Alabama’sBest MManagement

Practicesfor FForestry

Alabama’sBest MManagement

Practicesfor FForestry

PHOTOGRAPHS CONTRIBUTED BY:

Jeremy Lowery, Alabama Forestry Commission

Stephen Hudson, Auburn University, School of Forestry & Wildlife Sciences

Lacy Kendrick, Buchanan Forest Products, Selma, Alabama

GRAPHICS COURTESY OF:

South Carolina Forestry Commission

Tennessee Division of ForestryTurton, et al., 1992.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTSFunding for this project provided by the Forests Forever Foundation; the USDA Forest Service; Alabama Department of Conservation and

Natural Resources, State Lands Division, Coastal Section, in part, by a grant from the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration,

Office of Ocean and Coastal Resource Management, Award #06NOS4190235.

In accordance with federal law and Alabama Forestry Commission policy, this agency does not discriminate on the basis of race, color, national origin, sex, age, or disability. (Not all prohibited bases apply to all programs).

To file a complaint of program discrimination write to: Alabama Forestry Commission, Title VI Coordinator, PO Box 302550, Montgomery, AL 36130 or call (334) 240-9342.

The Alabama Forestry Commission is an equal opportunity employer and provider.

Foreword . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Page 1

Specifications for Individual BMPs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Page 3

1. Streamside Management Zones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Page 4

2. Stream Crossings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Page 6

3. Forest Roads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Page 9

4. Timber Harvesting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Page 13

5. Reforestation/Stand Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Page 15

6. Forested Wetland Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Page17

7. Revegetation/Stabilization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Page 22

Appendices

1. Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Page 24

2. Additional Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Page 28

3. Sources of Technical Assistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Page 31

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Water Quality Management in Alabama

The Alabama Environmental Management Act

authorizes the Alabama Department of

Environmental Management (ADEM) to establish

and enforce water quality standards, regulations

and penalties in

order to carry out

the provisions of

state and federal

water quality laws.

From that authori-

zation, ADEM

Administrative

Code prohibits the

deposition of pollu-

tants into or the

degradation of the

physical, chemical,

or biological

integrity of waters

of the state (see

glossary for defini-

tions). With regard

to silviculture, non-

point source pollu-

tants include, but

are not limited to,

sediment, organic

materials, tempera-

ture, trash, pesti-

cides and nutrients

(see glossary for

definitions and

impacts) that are

man induced.

In addition, the

Alabama Water

Pollution Control

Act states that ADEM shall have the authority to

propose remedial measures necessary to clean up

waters that have been determined to be polluted.

ADEM advocates, however, that avoiding environ-

mental problems through voluntary application of

preventative techniques is much less expensive,

more cost effective and practical than restoration

after the fact.

The Alabama Forestry Commission’sRole in Best Management Practices

The Alabama Forestry Commission was estab-

lished and is mandated by Code of Alabama, 1975,

Section 9-3-4 (1), to protect, conserve, and increase

the timber and forest resources of the state. All citi-

zens of Alabama

are our valued cus-

tomers. However,

as the lead agency

for forestry in the

state, we seek to

strike a balance

between serving

Alabama forest

owners’ needs and

enhancing the ben-

efits flowing to

society from their

forests. Our mis-

sion is to promote

environmentally

and economically

sound forestry

practices, and we

are committed to

optimizing avail-

able resources to

achieve this mis-

sion.

The Alabama

Forestry

Commission is not

an environmental

regulatory or

enforcement

agency, but it does

accept the respon-

sibility to maintain

and update Alabama’s Best Management Practices(BMPs) for Forestry whenever necessary to help

Alabama’s forestry community meet state water

quality needs. The Commission will work in a

cooperative manner with all state and federal agen-

cies concerned, and is determined to utilize techni-

cal expertise from within and without the forestry

community in any BMP revision process.

FOREWORD

1

The Alabama Forestry Commission also accepts

responsibility to provide education and technical

assistance to landowners, loggers, foresters, ven-

dors and the general public to ensure that good

stewardship principles are understood and used.

Purpose of Best Management Practices

Alabama’s Best Management Practices forForestry are non-regulatory guidelines (except for

the U.S. Army Corps of Engineer’s baseline BMPs

on pages 16 and 17 which are mandatory) suggest-

ed to help Alabama’s forestry community maintain

and protect the physical, chemical and biological

integrity of waters of the state as required by the

Federal Water Pollution Control Act, the Alabama

Water Pollution Control Act, the Clean Water Act,

the Water Quality Act, and the Coastal Zone

Management Act.

The BMPs in this booklet lay out a framework of

sound stewardship practices that, when consistently

applied, will contribute positively to maintaining a

high degree of water quality flowing from a forest.

These BMPs are not intended to be all inclusive.

Rational and objective on-site judgement must be

applied to ensure that water quality standards are

maintained.

The most important guidance that these BMPs

can offer the forestry community is to think and

plan before you act. Adequate forethought will

pay off in two ways: to avoid unnecessary site dis-

turbance or damage in the first place and to mini-

mize the expense of stabilizing or restoring

unavoidable disturbances when the operation is fin-

ished.

The enclosed BMPs are directed only toward the

maintenance of water quality.

However, these BMPs will have an indirect, posi-

tive impact on other forest resource values. Sound

stewardship principles that enhance wildlife habitat,

clean air, aesthetics and general environmental

quality are compatible with water quality BMPs

and the Alabama Forestry Commission encourages

their use when applicable to the landowner’s objec-

tives.

Following sound stewardship principles in carry-

ing out forestry practices will ensure that our

forests continue to meet the needs of their owners,

provide jobs, forest products, clean water and a

healthy environment without costly regulations.

Only through sound stewardship principles will all

of these needs be met.

ResponsibilityResponsibility for maintaining water quality stan-

dards during a forestry operation has been broadly

interpreted to include all parties involved in the

authorization, planning or implementation of the

operation. The responsible parties may include

professional forestry practitioner(s) such as for-

est resource managers, timber purchasers, log-

gers, vendors, forest engineers or others.

Due to this inherent responsibility it is in the best

interest of all those involved in silvicultural opera-

tions to make every effort to prevent and correct

violations of state and federal water quality laws,

regulations and standards by consistently imple-

menting BMPs.

2

SPECIFICASPECIFICATIONS TIONS FORFOR

INDIVIDUALINDIVIDUAL BMPBMPSS

3

A streamside man-

agement zone (SMZ) is

a strip of land immedi-

ately adjacent to a water

of the state where soils,

organic matter and vege-

tation are managed to

protect the physical,

chemical and biological

integrity of surface water

adjacent to and down-

stream from forestry

operations. Table 1 pro-

vides guidelines for pro-

tecting the critical area

within a SMZ.

Harvesting in

streamside manage-

ment zones should be done so as to protect the for-

est floor and under story vegetation from damage.

Do not remove (harvest) trees from banks, beds, or

steep slopes if it will destabilize the soil and cause

degradation of the water. Trees on the south and

west banks provide the most critical shading of

water. Fell and skid

trees directly away from

waters of the state.

