhi agriculture is
increasingly seen along its traditionally organic character. Here, the dwindling
livestock strength is a crucial challenge.
4.4.6 Manure/Fertilisers
Ladakhi soils are characterized by low organic matter content and poor water
retention capacity. The pH of soil ranges from 7.4 to 9.5. There is a potential
problem of salinization especially on the flood plains of Indus. The variety of
soils in association with elevation and moisture availability (e.g. irrigation),
75
suggests the need for agro-ecosystem based diversified approach to
agricultural development in Ladakh.
The uptake of fertilizers is rapidly increasing with the move to techno-
intensive agriculture which might result in change of chemical composition of
soil and loss of fertility. In view of this, there is a need to emphasize the use of
organic manures, and revert to traditional technology for producing this,
including dry closets (the traditional chaksas). Vermiculture and composting
are other opportunities, which may be explored. Vermiculture however,
requires a certain level of moisture content and warmth for sustaining the
earthworms30, which is likely to be a challenge in the dry, windy and arid
climate of Ladakh.
Case Study: Farmer’s perceptions of chemical fertilizers and pesticides in Shey and
Takmachik
Most farmers report using a combined mixture of chemical fertilizers and a larger
proportion of organic, locally made manure. All relate that the urea and DAP fertilizers
make the soil hard and increase the weeds while nearly everyone relates the benefits of
chemical stimulants reaped by the crops. The wheat crop is longer, with more hay to feed
the cows which are rising in numbers at Shey after the government initiated the purchase of
milk through the corporative in Shey. Takmachik farmers have used little pesticides,
relying on worship and smoke from incense sticks till recently while farmers in both
villages reported a sudden rise in pests and insects. The residents of Shey are more
skeptical of the chemicals having encountered them for a longer duration.
4.4.7 Technology
Adapting technology for small-scale farmers would increase productivity and
alleviate poverty from mountains according to various accounts (Dach, Ott,
Klaey, Stillhardt, 2006). Incorporation of appropriate technology to bring more
land under cultivation and to increase yields in order to meet the requirements
of the growing population is important. The current policy promotes extensive 30 The earthworms most used for the vermiculture process are called asnia-fatida and they require a certain level of moisture and warmth to live. Too much or too little moisture is harmful for the worms. (From the experiences of Murarka Foundation in Jaipur and Vistaar Mother’s Own, a Sri Aurobindo Society Centre Bijnor, Uttarpradesh)
76
mechanization of agriculture with the use of machines like power tillers, multi-
crop threshers, irrigation pumps etc. The effective implementation of this
policy is dependent upon the availability of electricity, itself a scarce resource
in Ladakh. A study outlining the long term strategy for mechanization of
agriculture in different agro climatic zones in India has recommended
increasing the generation of power in Jammu and Kashmir State31
Mechanization is rising in the Himalayan region (Byers and Sainju, 1994)
while the constraints peculiar to the larger region are concerned with the small,
irregular shaped fields.
The same SWOT analysis puts forth that Himalayan farmers are keen to adopt
improved tools that reduce drudgery making farming a lucrative choice. Small
tractors, tillers, pumping sets drips and sprinklers, horticultural tools, mini
processing units are seen to hold promise for hill regions. Post harvest
technology, packaging could add value to earnings of primary producers.
Corresponding threats have been identified in the same paper (Alam, nd) as a
loss of land productivity resulting from unsystematic mechanization, migration
of skilled youth towards comparatively remunerative livelihoods in nearby
urban centers.
Case study: Opportunities and Constraints of Technology in Shey and Takmachik villages
Technology is often seen as a neutral tool used for the purpose of increasing agricultural yield.
Experiences of farmers in Leh villages highlight both the pros and cons of mechanization. The benefits
are saving labour and time. Saving costs and effort. The drawbacks of mechanization are outlined as
follows:- The fields are of various shapes, sizes and with land fragmentation these are getting smaller
making mechanization tougher. Machines are not conducive for step fields, which comprise the type of
fields of many villages in Leh’s Mountains. Use of tractor has to be interspersed with ploughing by and
animal (dzo) each year as the tractor digs the soil’s surface leaving the earth underneath to get harder
and grow weeds. The fodder, bhoosa or the locally called fugma gets mixed with the mud when power
threshers are used instead of the traditional animals and this causes tummy upset for animals consuming
this fodder.