According to Alabama

Department of

Environmental

Management (ADEM)

regulations, any tops or

other logging debris

dropped into the water

or channel must be

removed; however,

organic debris in the

water prior to harvest

should not be removed

from the stream.

Stabilize wheel ruts if

they could carry sedi-

ment into waters of the state. Locate log decks and

roads outside of SMZs (except at proper stream

crossings and access points or unless steep topogra-

phy/wetland conditions necessitate location within

the SMZ).

1. STREAMSIDE MANAGEMENT ZONES

Cou

rtes

y of

the

Sout

h C

arol

ina

Fore

stry

Com

mis

sion

4

Landowners should have adequate streamside man-agement zones marked before negotiating bids fortimber sales.

Table 1: SMZ Minimum Standards1

Purpose: Protect banks, bed, and floodplains from erosion; control direct deposition of pollutants; provide shade, food, and cover for aquatic ecosystems; filter out pollutants from uplands.

Management Perennial Stream Intermittent Stream

Minimum width on each side of channel

Delineation Outside boundaries should be well marked before operations begin.

Roads Follow state and federal BMPs (see Sections 2, 3, and 6) for roads and stream crossings.

Harvesting Partial cut only within minimum of 35 feet; Partial cut or regeneration cut Method partial cut or regeneration cut can take when water quality degradation

place beyond 35 feet. can be avoided.

Minimum 50% Crown cover Vegetative4

Residual Cover

Reforestation Natural regeneration, hand planting, direct seeding.

Mechanical NoSite Preparation

Herbicide If herbicide is used, adhere strictly to label restrictions. Direct application is preferred over broadcast spraying.

Fertilizer No

1In cases where the stream channel is significantly braided, the forest should be managed under wetland BMP management recommendations (Section 6).2If wildlife is a major objective, a minimum SMZ of 50 feet is recommended.3USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service can provide information on soil erodibility.4Permanent residual tree cover is not required along intermittent streams as long as other vegetation and organic debris are left toprotect the forest floor during regeneration.

5

In no cases should SMZs be less than 35 feet from a definable bank.2 A landowner’spersonal management objectives, on-site condition or stream sensitivity may requirewider SMZs and more stringent control of forestry operations within the SMZ. Forexample, width should be extended to account for erodibility of soil, steepness ofslopes and activities to be performed outside of the SMZ.3 SMZs must always bewide enough to maintain water quality standards.

The crossing of streams by roads, skid trails, or

firebreaks should be avoided. Stream crossings

cause a break in the canopy and filtration strip pro-

vided by an SMZ. It may take a large amount of

time and effort to stabilize water quality impair-

ment from excessive stream crossings. If stream

crossings are unavoidable, use the fewest number,

cross the stream/SMZ by the least disruptive man-

ner possible, and control sediment and other pollu-

tants.

In general, stream crossings should be located

where the bank and SMZ will be least disturbed.

They should be installed at right angles to the

stream where the stream channel is straight,

and should have gentle slopes and straight

paths in and out of the SMZ. Water diver-

sions should divert upland runoff so that sedi-

ment and other pollutants can be filtered out

on the forest floor before reaching the stream.

At no time should a perennial or intermittent

stream be crossed without providing a way

for normal passage of water or aquatic ani-

mals within the channel. Follow mandatory

federal BMPs listed on pages 19 and 20

when roads cross streams or any other wet-

lands.

Log crossings involve placing hollow or solid

logs into shallow channels. Green and/or small

diameter tops, limbs and brush should not be used

for this purpose. The surface can be improved by

use of secured decking or portable logging mats; do

not use fill dirt. All log crossings must be removed

when the logging operation is complete.

Fords can be used where the stream bed is firm,

banks are low and stream is shallow. Banks should

be back bladed away from water and used to

improve the approaches. Rock may be brought in to

stabilize the approaches and stream bottom.

6

2. STREAM CROSSINGS

Culverts, properly sized and

installed, should be used to

reduce road washouts and

impoundments of water.

Culvert sizes in Table II are

best estimates for normal rain-

fall but may not handle the

largest storm events. One large

pipe is better than several

smaller pipes. Culverts should

be long enough to extend at

least one foot beyond the fill

on either end. Fill material

upstream and down must be

stabilized. Possible techniques

include use of sand bags, con-

crete, rip-rap, hay bales,

mulch, and vegetation.

Culverts should be cleaned out

regularly.

After an operation or phase of an opera-

tion has been completed or is going into a

period of inactivity, all temporary cross-

ings must be removed and the site stabi-

lized; all permanent crossings must be sta-

bilized and maintained.

7

Table IIRecommended Diameters for Culverts

Drain Lower Upper

Area Coastal Coastal

(acres) Plain Plain Piedmont Mountains

10 12” 12” 12” 18”

50 30” 18” 30” 36”

100 48’’ 30” 42” 48”

200 60” 42” 54” two 48” pipesCleared stream crossing, stabilized with hay.

Proper culvert installation.

8

Bridges create theleast disruption to

stream flow.According to the

Alabama Departmentof Environmental

Management (ADEM)and Corps of

Engineer regulations,banks and fill material

must be stabilizedand protected from

erosion. Spans mustbe installed to permit

passage of all expected high flow.

Culvert Installation• Place culvert on stream bottom; do not dig

below natural stream level to bury pipe.

• Culvert should have 2-3% pitch down-

stream for self-cleaning.

• Compact lower half of fill during installation.

• Earth cover over pipe should be a minimum

of 12” or half the culvert’s diameter,

whichever is greater. Make fill over a culvert

the high spot in the stream crossing.

• Provide for stream overflow away from

culvert fill to prevent blowouts. Proper installation prevents culverts from beingcrushed by heavy roads.

Cou

rtes

y of

the

Tenn

esse

e D

ivis

ion

of F

ores

try

Portable bridges canbe used in a way thatprotects water qualityand reduces effortand expense in thelong run.

Proper planning and location of roads will

minimize the potential for deposition of pollutants

into waters of the state, future maintenance and

expense, and the amount of land taken out of pro-

duction. Old roads should be reopened only if they

are properly located and drainage devices will func-

tion properly. New roads must avoid streamside

management zones (except at proper stream cross-

ings and access points or unless steep

topography/wetland conditions necessitate location

within the SMZ), troublesome or sensitive mois-

ture-laden soils, eroded gullies, etc. Road grades

should also be minimized where soils are highly

erodible and/or topography is steep. Dredge and fill

operations which may alter the flow, circulation or

reach of waters of the state, especially wetlands,

may require a permit from the Corps of Engineers.

Adequate drainage is the most important factor

in controlling soil erosion and keeping roads in a

serviceable condition. Construction techniques such

as crowned roads, turnout ditches, out-sloping and

in-sloping should be used to provide some slope to

flat roads which would hold water.

Crowned roads are designed to quickly drain

road surfaces from the center of the road to side

ditches. This technique helps to prevent water from

soaking into the road and making it soft and

muddy.

9

3. FOREST ROADS

Crowned forest road.