4.4.8 Greenhouse Cultivation
31 Alam, Anwar (nd), ‘4 Long Term Strategies and Programmes for Mechanization of Agriculture in Agro Climatic Zone 1: western Himalaya Region’, Sher-e Kashmir University of Agricultural Sciences and Technology of Kashmir , Srinagar, J&K, India
77
Use of greenhouses has proved to extend the agricultural season by five
months in this region. In the prevailing scenario, Greenhouse cultivation
technology in Ladakh is an important avenue of bringing in vegetable
production on a commercial scale. The currently existing type of greenhouse
remains limited to individual households catering to their own consumption.
Fig 4.2 Improved Low cost Greenhouse in Ladakh
Size:
• Length: 32 ft
• Width: 16 ft
• Height: 7ft
• Wall: Single, without roof
There is an opportunity to go for commercial level production of vegetables as
seen in China. The Chinese model produces vegetables and flowers
commercially. Keeping the climatic conditions of Ladakh and the niche of
neighbouring Kashmir valley with regard to floriculture in mind we suggest
relegating to floriculture as a commercial option a backseat if at all it is given
any consideration.
78
The specifications of the Chinese greenhouse are as follows:
• Length-80m
• Width-8.5m
• Height of the North wall-3.84m
• Total height-4.2m
• Wall thickness at the bottom-1.8m
• At the top-1.2m
• Width of roof-1.2m
• Roof angle-45degree
• Covered straw-mat during night
Figure 4.3 Commercial Greenhouse in China
The same structure as designed under Chinese climatic conditions can be adopted with
some minor changes as follows: Structures should be 50 cm deep from ground level
and:
South facing with
10° East or West
adjustments according to
sunshine at the site.
Smaller in size more
preferably 25 to 30 Mtrs
length.
Backside wall four-brick width i.e. 1 to 1.2 Mtrs
Less height
Structure with 36° to 40° at front
Breath of the structure as per availability of polyethylene material
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covering with straw sheet or any other clothing material is must during
winter months
Crops to be sown under mulching
Crops to be grown: Tomato, Cauliflower, Capsicum,Chinese Wangbok
(leafy vegetable)
Case Study: Experience of some farmers with greenhouses
The government has actively promoted greenhouse technology which is a frequent sight in most
Ladakhi homes in Leh district where vegetable production for self consumption is undertaken. All
homes in Shey and Takmachik villages have atleast one greenhouse each. Takmachik farmers,
capitalizing on the opportunity inherent in their comparatively warmer climate, intensified by the
existence of greenhouses share that “everything but rice grows in their village”. Many farmers
have grown exotic vegetables, flowers and salads here while others use the greenhouse structure
for uses other than cultivation also. Many have decreased the use of greenhouses after the
government stopped the supply of polythene bags which initially it has subsidized in order to
promote it’s use. Introduction of farther greenhouse technology in such villages then, would need
to consider the previous strategies and their effect on the intrinsic motivation of farmers.
Design of commercial greenhouse for Ladakh: a demonstration
A joint team of policy makers from LAHDC, agricultural scientists, engineers,
personnel from non-profit-development organizations, researchers from TISS-
Ladakh had made a visit to Lanzhou University, in Lanzhou Province of China
in March- April 2007 to study the Chinese models of Green houses. Based on
the visit, a green house model was designed for use in Leh. The model
designed is given below. The demonstration model on basis of this was made
in government’s experimental farm “Gopuk” in Leh in 2007. While writing
this report, the vegetables grown in this green house are thriving in the severe
winter temperatures of – 38°C. Documentation of this is on-going and there is
hope that this model may be successfully taken up by villagers for commercial
production of vegetables.
80
Figure 4.4 Design of Commercial Greenhouse for Ladakh
Expected benefits of the above are as follows:
• Running cost: Rs. 30,000
• Average yield: 5,500 kg/GH/year
• Average income: Rs 120,000/GH/year
• Average benefits: Rs 90,000/GH/year
• Pay back period (total cost): less than 2 years
Remark: the plastic sheet needs to change every 2 years
Thus greenhouse offers much potential for vegetable production in Ladakh and
has been explored and found to be a viable option. The challenge in sustaining
81
the greenhouses lies in the manner in which they are introduced and promoted
and accessed by farmers.
What emerged as a linked issue was the need to prioritise human resource
development in Leh. Several competent personnel exist in the agricultural
department and in the NGO sector. They would benefit immensely from
exposure visit to institutions working in mountainous regions within and
outside India.