Turnout ditches should be installed at appropri-

ate intervals to disperse water collected in roadside

ditches away from the road base into surrounding

vegetation.

Outsloped roads in hilly or mountainous terrain

are graded at a 2-4% pitch to the downhill side of

the road to drain off water as quickly as possible.

Avoid berms of dirt along the outer edge of out-

sloped roads because they hold water in the road.

Insloped roads may be preferable when roads

are built on side slopes with slippery soils and/or in

steep terrain. Water collecting in the inside ditch,

however, will have to be drained under the roads

through culverts and be dispersed into vegetation

on the outside of the road.

Excessive road steepness, on the other hand,

may allow surface water to build up velocity and

cause erosion. A variety of water diversion devices

can be used to direct water from roads and ditches

into vegetated areas upslope from streams in order

to slow water down and filter out sediment.

10

Construction of permanent roads shouldtake place with the following considerations:

• Use at least the minimum design stan-dard consistent with anticipated trafficand reasonable safety.

• Merchantable timber should be clearedfrom the right of way before the arrivalof grubbing equipment.

• Stumps, logs, slash and other organicdebris should not be covered with fillmaterial and incorporated into roadbeds.

• Minimize the amount of soil on the roadbanks or roadsides that is exposed tosoil erosion. Balancing cuts and fillswhenever practical is one means ofminimizing soil exposure. Stabilizethese areas as they are created to mini-mize any problems.

• Functional water diversion techniquesor devices should be installed at thesame time that roads are constructed.Drainage water should be dispersedonto the undisturbed forest floor when-ever possible.

Broad-based dips are an effective means of

diverting water off a permanent road without inter-

fering with truck or skidder traffic. They hold up

well and remain effective under traffic as long as

the outfall remains below the dip in the road grade.

Gravel in the bottom of the dip may be necessary

on some soils to hold up vehicles operating in wet

conditions.

Water bars (and turnouts) installed at 30-45

degree angles are best used to stabilize temporary

roads and skid trails that will no longer be used.

Water bars may not hold up well or maintain their

effectiveness when they are packed down or rutted

by truck, skidder or four-wheeler traffic. A series of

small water bars, well anchored into the hillside,

can be constructed by a skidder or bulldozer.

11

Broad-based dips are designed to move wateroff roads and facilitate the ease of vehicle use.

Cou

rtes

y of

the

Tenn

esse

e D

ivis

ion

of F

ores

try

Outfall protection should be provided to prevent

erosion by absorbing the energy of water falling

from the outlet end of water diversion devices. Use

rocks, concrete, mulch, woody debris or dense veg-

etation. Outfalls must never be installed where run-

off can be discharged or flushed directly into waters

of the state.

Control non-essential traffic during wet weath-

er on roads which have a high potential for erosion;

particularly immediately following construction.

A single large water bar constructed by a bull-

dozer can be used to close temporary roads to any

further two-wheel drive traffic.

12

Table IIIDiversion devices can generally beinstalled using the following spacing guide.However, soil erodibility and naturaldrainage opportunities should also be con-sidered for determining appropriate spac-ings. The USDA Natural ResourcesConservation Service can provide informa-tion about the erodibility of soils.

Distance

Distance between

between broad-base dips

% Slope water bars and turnouts

3% 200’ 235’

5% 135’ 180’

10% 80’ 140’

15% 60’ 125’

20% 45’

30% 35’

40% 30’

Maintenance of permanent roads shouldtake place with the following considerations:

• Regular periodic inspection should startimmediately after construction to deter-mine maintenance requirements thatprevent excessive erosion, impairment ofnatural drainage, or water quality prob-lems.

• After an operation is completed, rutted orchanneled roads should be reshapedand stabilized with functional waterdiversion devices to allow good drainageand control erosion.

• Seeding and mulching may be neces-sary to stabilize roadsides and closedtemporary roads.

• Special soil stabilizing materials areavailable for particularly vulnerable areas(see USDA Natural ResourcesConservation Service for dealers).

Harvesting activities

should be conducted to

ensure long-term mainte-

nance of water quality. The

following suggestions will

help timber harvesters

achieve this objective.

Temporary access roads

(logging roads) and land-

ing locations should be

planned before operations

begin to minimize soil dis-

turbance. Road construction

should be kept to a mini-

mum, consistent with rea-

sonable skidding distance.

Spring heads, natural

drainages and gullies should

be avoided. Landings

should also be kept as small

as possible, consistent with safe and efficient opera-

tion. Logging roads and landings must be located

on firm ground, outside of Streamside Management

Zones and above the ordinary high water mark of

streams.

Landings must be located to prevent the adverse

impact of skidding on water quality. Locating log-

ging decks uphill and skidding up to them results in

a cone-shaped pattern of skid trails which disperses

water running downhill. If the logging deck is on

the lower slope, the V-shaped pattern of skid trails

could concentrate runoff and erode the logging

deck areas. If the trees must be skidded downhill,

erosion can be minimized by using several, smaller

logging decks with fewer, smaller skid trails lead-

ing to any one.

When operations are completed,

landings and temporary roads

should be stabilized with water

diversion devices and/or vegetation

where there is a possibility of sig-

nificant erosion and/or water quality

degradation.

Felling should be done carefully

to minimize the impact of subse-

quent phases of logging operations

on water quality. Timber cut in

Streamside Management Zones

should be harvested in accordance

with recommended guidelines on

pages 4 and 5.

Skidding should be done to avoid

disrupting natural drainages, prevent

excessive soil displacement, and

minimize impacts of rutting, com-

paction, and puddling on water

quality and soil stability.

13

4. TIMBER HARVESTING

Stream channels and natural drainages must not

be used as skid trails. They should be crossed fol-

lowing guidelines in Section 2.

Where slopes are steep but short in duration,

trees can be felled uphill and winched to the skid-

der. Skid trails on steep slopes should have occa-

sional breaks in grade and upon completion of use,

must be water barred. Erosion in skid trails can

sometimes be reduced by covering them with log-

ging slash. Logging slash can also be scattered over

temporary landings to help stabilize them.

When wet and/or soft ground conditions cannot

be avoided, it is better to concentrate soil com-

paction from skidder traffic on a few trails that can

be stabilized rather than disperse the effects over

many trails.

Cut-to-length harvesting systems offer state-of-

the-art equipment and best available technology to

maximize timber production and protect water

quality and other forest resources at the same time.

Primary benefits of this system are from for-

warders (or prehaulers) which can haul wood off

the ground for long distances and need only mini-

mum skid trails or landings. Less soil is displaced,

rutted, and compacted. The on-board loader can be

used to place logs for stream crossings and easily

remove them when the crossing is no longer need-

ed. In addition to high initial costs, however, this

equipment is also limited by very steep terrain.

Trash disposal must be properly handled

throughout the operation in accordance with all

applicable laws. Fuel, lubricants and other toxic

chemicals must never be drained into the soil. Food

and drink containers, discarded equipment parts,

and used fluids must be properly removed and dis-

posed of. Trash must not be burned or buried on

site.