4.5 Food Processing
Unemployment among the educated youth in the area is the result of apathy
towards traditional agriculture which is labor- intensive and non-remunerative.
To offer ample opportunities and freedoms to this human resource, the
development of alternative livelihood opportunities is another challenge before
the Ladakhi society. Impetus to cash crop cultivation with a shift towards
valued products like, medicinal herbs, fruits, premium and exotic vegetables,
and flowers and the development of the food processing industry dependent on
these is another prospective area of growth.
Osmotic dehydration of apricots, hygienic solar drying, packaging and
marketing are avenues in this industry. Apricot jams, preserves, juice, apricot
oil (cosmetic industry and local consumption), apricot shell scrub (cosmetic
industry), tomato puree, seabuckthorn juice and oil are products unique to
Ladakh, which can be capitalized by this industry. The major challenge facing
this industry is the limited period when it can operate. For overcoming this,
there is a need to strengthen the storage facility. Controlled atmosphere storage
can help prevent wastage of agricultural produce and can help extend the food
processing period with storage of partly processed produce. Further developing
marketing chains for these products outside Leh is also essential.
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Food processing- Seabuckthorn
A local resource is the seabuckthorn plant, locally known as Tsermang, rich in medicinal and nutritional value. The
Ladakh Autonomous Hill Development Council, Leh authorized cooperatives to collect berries and extract pulp for sale
in order to optimize this resource. It also disallowed private companies from entering this business due to the history of
exploitation of local farmers in the past. In this manner, the work of the cooperatives with the support of the LAHDC has
made tremendous achievement in the furthering of this local industry, to the advantage of the local cultivators, berry
collectors and others working in the processing units, as is evident from the table:
Year Quantity of berry collected (KG.)
Amount paid to berry collectors (RS.)
Quantity of pulp extracted (KG.)
Value of pulp/seed & peel (RS.)
Expenses including cost berries(RS.)
200
4
13501
7
20,25,2
55
73700 48,27,3
50
37,58,700
200
5
21999
5
32,85,0
75
11825
0
79,77,1
45
51,15,946
200
6
13752
2
23,42,4
64
81850 59,28,5
60
41,32,919
Source: Dy. Registrar, Cooperative Societies, Leh
Case study: Solar Drier
A Solar Drier to trap the energy of sunlight through a solar panel and pass hot air over apricots to
dry them in eight hours, as compared to the traditional sun drying for weeks in the open, was
installed by the Sham Fruit and Vegetable Growers Cooperative Society with the technical
collaboration of a Maduria (Tamil Nadu), an NGO. The technology has proved to be cost effective
and hygienic for producing a marketeable product. The dehydrated apricots are then sold in New
Delhi through Tribal Cooperative Marketing Development Federation of India Ltd. The
achievements during 2006 are as under:
Cost price of raw material (apricot) Rs. 98,410Expenditure Rs. 66,595Sale of apricot pulp, fruit and oil Rs. 2,01,500Net saving Rs. 36,495
Source: Dy. Registrar, Cooperative Societies, Leh
Problems faced in using this technology are many: the system does not work in cloudy weather;
electricity, a scarce resource in Ladakh, is needed to run the fan; a diesel generator cannot be used
as it adds to the cost; poor marketing techniques hamper the sales; crop damage due to
unpredictable climatic conditions can have a very negative effect on the entire cycle by reducing
83
the availability of raw material itself.
4.6 Organic farming
Traditional Ladakhi agricultural techniques are organic. These techniques have
evolved over time in a manner suited to the environment and are unique. They
need to be preserved in line with the approach of ‘Globally Important
Agricultural Heritage Systems’ as generations of farmers and herders have
developed ingenious farming systems to overcome extreme climatic
conditions, geographic isolation and scarcity of natural resources32. This will
give an opportunity to promote Ladakhi agriculture and also to preserve it in
its original organic form.
There is an opportunity for setting up a mechanism for organic certification
and marketing for catering to growing domestic market, tourists and exports.
This technique has a potential for realizing a price premium of 20-30% over
chemical intensive agriculture. To support organic farming equipment for
mechanized composting, compost palliation, handling, transport and
application of manure in the field in liquid and solid forms will be required.
Such equipment will be required to be imported/ adopted/developed and
popularized.