14

Mechanical site preparation treatments must be

used in such a manner as to minimize displacement

of forest litter and topsoil, soil compaction and ero-

sion, stream sedimentation and

the deposition of debris into

waters of the state. The degree

of mechanical site preparation

should be limited to the

amount that is needed to get a

well stocked stand of desirable

trees. In general, mechanical

site preparation should be

excluded from soils with

slopes exceeding 25%. No

mechanical site preparation

should be used in SMZs.

Drum chopping is one of the

most desirable methods of

mechanical site preparation for

the protection of soil and water

quality. When chopping is

done on steep slopes it should

always be done up and down

hill so that sediment can be

trapped in the slits created by

the chopper blades.

Bedding on slopes exceeding

2% should follow the contour.

On slopes 2% or less, beds should

follow the natural drainage of the

land. Ripping and/or sub-soilingshould be done on the contour.

Disking should be done on the con-

tour and restricted to areas with

slopes 10% or less.

Shearing requires that the operator

keep the blade out of the soil to mini-

mize soil disturbance. Avoid over-

raking the area. The retention of

small limbs, twigs, bark and rock on

the ground surface helps reduce soil

erosion.

Windrows should be laid out on the

contour of the land 100 to 300 feet

apart depending upon the slope of the

land and erodibility of the soil.

Topsoil should not be pushed into

windrows. Debris may not be piled

into any water of the state.

Straight blade bulldozing is the least desirable

method of mechanical site preparation.

15

5. REFORESTATION / STAND MANAGEMENT

Bedding on a contour.

Windrows.

Chemical site preparation, with or

without the use of fire, can duplicate

or surpass mechanical site preparation

results with less water quality impact.

Herbicide applications must follow

the manufacturer’s label instructions,

EPA guidelines and Alabama State

Law. Herbicides should not be aerially

or broadcast applied in SMZs. Under

no circumstances should herbicides be

applied directly onto or allowed to

drift or wash into surface waters

unless labeled for such applications.

Do not mix or clean equipment or her-

bicide containers in or near streams or

water bodies. Frequent inspection of

equipment is recommended.

Prescribed burning should be

designed and managed to minimize

adverse environmental effects. Avoid

intense spray and burns on steep slopes and highly

erodible soils if water quality would be impacted.

Constructed firebreaks can be tied into existing

natural barriers to minimize the need for fresh soil

disturbances. Firebreaks should be stabilized with

water diversion devices to minimize erosion and

conveyance of sediment laden runoff into waters of

the state. Vegetating firebreaks can further reduce

erosion and the movement of sediment and other

pollutants into waters of the state.

Wildfires demand that the primary objective of

firebreak construction is to bring the fire under con-

trol.

Tree planting with a furrow type machine

should be done on the contour.

16

Planting on a contour.

Constructed firebreak.

Wetlands are those areas that are inundated or

saturated by surface or groundwater at a frequency

or duration sufficient to support (and under normal

circumstances do support) a prevalence of vegeta-

tion typically adapted for life in saturated soil con-

ditions.

The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, using the

Federal Manual for Delineating JurisdictionalWetlands, determines under which conditions

hydrophytic vegetation, hydric soils, and wetland

hydrology must be present on the same site, under

normal circumstances, for an area to be classified

as a wetland. Jurisdictional wetlands may be found

in the following

• Coves and lower slopes

• Branch bottoms

• Creek bottoms

• River bottoms

• Muck swamps

• Peat swamps and cypress/gum ponds

• Wet flats

Section 404 of the Clean Water Act usually

requires that a permit be obtained from the Corps

of Engineers before a discharge of dredged or fill

materials can be made into waters of the United

States (U.S.), including wetlands. A regulated dis-

charge occurs when fill or dredged material is

deposited into wetlands.

Exemptions for forestry activities from having

to obtain an individual Section 404 permit from the

Corps of Engineers may apply if the activities meet

the following conditions:

1. It is not part of an activity whose purpose is to

convert a wetland into an upland, where the flow

or circulation of the waters of the U.S. may be

impaired or the reach of water reduced; and

17

6. FORESTED WETLAND MANAGEMENT

2. It is part of an established (i.e. ongoing) silvicul-

tural, farming or ranching operation and not a

new use to which the wetland was not previously

subject; and

3. It uses “normal” silvicultural, farming or ranch-

ing activities which are in compliance with feder-

al BMPs (listed under “Roads and Stream

Crossings . . .” on, pages 19 and 20); and

4. It has not lain idle for so long that hydrological

modifications will be necessary to resume opera-

tions; and

5. It does not contain any toxic pollutant listed

under Section 307 of the Clean Water Act.

What is an established silvicultural operation?

Established or ongoing operations are included in a

management system (not necessarily written) which

is planned over conventional rotation cycles for a

property or are introduced as part of an ongoing

operation.

Evidence of use of the property may be used to

determine whether an operation is ongoing. Such

evidence includes the following:

1) a history of harvesting with either natural or

artificial regeneration; 2) a history of fire, insect,

and disease control to protect the maturing timber;

and 3) the presence of stumps, logging roads, land-

ings, or other indications of established silvicultural

operations that will continue on the site.

While past management may have been relatively

non-intensive, intensification of management

involving artificial regeneration and other practices

can occur as part of a conventional rotation and be

considered an established operation.

Although wetland regulations do not require a

written forest management plan, it is in a landown-

er’s best interest to have one to document that oper-

ations are established, that BMPs are implemented

and effective, and that all activities are consistent

with other Section 404 exemption criteria.

A change in ownership between landowners

(both of which manage forested wetlands for silvi-

cultural purposes) has no bearing on whether a

forestry operation is part of an established ongoing

activity. Continuation or strict adherence to a man-

agement plan written for the previous owner is not

required by Section 404 silvicultural exemptions.

“Normal” silvicultural activities (such as road

construction, timber harvesting, mechanical or

chemical site preparation, reforestation, timber

stand improvement, and minor drainage) conducted

as part of established ongoing silvicultural opera-

tions are exempt from Section 404 Corps of

Engineers permit requirements as long as the

appropriate measures are implemented. Those

measures are listed under “Roads and Stream

Crossings. . .” on pages 19-20. Alabama’s BestManagement Practices for Forestry are not

required for exemption from Section 404 Corps of

Engineer permit requirements; they are, however,

strongly recommended to minimize nonpoint

source pollution of waters of the state and/or waters

of the U.S.

A forestry activity or operation WILL require

a 404 permit from the Corps of Engineers when

the following applies:

1. The activity results in the immediate or gradual

conversion of a wetland to an upland as a conse-

quence of altering the flow and circulation or

reducing the reach of waters of the U.S.

Changes in flow, circulation or reach of waters

can be affected by permanent major drainage

such as channelization or by placement of fill

material. A discharge which changes the bottom

elevation of waters of the U.S., without convert-

ing it to dry land, does not reduce the reach of

waters but may alter flow or circulation and

therefore may be subject to permitting require-

ments.

The criteria that are used to determine if a wet-

land has been converted include a change in

hydrology, soils and vegetation to such an extent

that the area no longer qualifies as a jurisdiction-

al wetland according to the Federal Manual forDelineating Jurisdictional Wetlands.

2. A new activity results in a change from the past,

historical use of the wetland into a different use

to which it was not previously subject where the

flow or circulation of waters is impaired or the

reach of the water is reduced. Such a change

does not meet the established, ongoing require-

ment and causes the activity or operation to lose

its exemption.

Examples of this situation are areas where tree

harvesting has been the established use and the

landowner wishes to convert the site for use as

pasture, green tree reservoir, agriculture, real18

estate or aquaculture. In such cases the landown-

er must first obtain a 404 permit before proceed-

ing with the change. (Changes of use to farm

stock ponds may be exempt under a nationwide

Corps of Engineers permit).

3. Roads and stream crossings are constructed in a

wetland without following the mandatory, federal

BMPs listed under the wetland road regulations.

4. The area has lain idle for so long that hydrologic

modifications are necessary to resume operations.

This does not refer to temporary water manage-

ment techniques such as minor drainage, plow-

ing, bedding and seeding which exempt, normal

silvicultural activities as long as they don’t result

in the conversion of wetlands to uplands.

However, it does apply to reopening ditches

which were once established as permanent wet-

land drainage structures but have lost their effec-

tiveness for this purpose as they filled in with

soil and vegetation.

BMPs for wetlands are not intended to make up

for uncontrolled negative impacts on uplands but

are part of the overall management of the full land-

scape to protect water quality.

Streamside management zones should be estab-

lished and managed around the perimeter of all

major drainages and open bodies of water (i.e.,

main stream courses, oxbow lakes, sloughs) con-

tained within wetlands.

Minor drainage refers to installation of ditches

or other water control facilities for temporary

dewatering of an area. Minor drainage is considered

a normal silvicultural activity in wetlands to tem-

porarily lower the water level and minimize

adverse impacts on a wetland site during road con-

struction, timber harvesting and reforestation activi-

ties. Minor drainage does not include construction

of a canal, dike or any other structure which contin-

uously drains or significantly modifies a wetland or

other aquatic area.

Minor drainage is exempt from needing an indi-

vidual 404 permit if it is part of an ongoing silvi-

cultural operation and does not result in the imme-

diate or gradual conversion of a wetland to an

upland or other uses. Artificial drainage must be

managed. Once silvicultural activity has been com-

pleted the hydrology that existed prior to the activi-

ty should be restored by closing drainage channels.

Roads and stream crossings within wetlands

and other waters of the U.S. must be constructed

and maintained in accordance with the following

U.S. Army Corps of Engineer baseline BMPs (from

Section 404, Corps of Engineers Permit

Requirements, 40 CFR Part 233.22) in order to

retain exemption status for the road operation:

1. Permanent roads, temporary access roads and

skid trails (all for forestry) in waters of the U.S.

shall be held to the minimum feasible number,

width, and total length consistent with the pur-

pose of specific silvicultural operations, and local

topographic and climatic conditions;

2. All roads, temporary or permanent, shall be

located sufficiently far from streams or other

water bodies (except for portions of such roads

which must cross water bodies) to minimize dis-

charges of dredged or fill material into waters of

the U.S.;

3. The road fill shall be bridged, culverted or other-

wise designed to prevent the restriction of

expected flood flows;

4. The fill shall be properly stabilized and main-

tained during and following construction to pre-

vent erosion;

5. Discharges of dredged or fill material into waters

of the U.S. to construct a road fill shall be made

in a manner that minimizes the encroachment of

trucks, tractors, bulldozers, or other heavy equip-

ment within waters of the U.S. (including adja-

cent wetlands) that lie outside the lateral bound-

aries of the fill itself;

6. In designing, constructing and maintaining roads,

vegetative disturbance in the waters of the U.S.

shall be kept to a minimum;

7. The design, construction and maintenance of the

road crossing shall not disrupt the migration or

other movement of those species of aquatic life

inhabiting the water body;

8. Borrow material shall be taken from upland

sources whenever feasible;

19

9. The discharge shall not take, or

jeopardize the continued existence

of a threatened or endangered

species as defined under the

Endangered Species Act, or

adversely modify or destroy the

critical habitat of such species;

10. Discharges into breeding and nest-

ing areas for water fowl, spawning,

and wetlands shall be avoided if

less harmful alternatives exist;

11. The discharge shall not be located

in the proximity of a public water supply intake;

12. The discharge shall not occur in areas of con-

centrated shellfish production;

13. The discharge shall not occur in a component of

the National Wild and Scenic River System;

14. The discharge of material shall consist of suit-

able material free from toxic pollutants in toxic

amounts; and

15. All temporary fills shall be removed in their

entirety and the area restored to its original eleva-

tion.

Roads must be constructed and

maintained in accordance with

BMPs to assure that flow and cir-

culation pattern and chemical and

biological characteristics of waters

of the U.S. are not impaired, that

the reach of the waters of the U.S.

is not reduced and that any

adverse effect on the aquatic envi-

ronment will be otherwise mini-

mized.

Minor drainage is allowed (i.e.,

to maintain a dry road bed) unless

it becomes obvious that BMPs

have not been followed or that the

road is serving some function

other than conveyance of vehicles

(i.e., a continuous roadside barrow

ditch may not be used to drain

adjacent wetlands.

Timber harvesting using normal methods and

equipment may be appropriate if harvesting is

timed during dry periods.

Harvesting during wet periods or sites that

remain wet require special precautions and harvest-

ing systems to minimize water quality hazards and

other negative site impacts. Site damaging effects

from harvesting equipment such as rutting, pud-

dling and compaction should be controlled and

minimized. For example, concentrate skidder traffic

on a few trails rather than over the entire area. Do

not harvest sites during periods of flowing water

whether from overbank flooding or other water

accumulation.

20

Reforestation in wetlands is not much different

from regenerating uplands in regards to water qual-

ity; the main factors to consider are the site’s poten-

tial for erosion/sedimentation and hydrology.

Land clearing is an exempt silvicultural activity

if it is associated with timber harvesting or refor-

estation operations. However, land clearing using

mechanical equipment for purpose of removing

vegetation in preparation for converting the site to a

different land use is not part of an established silvi-

cultural operation and is not exempt from having to

go through the Corps of Engineer permitting

process.

Herbicides bearing the “wetlands” warning on

the label can be applied to vegetation on dry soils

of jurisdictional wetland areas but must not be

applied directly to surface water or to inter-tidal

areas below the main high water mark.

Bedding is the construction of earthen mounds

from surrounding soil resulting in adjacent and

alternating “beds” and furrows. Seedling beds cre-

ate temporary elevated soil conditions which allow

seedlings to escape saturated soil conditions and

have a greater opportunity to survive and grow.

Bedding is considered a normal silvicultural

activity that is exempt from Section 404 permitting

requirements if the following conditions exist:

• The bedding does not result in the gradual or

immediate conversion of a wetland to upland as

a consequence of impairing the flow or circula-

tion or reducing the reach of waters of the U.S.;

and

• It is performed as part of an established, on-

going silvicultural operation.