Together with the use of equipment which is to correspond to local contexts
for appropriate output, encouraging farmers to keep livestock as has been
previously undertaken through various innovative schemes packages and
policies which are attractive to the farmers for maintaining the livestock
strength would together with the maintenance in use preference of the
traditional dray toilets, facilitate a continuous supply of organic manure by
itself.
Laborious, time consuming and expensive process of livestock rearing and the
corresponding reduction of livestock strength are the major challenges facing
32 http://www.fao.org/sd/giahs/index.asp
84
organic farming. Animals provide the primary raw material and input of
manure for organic or green farming.
Drop in livestock is also linked with a move away from agro-pastoral activities
and the advent of schools which have taken most children and youth away
from the farms. Viability of organic farming vis a vis the dwindling livestock
strength in Leh could be explored. Benefits of fertilizers are also recounted by
many farmers and complete negation of these advantages and comforts is also
not advisable.
4.7 Development of Market Mechanisms
Markets are crucial for commoditization of agricultural produce and market
oriented production is identified as a way of earning higher incomes, making
agro-pastoral occupation more lucrative. However, market oriented production
may create a privileged group of farmers (Sanginga, Best, Chitsike, Delve,
Kaaria, Kirkby, 2004:290). The biggest challenge before entrepreneurs and the
cooperatives is to market the agricultural produce. The population of the
region is very low, with a population density of two persons per square
kilometer (area). Therefore, there is little scope of developing local markets.
During the short summer, which is the peak tourist season, there is a demand
of locally processed food such as jams, jellies, juices, dried apricots etc. This is
a small (approximately 36,000 tourists) and unstable market for basing the
sales of the entire agricultural produce. Bigger markets in Chandigarh and
Delhi could be targeted by the entrepreneurs and farmers. However, due to
logistical difficulties, unfamiliarity with the market structure, lack of
marketing expertise and contacts, and improper packaging, most entrepreneurs
remain restricted to Leh, and cannot venture to demand centers in cities in the
plains. This area needs LAHDC, government, cooperative societies and civil
society intervention.
Local products such as apricot oil, apricot scrub, seabuckthorn juice and oil,
organic agricultural produce, pashm shawls, handicrafts etc. can be retailed
85
through a chain of retail outlets established across the country. The
government and cooperatives could take initiative in setting up these to market
local produce and also to popularize Ladakhi cultural products. Organic
agricultural produce is a unique opportunity in these outlets as recent demand
for organic food has been increasing.
The small-scale industries operating in the region do not have powerful brand
and quality assurance so as to attract customers for their products. Also there is
no coordination between these industries in terms of sharing of knowledge
experience and their expertise. There is an opportunity to set up a marketing
board with an umbrella brand, common marketing efforts and market channel
along the lines of the corporative Amul located in Anand, Gujarat.
Cooperatives serve as major income generators for producers in Leh. Their
role in enhancing the marketability of produce could greatly be strengthened
by the government. As of date, there are 110 cooperatives in the district. There
are 79 primary agricultural societies, 8 sales and services societies, and 6
marketing societies as of 2002-03. In agriculture, apart from four marketing
cooperatives supplying vegetables to the armed forces, there is only one
cooperative working on Seabuckthorn collection and processing. Initiatives
like osmotic dehydration of apricots and its marketing and Seabuckthorn
processing are partially/fully under the LAHDC. Therefore their growth rate
has been fairly slow and stagnant
Traditional agriculture practices have ensured that the grain, vegetable and
food crops produced in Ladakh are pure organic products. This can be used
effectively as a marketing tool to give an impetus to the social and economic
status of women, as they have an important role to play in traditional
agricultural practices. A case to be learnt from is that of Uttarakhand (Women
86
Aiming for Agro-Enterprises)33. Economic empowerment is crucial for women
in the monetized world where their work gets increasingly devalued vis a vis
that of men folk The potential of vegetable cultivation as an income source for
women has been previously recognized by the LAHDC. On one hand
encouraging income earning for women contributes to overall empowerment
while an exclusive focus on economic empowerment holds the threat of
viewing women from a purely efficiency lens, leading to a rise in their chores
without a corresponding rise in decision-making power to use the income
earned by them themselves. Vegetable cultivation as a venture needs to be
encouraged for the economic empowerment of women in the following light.
There is a need to look into women’s exercise of choice, decision-making
power along their changing economic role in the family, which is associated
closely with vegetable cultivation.
Case study: Women Aiming For Agro-Enterprises, Uttarakhand
Women cultivators, traditionally responsible for almost all agricultural activities, rarely use chemical
fertilizers and high yielding seed varieties, despite promotion of these inputs, and have so ensured that
the produce is purely organic. After Uttarakhand was declared an organic state, state patronage is being
extended to it. Traditional cooperative groups of women have understood the benefits of collective action
and management of indigenous knowledge systems. Women of different SHGs have taken up
entrepreneurial roles in enhancing production based on market demand and linking it with the market for
generating income. The SHGs are linked to the Rawain Women’s Cooperative Federation (formed by the
NGO Himalayan Action Research Centre (HARC) in the late 1990s). The members of the cooperative
federation engage in different income generating activities such as collection of spices, pulses and millet
from different SHGs and also provide advanced training in grading, packing, quality control, and
processing of collected materials, and also in production planning and collective marketing. The
Federation also formulated a marketing strategy for appropriate market channels for proper product
supply. The advantage of this strategy was an increased accessibility to the market with a better
understanding of the dynamics and trends of the market and therefore enhanced the bargaining skills of
the women involved. A market for traditional crops such as buckwheat, horsegram and foxtail millet has
been created. At present the products of the Womens Federation are available in eight outlets, 14
mandies and 16 cities in India including Delhi, Ahmedabad, Hyderabad and Mumbai. The Women’s
33 Adapted from Sati, M. and Juyal, R. (2008) ‘A Gender Approach to Sustainable Rural Development of Mountains: Women’s Successes in Agro-enterprises in the Indian Central Himalayan Region’ in Mountain Research and Development, Vol. 28, No.1. Feb 2008, p.8-12
87
Cooperative Federation products have also been displayed at different national level fairs and exhibitions
such as Agriculture Expo, International Trade Fair, Delhi, National Women Farmers’ Fair, Ahmedabad,
Uttarakhand Mahotsav, Dehradun, and have achieved good market results. The Mother Dairy in New
Delhi purchases vegetables and traditional crops at market price directly from the Federation without any
intermediaries on a weekly payment basis, paying women farmers through account payee cheques to
their Federation. In this cooperative marketing pattern estimation the ex-farm value of traditional crops,
is worth about Rs.30 million, along with an annual turnover of Rs. 45 million per annum. The average
annual return for each SHG is estimated at Rs. 1 to 1.5 million. Due to collective entrepreneurship, the
annual employment of each farmer has increased 1.66 times.
The Women’s cooperative federation has emerged as a role model of sustainable rural livelihood. More
than 4000 members of the Federation have taken up the initiative to increase crop diversification,
production and quality control through agri-business activities in a systematic and planned manner.
Finally few of the government officials were of the opinion that the
development and marketing of pashmina, organic farming, seed production,
etc. would gain if we can form different board for different field under one
umbrella of LAHDC, Leh. This they felt would hasten the pace of
development.
4.8 Conclusion
After centuries of isolation, Ladakh is now integrating with the rest of the
world through the process of economic development and globalization. The
advent of the army, the opening up of tourism, and especially the building of
infrastructure and a network of roads and schools initiated a process of radical
change in the society’s internal dynamics and traditions. With these changes
has come a rise in population, a population with new outlook, aspirations, new
demands and new needs emerging from the changing social and economic
structures, and the changing values and attitudes. As prosperity rises in
Ladakh, so does disparity. There is a need for higher production and income to
improve livelihoods, at the same time protecting the environment and culture
of Ladakh against the negative side effects of economic transformation
necessary for higher incomes.
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Agriculture was the basis of the traditional subsistence economy and now
presents an opportunity for spread of the market economy to meet the needs
and expectations of the people in earning their livelihood and achieving a
higher level of living. Increase in productivity together with the search for and
harnessing of niche-based products and services through the establishment of
dependable and equitable market links can overcome the constraints of
seasonality and remoteness unique to Ladakh.
Intervention to gear the FAO and Public Distribution system in Ladakh
towards purchasing cereals from Ladakhi farmers rather than importing from
elsewhere in the nation would encourage the continuation of production of
food grains and cereals which is currently under threat in Ladakh and would
help to rope in food security for the region.
Ladakhi agriculture of today will thus have to adapt and adopt a mix of the
tradition with the modern in techniques and technologies for optimizing this
sector. This has to be coupled with efforts in building human capacity,
enterprise and skill; and improving institutional arrangements and physical
infrastructure.