However, if bedding were to significantly alter

the flow, circulation, or reach of waters of the U.S.

and consequently result in conversion of a wetland

to an upland, the exemption would no longer apply.

Species composition change (i.e., bottomland

hardwood to pine plantation) resulting from intensi-

fication of management is considered a normal, sil-

vicultural activity that is exempt from 404 permit-

ting if the property is in silvicultural usage before

and after the harvesting and planting.

However, a species composition change is not

exempt if the activities used to clear, prepare or

plant the site would result in a change in use that is

accompanied by an impairment of the flow or cir-

culation or the reduction of the reach of waters. An

example of such a new use situation would be

where the change in species composition would

cause a conversion of wetlands to uplands.

Removal of beaver dams and other blockages

to remove impounded surface water is considered

exempt from 404 permitting as long as the process

does not include enlarging or extending the dimen-

sion or changing the bottom elevation of the affect-

ed drainage way as it existed prior to the formation

of the blockage, or without changing the use of the

land in question.

Beaver dams can be dismantled by hand without

any problems. Dynamite and heavy equipment can

also be used to destroy dams as long as they are not

used to construct drainage channels that will result

in conversion of wetlands to uplands. However,

when dynamite or heavy equipment is to be used to

remove beaver dams or other blockages, the Corps

of Engineers should be contacted for possible per-

mit requirements.

21

Before and After: Top photo shows blockagecaused by beaver dam. Bottom photo illus-trates flow restored.

As already pointed out in previous sections, some

temporary haul roads, skid trails, log landings, fire-

breaks and other forestry related soil disturbing

activities require the establishment of a vegetative

cover to stabilize mineral soil surfaces so as to

reduce erosion and runoff of sediment into state

waters. The USDA Natural Resources Conservation

Service can provide a detailed plan for establishing

vegetation on these disturbed sites.

Site preparation, such as smoothing or reshap-

ing rutted roads and landings, may be required

before conventional equipment can be used for

seedbed preparation, seeding, mulching and

drainage improvement. Heavily compacted areas

may require ripping and/or disking to allow water

infiltration and provide a suitable seedbed for root

growth.

Agricultural limestone and fertilizer may be

needed to ensure success in establishing a vegeta-

tive cover. Soil tests are recommended. Incorporate

lime and fertilizer into the top 2-4” of soil on

slopes less than 6%; into the top 2”of soil on slopes

of 6-10%; and onto the surface only on slopes

greater than 10%.

Plant species recommendations can be obtained

from the local county office of the USDA Natural

Resources Conservation Service or Cooperative

Extension Service. Areas treated by temporary

seeding or mulch should be reseeded with perma-

nent vegetative species as soon as possible during

the correct growing season to ensure stabilization

of disturbed areas. Disking or mowing of tempo-

rary cover is recommended before application of

permanent seed and fertilizer.

Mulch is recommended for critical situations to

hold seed, lime and fertilizer in place, maintain

moisture and prevent extreme temperatures on the

soil surface. Mulch needs to be applied immediate-

ly after seeding to provide best benefits.

Vegetative establishment for control of erosion

and sedimentation can be considered successful

once a 75% cover has been obtained. Within one

22

7. REVEGETATION/STABILIZATION

Skid trail stabilized with logging slash.

year of establishment, a second broadcast applica-

tion of fertilizer at half the original rate is recom-

mended to ensure plant survival and growth.

Silt screen and hay bales can be used to filter

runoff water from closed roads and skid trails to

prevent or stop sediment from flowing downslope

into waters of the state. When using silt screen, 5-6

foot-long posts should be staked 5-10 feet apart

across the problem area. The porous material is sta-

pled 3 feet high on the post and excess material at

the bottom of the screen is folded uphill and

anchored down with rocks or fill material. Hog

wire can be stapled to the stakes before the material

is attached to give strength to the silt screen as

intercepted sediment builds up.

Square hay bales can be used for the same pur-

pose by lining them up across the road, end to end

and one to two bales high. Stake the bales in place

on their sides with the strings off the ground to pre-

vent rotting.

Gully stabilization should receive high priority

during all land management activities. The most

effective way to reduce sediment production and/or

reduce the change of reactivating the erosion

process in healed gully systems is to avoid operat-

ing in them and maintain all existing vegetation.

Site preparation, including herbicide and burning,

should be excluded.

Actively eroding gully systems need to be stabi-

lized. The USDA Natural Resources Conservation

Service can provide technical assistance in planning

and installing gully stabilization measures.

23

Vegetated forest road.

GlossaryADEM – The state regulatory agency (Alabama

Department of Environmental Management) which

administers and enforces the Alabama Water

Pollution Control Act.

Approaches – The entry and exit of a road or

skid trail through a stream crossing.

Aquatic ecosystem – An interacting community

of plants and animals (i.e., insects, crayfish, fish

and amphibians) requiring an abundance of water

during some part of their life cycle.

Backblade – To pull dirt by dropping a dozer

blade into the soil and operating the tractor in

reverse.

Back slope – The soil profile in the side of a hill

that is exposed from cut and fill type road construc-

tion.

Banks – The sides of a channel which holds or

carries water.

Bed – The bottom of a stream.

Bedding – A mechanical site preparation tech-

nique where top soil is mounded into rows. Trees

planted on top of the row will be well drained and

will benefit from a concentration of nutrients and

organic matter during initial stages of growth.

Biological integrity of waters of the state – The

ability of a body of water to support the natural

level of diverse plants and animals that would nor-

mally occur without man-made disturbance or

manipulation of the landscape.

Broad based dip – An alteration of a road grade

to intercept water from the surface and dispel it to

the side without seriously interfering with vehicular

traffic.

Canopy – The upper leafy branches of dominant

and codominant trees and shrubs which intercept

sunlight and shade the ground.

Chemical integrity of waters of the state – The

natural range of nutrient and pH levels which

would normally occur in waters passing through an

undisturbed site.

Compaction – The result of all air and moisture

holding spaces being squeezed out from between

soil particles by operation of heavy equipment dur-

ing unfavorable ground conditions. All soils are

generally more easily compacted when wet.

Compacted soil is less productive and more erodi-

ble.

Contour – An imaginary line on the surface of

the earth connecting points of the same elevation.

Corps of Engineers – The federal regulatory

agency, a branch of the U.S. Army, which adminis-

ters and enforces the Section 404 permitting pro-

gram of the Clean Water Act.

Critical shading of water – Shading when water

receives the greatest protection from overheating

and ultraviolet exposure caused by solar radiation.

Cross drain – A pipe, ditch or channel which

safely conveys water from one side of the road to

the other.

Crown – The top of a tree consisting of trunk

and expanding branches.

Culverts – Usually metal or plastic pipe but can

be a constructed wooden trough.

Cut and fill – Earthen material which is dug out

of a hill and placed down slope to provide a rela-

tively level road bed.

Deck – An area cleared to provide a site for load-

ing logs onto a transport vehicle.