The most important challenge facing policy today is making agriculture a
valued occupational option. A breakdown of the traditional agricultural
system, in which crop and animal husbandry were integrated into a single
system suited to the peculiar environment of the region, and which managed to
keep the Ladakhis relatively prosperous for centuries, would also mean the
breakdown of the social structures of which it is an integral part. The hard-
won experience of generations has created farming and herding system, which
managed to maintain the fertility of the soil without fallowing or use of
artificial fertilizers through a symbiosis of the two activities by harnessing all
locally available resources. Since this region is one whose economy is and will
remain basically a rural one, it is necessary to harness that experience and
knowledge to address modern needs.
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We would like to end with a quote from Janet Rizvi, 1998, which beautifully
captures the hope for Ladakh, and for the Himalayan region as a whole:
“If the voluntary agencies working side by side with the Hill Council,
can carry through and fulfill the processes they have initiated, and if
others among the Ladakhis can similarly look clear-eyed at the modern
world, and respond to it with equal discrimination, then perhaps there is
room for cautious optimism about Ladakh’s future. I cherish the hope
that the region’s traditional entrepreneurial expertise and agricultural
excellence, allied to whatever appropriate inputs the modern world can
offer, may become the foundations on which the people of Ladakh can
build a society that prides itself on its self-reliance…… Ladakh might
then prove to be an inspiration for other ecologically fragile mountain
regions of the world.”
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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
Background
Ladakh is an administrative region of the state of Jammu and Kashmir with two
districts: Leh and Kargil, which are characterized by an extremely cold and arid climate.
Being one of the highest and driest inhabited areas, the soil is coarse and sandy,
characterized by low organic matter. Despite these limitations of land productivity,
agriculture has been the chief occupation of the people for ages. The chief crops are
barley and wheat and more recently, potatoes. Through the use of complex indigenous
methods of irrigation, and cooperative systems of labour-sharing on the fields,
agriculture, in symbiosis with livestock rearing, has been responsible for the relative self
sufficiency and subsistence of the Ladakhis.
Changing Scenario
The war with China has positioned Ladakh as an important strategic zone and
there exists a strong presence of the army. The area was opened up to tourists in 1974.
The influx of tourists, military personnel, merchants, and laborers along with the
developmental interventions of the state including building of modern schools,
infrastructure and introduction of newer technologies has led to wide ranging changes in
the traditional way of life.
The large scale commercialization of the economy has channeled changes in
cropping patterns, introduction of new breeds of livestock and the emergence of small
scale industries along with a transformation in the humans engaged in the agriculture
sector.
The availability of newer livelihood options and the increasing importance of
money in a traditional subsistence economy has meant that more and more people,
especially youngsters, are finding agriculture economically unviable and are moving
away from it. Internal migration, rapid urbanization and the increasing numbers of
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tourists are putting pressure on amenities, fragile environment and the worldviews of
people in Leh.
Policy initiatives are in place to modernize agriculture and livestock rearing. The
objectives revolve around increasing productivity to feed the rising population and to
meet the local food requirements. Making agro-pastoral activities economically
remunerative in order to attract human resources are also a goal. Translation of these
objectives into reality has been through a variety of interventions and schemes. These
have included changes in cropping patterns, the introduction of mechanization, linking
up to newer markets, introduction of newer and more productive varieties of seed,
vegetables and livestock breeds along with training and local capacity building.
Challenges and Opportunities
The number of cultivators has decreased and the contribution of agriculture to
the economy is an insignificant 1-2% in monetary terms. Yet, agriculture forms the
mainstay of the population. Therefore it is a major challenge to turn agriculture into a
commercial, yet non-exploitative activity in tune with the ethos that makes Ladakh
unique. It is advisable to tap the economic and social benefits of agro-pastoral pursuits
and extend these to the people.
The opportunities presented by the unique climatic and soil conditions of
Ladakh, and the traditional farming technologies can be capitalized by combining them
with global advances in trade and technology through various initiatives.
Diversification of crop patterns to increase share of horticulture, especially
expansion to areas prone to salinity and alkalinity. This needs to be supplemented by
adequate commercialization of horticulture production through the improvements in
quality of produce with scientific and technology inputs, proper post-harvest
management with development of infrastructure for storage, processing, transport and
distribution, backward linkages through contract farming, etc. and marketing related
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programmes, with value addition and product formulation.. Production and storage of
seeds for commercial purposes is another opportunity.
The scarcity of water is one of the most pressing problems limiting the
expansion of agricultural productivity in Ladakh Increasing the coverage of irrigation
can help bring more land under production purpose. These measures have already been
initiated by the developmental interventions of LAHDC. Rational use of scarce water
resources with the help of appropriate technologies suited to the peculiar landscape and
climatic conditions of the area need to be promoted. A well-managed irrigation system
through the use of drip, trickle, micro-sprayer or soil-embedded porous emitters needs to
be explored to serve the twin purposes of water conservation and adequate irrigation.
This is to be supplemented by concrete lined canals to minimize evaporation losses as is
already being arranged. Most efforts currently are concentrated on saving the water loss
during distribution and through evaporation. Experts have been previously engaged with
construction of artificial glaciers in Leh. These while viewed to expensive ventures are
assets nevertheless which help to tap on snow melt which otherwise trickles down and
goes waste. Appropriate versions of such technology may be considered to save water
resource a step before distribution. Quantity is gradually depleting as climate change
goes unchecked. There is need for involvement and participation in collective action at
an international level to deal with global warming and secure water for Ladakh in the
long run.
Organic farming holds tremendous marketing opportunity. The reliance on
fertilizers should be decreased in order to promote organic produce, which has high
market value, and also to protect the chemical composition of the soil.
Effective organic farming is however contingent upon the availability and
readiness to use organic inputs and procedures for farming. Leh is witnessing dwindling
livestock strength and the simultaneous fall in quantity of manure is a threat to the
continuation of organic farming which has to be addressed. Drop in livestock is also
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linked with a move away from agro-pastoral activities and the advent of schools, which
have taken most children, and youth away from the farms.
Despite introduction of incentives including monetary ones through government
schemes and policies, livestock numbers have continued to decline. Cultural transitions
have crossed many steps; keeping pace has often meant adoption of fast growing HYV
seed, chemical inputs, pesticides.
There is an urgent need to devote technical expertise and research this issue of
viability of organic farming vis a vis the dwindling livestock strength in Leh. Benefits of
fertilizers are also recounted by many farmers. Complete negation of these advantages
and comforts is also not advisable and therefore locally suitable homeostasis has to be
arrived at till in future Ladakh can become a 100% organic agriculture zone.
Large-scale commercial greenhouses are another possibility for expanding the
agriculturally productive season as well as the produce. Drawing from interviews we
found that many farmers rely heavily on frequent reinforcement by the government to
use the greenhouse technology optimally. The polythene sheets are neglected once the
subsidies drop. Such operant-conditioning contingencies need to be broken so that
farmers themselves get motivated to utilize the instruments available for their own
benefit. This may be undertaken through experiential trainings where cost- benefits are
explained or through innovative advertising of agricultural products.
Overall, while mechanization holds immense potential with regard to reducing
the drudgery, labour and time involved in production process it has various side effects.
Ad hoc mechanization can be harmful as can the use of fuel and electricity which are
consumed by the machines for environment and natural resources as well as for the
health and nutrition of the people. Experiments with alternative renewable energy like
solar and wind, which are already in process, are a positive step.
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The changes in agricultural productivity need to be complemented by the
establishment of agro-dependent industries such as food processing, transportation and
distribution and retail. Marketing mechanisms, especially cooperatives need to be
encouraged. Market linkages are seen as a possible opportunity for lending to agro-
pastoral products a chance to fetch an income and making the primary sector an
attractive employment source. Simultaneously, markets have been associated with
increased disparities between the small and big farmers, benefiting the latter.
Possibilities of skewed growth and inequitable benefits need to be given careful
attention keeping in mind the relatively egalitarian social structure of Ladakh.
Transport linkages are crucial for marketing of perishable products. Often the
regions, which are remote and inaccessible, are favorably placed along topography and
altitude for “value added” agricultural production. Strengthening transport
infrastructure, which is also catalyzing development, is a related goal.
Market linkages and vegetable cultivation have been clubbed with women’s
empowerment in Ladakh. While the newer opportunities hold potential for economic
earnings and empowerment, they carry the flipside of adding on to women’s chores and
pressurizing them to earn, viewing them from a purely efficiency lens. Economic
empowerment is crucial for women in the monetized world where their work gets
increasingly devalued vis a vis that of men folk. There is a need to look into women’s
exercise of choice, decision-making power along their changing economic role in the
family, which are associated closely with vegetable cultivation.