Decking – Rough or unfinished lumber used to

provide a stable surface for roads, stream crossings

or landings.

Definable bank – The bounds of a water body at

or below its normal flow level which is usually

devoid of terrestrial plants and accumulations of

light organic debris.

Deposition – The act of depositing or putting

into.

Destabilize (the soil) – To expose and/or loosen

soil thus making it more susceptible to erosion.

Direct seeding – Artificially placing seed by

hand, land machine or aircraft onto a germination

surface.

Disking – Breaking up plants (above and below

ground portions), organic matter and soil in prepa-

ration to improve the ground for replanting and to

reduce plant competition.

Diversion device – A structure to intercept and

re-route water from a road surface.

Drainage device – Same as diversion device.

Dredge – Earthen material that is dug from a

channel or removed from the bottom of a water

body, often to improve drainage.

Ephemeral streams – Low places in the land-

scape that only flow shortly after significant rain-

fall. Does not have a well defined channel.

24

APPENDICES

EPA – The U.S. Environmental Protection

Agency. The federal agency created and mandated

by the U.S. Congress to administer and enforce the

Clean Water Act upon waters of the United States.

Erosion – The dislodging and carrying away of

soil particles by wind or water.

Fell – To cut or knock down standing trees or

other vegetation.

Fill – To raise the elevation of a surface by

depositing dredged or excavated material onto it.

Filtration strip – A strip of land where vegeta-

tion, mulch, or fabric is maintained or placed to

intercept and prevent upland sediment and other

pollutants from flowing into water.

Firebreaks – Natural or artificially constructed

barriers to the spread of fire.

Floodplain – Areas adjacent to bodies of water

that are most prone to flooding when the water

overflows its banks.

Forest floor – Accumulations of organic debris

and low vegetation on the ground beneath a stand

of trees.

Forest resource managers – This group includes

foresters, wildlife biologists, recreational planners

and other developers.

Fragile area – Areas that are easily altered phys-

ically, biologically, or chemically, and are difficult

or slow to recover.

Grade – The steepness of rise or fall of a road

surface.

Ground cover – Low growing vegetation such

as grass, forbs, vines, or shrubs.

Ground water – Water stored and/or flowing out

of sight under the surface of the ground.

Hand planting – Re-establishing vegetation by

planting seed or seedlings into prepared planting

holes in the ground.

Harvests – Gathering merchantable portions of

trees for commercial or domestic use.

Herbicide – a natural or synthetic chemical pes-

ticide applied specifically to control competition

from undesirable plant species.

High flow – The increased volume and speed of

water that exceeds a stream’s normal rate of flow.

High water mark – Physical evidence of past

flooding such as discoloration of the lower portions

of vegetation or debris suspended in branches off

the ground.

Implementation – The carrying out of instruc-

tions contained in a management plan, harvest plan

or reforestation plan (written or verbal).

Impoundments – An accumulation of water into

pools or ponds formed by blocking the natural

drainage.

Inslope – Sloping of a road surface so drainage

is toward a ditch between the road and hill.

Intermittent bodies of water – Contain water

within well defined channels during part of the

year.

Label restrictions – Explicit instructions from

the manufacturer with approval from federal and

state authorities on when, where, and how a partic-

ular pesticide may be applied. Instructions also usu-

ally include worker and environmental safety pre-

cautions.

Landing - A site where logs are sorted and

loaded onto trucks for hauling to handling or pro-

cessing facilities.

Litter Layer – The natural buildup of dead

leaves, branches and stems of dead trees and other

forest vegetation which accumulate on the ground

and then decay with time.

Log decks – Same as landings.

Mechanical planter – A tree planting machine

pulled by a tractor and manned by a person who

places trees into the ground.

Mechanical site preparation – Use of heavy

machinery such as bulldozers with special attach-

ments that clear debris or incorporate it into the soil

to improve planting, sprouting, growth and or sur-

vival conditions for new forest trees.

Minimum residual cover - The fewest number

of trees necessary to provide shade, natural recruit-

ment of organic material, and soil holding capabili-

ty for protection of the biological integrity of aquat-

ic ecosystems.

Mulch – A coarse material used to protect soil

from rainfall impact and erosion and to improve

germination and growth of vegetation. Examples

are hay, straw, bark and geotextile fabric.

Natural barrier – Areas that are devoid of fuel

or food to support a spreading fire or insect or dis-

ease epidemic.

Natural drainage – Perennial, intermittent and

ephemeral stream courses in a watershed that col-

lect and expel runoff water.

Natural regeneration – Young trees that origi-

nate from seed or sprouts of trees that do or did

grow on the site.

Nonpoint source – Water pollution which is not

traceable to any discrete or identifiable facility but

comes from a broad treatment area.

25

Normal passage of water and/or aquatic ani-

mals – Movement of water or animals which has

not been obstructed or inhibited as the result of

man-made activity.

Nutrients – Substances that nourish such as

nitrogen, potassium and phosphorus in fertilizer.

Excess nutrients can destabilize aquatic ecosys-

tems.

Organic debris – Refuse such as tree tops, limbs

or severely damaged tree stems which are left fol-

lowing road construction, logging, or site prepara-

tion.

Organic matter – Dead plant parts or animals.

While natural recruitment of organic matter is part

of the energy and nutrient cycles of an aquatic

ecosystem, decay of excess amounts in water

depletes oxygen needed by fish and other aquatic

animals. Tops and other debris can sometimes

block and divert the flow of streams causing addi-

tional erosion.

Partial cut – A selective timber harvest method

where particular trees are usually designated to

remain in the stand and the rest are removed in a

thinning harvest.

Perennial bodies of water – Contain water with-

in well defined channels virtually year round under

normal climate conditions.

Permanent road – A road constructed, used and

maintained beyond the time period of a single oper-

ation such as a timber sale.

Pesticide - See herbicide for specific application.

Physical integrity of waters of the state – The

retention of water in its natural condition without

alteration of stream course, depth, clarity or free-

dom of obstructions that might occur as the direct

result of man-made activity.

Plowed fire control line – A man-made fire

break constructed by a heavy piece of equipment

such as a small bulldozer pushing or pulling a

heavy duty plow designed for cutting through the

forest floor and root mat to clear combustible mate-

rial and expose mineral soil.

Pollutants – Man-induced elements such as sedi-

ment, organic debris, increased temperature, nutri-

ents, chemicals, trash and soil degradation which

exceed a water’s natural ability to neutralize before

changes in the physical, chemical or biological

integrity of waters of the state occur.

Portable bridge – a stream crossing device that

is preassembled, installed across a channel and

removed following completion of an activity with

minimum adverse impact to water quality.

Portable logging mats – Temporary road or

stream crossing surface constructed of rough cut

lumber nailed or bolted together. These are usually

expected to be removed and reused following com-

pletion of a particular operation.

Prescribed burning – Preplanned fire that is

deliberately set in a time and manner when pre-

scribed conditions will allow accomplishment of

specific objectives and is under control until it

burns out or is extinguished.

Puddling – The destruction of root systems and

soil structure by the tearing and churning action of

heavy equipment operating in saturated soils.