Horticulture and vegetable cultivation along with cultivation of fodder and food
grains are recommended according to the comparative advantages of regions in Leh for
their production. Medicinal herbs have been recently identified as a lucrative
investment. For this to operationalize, it is essential to trace the patenting actions of the
FRL, which may unintentionally place the benefits of these ventures beyond the reach of
Ladakhi farmers. .
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Another short-term measure suggested for encouraging the production of food
grains and keeping agriculture intact is a proposed suggestion for purchase of wheat and
barley from Ladakhi farmers by the FAO to be sold in Ladakh itself. Currently, the PDS
makes available wheat for less than its production cost through its outlets. The local
grains are not purchased rendering agriculture weak.
People are moving away from agriculture because it is economically less
remunerative as the soil and climatic conditions are comparatively less favorable for
cultivation and simultaneously the lucrative, alternative livelihoods are more suited to
local terrain. Like most mountain landscapes tourism holds great potential and the
motivators and pull factors associated with alternative livelihoods are also weaning
youth away from agro- pastoral activities. Keeping the single cropping season and
climatic constraints in mind we note that agriculture is not the sole strength of Ladakh
region as a whole. Also the competition it faces from within Jammu and Kashmir is
huge.
In cases of certain villages, which are in an advantageous position to grow value,
added products like vegetables, market linkages with nearby tourist spots may be
forged. In other villages, which favour tourism, alternate employment and are only
marginally conducive for cultivation for the market, agriculture could be practiced on a
smaller scale. Here, it could be self-consumption oriented to prevent the land from being
fallow and loosing fertility. Appropriate agricultural schemes in those regions, which
bear the niche of the Ladakh region in agricultural produce like sea buckthorn in Nubra,
apricot and apple at Takmachik, would boost the economy.
Conclusion
The traditional entrepreneurial expertise and agricultural excellence can be
appropriately combined with modern methods and technologies to find a future for
agriculture in the region by enabling a future for its practitioners. A commercially viable
agriculture will not only increase vocational choices, but also contribute to the self-
sufficiency of the region’s economy.
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The Leh terrain is varied and the broad policy guidelines embedded in this
document are generic. In order to maximize benefits, to optimally utilize the available
resources and opportunities within the constraints of the fragile environment, local
specificities need to be carefully considered before designing interventions. Macro
policies, which are totally generic and overlook the diverse intra regional and intra
mountain local differences are bound to bring imperfect results. Thus the need for
tailoring all interventions and change to micro contexts with an understanding of local
strengths and constraints is most crucial.
This report may sound contradictory at times. The issues and choices faced by
the farmers and agriculture sector are not black and white. Paradoxical prescriptions
may at times suit local contexts best. It is for optimally building upon these diverse local
strengths with a realistic range of options that contrasting recommendations and
competing interventions are outlined together.
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THE EVIDENCE BASE OF THE REPORT
The evidence base of this report includes three sources of information. The first and
main source of information comes from official data: published documents, unpublished
written documents. To this is an added extensive and in-depth review of existing
literature including scientific and research articles, books, policy reviews, evaluation
reports and ‘grey’ literature.
The second source of information consists of data gathered through interviews with civil
servants/ government functionaries/authorities in the fields of agriculture, livestock
husbandry, civil engineering and forestry. Discussions were also held with Council
members of LAHDC and few civil society organizations/members. Detailed interview
were especially done with Mr. Lampa Norboo, EC Agriculture; Mr. Aziz Mir, a retired
agricultural scientist; Mr. Abdul Ghani Sheikh, a renowned historian and writer, Mr.
Joldan, Deputy Registrar Cooperatives Marketing Societies, Leh; Mr. Sonam Norboo,
Chief Horticulture Officer; Mr. Dorjay, Joint Director Agriculture; Mr Thinles Dawa,
Senior Agricultural Officer and Dr. T. Phuntsog, District Sheep Husbandry Officer, Leh.
The third and last source are the case studies of Shey and Takmachik villages which
have been drawn from the MA in SW, TISS dissertation of Varsha Patel titled People’s
Perceptions of Changes in Agriculture and Lifestyle in Rural Leh, Ladakh, 2008 and a
case study titled A Study Of Agricultural Produce And Marketing In Leh, 2007 done by
a MA in SW student Hemant, M, for his Blocks in TISS. These three case studies
together provide useful in-depth analysis at micro-level. This approach enabled the
report to draw on knowledge bases from a variety of research traditions and
perspectives.
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