Puddled soils are more susceptible to erosion than

undisturbed soils.

Reforestation – The restocking of a forest stand

through natural regeneration or artificially planted

seed or seedlings.

Regeneration – A young stand of a forest.

Regeneration cut – Either partial harvests where

selected trees are left to provide adequate seed or

silvicultural clearcuts where all merchantable and

non-merchantable tree stems are removed or felled

to encourage sprouting of desirable tree species.

Riprap – Large stones which are arranged over

loose soil to protect it from erosion.

Rutting – Impression left in the ground after soil

is compacted by the wheels or tracks of heavy

equipment operating in soft earth. Deep rutting can

disrupt surface and subsurface hydrology on flat

lands and cause soil erosion on steep lands by con-

centrating surface runoff.

Sediment – Accumulations of loose soil parti-

cles. Excessive amounts of sediment can pollute

water needed for aquatic ecosystems, drinking,

wildlife, outdoor recreation, and industrial use.

Shearing and raking – A site preparation tech-

nique that uses a large tractor equipped with a spe-

cial cutting blade to cut down trees just above the

ground surface and a second tractor equipped with

a specialized raking blade that pushes the felled

trees and other debris into piles or windrows.

Side bank – Same as back slope.

Silviculture – The care and cultivation of forest

trees; forestry.

Site preparation – Use of machines, herbicides,

fire or combinations thereof to dispose of slash,

improve planting conditions and provide initial

control of competing vegetation.

26

Skid – To drag logs with a specialized tractor to

a landing.

Skid trails – Paths where logs have been

dragged.

Slash – Unmerchantable debris such as brush or

tree stems, tops, branches or leaves that are left fol-

lowing a commercial timber harvest operation.

Slough – An open water inlet from a larger body

of water.

Soil stabilizing materials – Silt fencing, straw

blankets, geotextile fabric, geoweb, etc., applied to

protect soil from erosion.

Soil type – Consistent characteristics of an iden-

tifiable soil such as particle sizes, moisture holding

capacity, plasticity and ease of compaction.

Span – A structural beam designed to hold other

bridge components and traffic above a stream or

channel.

Steep gradient – A high rate of ascent or descent

on a road.

Stringent – Tightly regulated or controlled.

Surface water – Exposed water above the

ground surface.

Temperature – The degree of hotness or cold-

ness of an environment. Removal of vegetative

shade from banks of streams and shores will direct-

ly raise water temperature and indirectly result in

lower dissolved oxygen levels. These influences

place some fish and other organisms under stress.

Temporary access roads – Roads not expected

to be maintained much longer than the activity for

which they were installed to support.

Timber purchasers – Agents who locate com-

mercial stands of timber and negotiate terms of pur-

chase on either their own behalf or on the behalf of

timber brokerage or forest product companies.

Topography – The lay of the land.

Tops – The upper (usually referring to unmer-

chantable) portions of trees.

Trash – Unnaturally occurring, man-made refuse

or discarded substances. Openly discarded trash

and petroleum wastes may be carried into waters of

the state by storm runoff and is unsightly.

Understory vegetation – Small trees, shrubs or

other plants which grow beneath the canopy of

more dominant trees.

Upland runoff – Surface drainage water which

flows from higher elevations of a landscape into the

natural drainage system of a watershed.

Vendors – Contractors who provide tree harvest-

ing, site preparation, tree planting or other forestry

services for a fee.

Washouts – Clearing of natural or man made

obstructions of drainage systems during high

stream flows.

Water bar – A long mound of dirt constructed to

prevent soil erosion and water pollution by divert-

ing drainage from a road or skid trail into a filter

strip.

Water bodies – Branches, creeks, rivers, ponds,

lakes, bays, etc.

Water diversions – Structures or devices which

change the direction of drainage flow.

Water quality impairment – The reduction of

water quality below established water quality stan-

dards.

Waters of the State – Include every watercourse,

stream, river, wetland, pond, lake, coastal, ground

or surface water, wholly or partially in the state,

natural or artificial which is not entirely confined

and retained on the property of a single landowner.

Waters of the United States (U.S.) – Include all

waters such as lakes, rivers, streams (including

intermittent streams), mudflats, sandflats, wetlands

and sloughs which are susceptible to use in inter-

state or foreign commerce, recreation, fish and

shellfish production and industrial use; impound-

ments of waters just described; tributaries of waters

just described (other than waters that are them-

selves wetlands).

Wildfire – Fires burning without the control of a

responsible person.

Windrows – Long piles of accumulated debris.

Wing ditch – A secondary “turn out” ditch that

diverts drainage water from primary roadside ditch-

es, to be filtered out into the surrounding area.

27

Additional ResourcesAdditional information pertaining to silvicultural

BMPs and water quality is available from the fol-

lowing publications and sources of assistance:

Streamside Management Zones

Comerford, N.B., D.G. Neary and R.S Mansel. TheUtility of Buffer Strips to Protect ForestedWetlands from Impacts Due to ForestSilvicultural Operations, Gainesville, FL,

National Council of the Paper Industry for Air

and Stream Improvement, In Press.

Dickson, J.G. and J.C. Huntley. “Riparian Zones

and Wildlife in Southern Forests,” ManagingSouthern Forests for Wildlife and Fish, Ed. J.

Dickson and O. Maughan, USDA Forest Service

General Technical Report 50-65, (1987), 37-39.

Helfrich, L.A. et al. Landowner’s Guide toManaging Streams in the Eastern United States,Virginia Cooperative Extension Service

Publication 420-141, 1986.

James, B.R. “Riparian Vegetation Effects on Nitrate

Removal from Groundwater,” Journal ofEnvironmental Quality, University of Maryland,

In Press.

Kundt, J.F. et al. Streamside Forests: The VitalBeneficial Resource, Maryland Cooperative

Extension Service, 1988.

Miller, E. “Effects of Forest Practices on

Relationships Between Riparian Areas and

Aquatic Ecosystems,” Managing SouthernForests for Wildlife and Fish, Ed. J. Dickson and

O. Maughan, USDA Forest Service General

Technical Report 50-65, (1987), 40-47.

Practical Approaches to Riparian ResourceManagement: An Educational Workshop,

Billings, MT, US Bureau of Land Management

BLM-MT-PT-89-001-4351, 1989.

Rudolph, D.G and J.G. Dickinson. “Streamside

Zone Width and Amphibian and Reptile

Abundance,” The Southwestern Naturalist, 35,

(1990), 472-476.

Schilling, Erik B. and B. Graeme Lockaby.

Streamside Management Zones in Alabama:Functions and Management, Auburn University

Center for Forest Sustainability.

Swift, L.W. “Filter Strip Widths for Forest Roads in

Southern Appalachians,” Southern Journal ofApplied Forestry, 10 (1984), 27-34.

Warmwater Streams Symposium: A NationalSymposium on Fisheries Aspects of WarmwaterStreams, Southern Division American Fisheries

Society, (1980).

Stream Crossings

Baker, C.O. and F.E. Votapka. “Fish Passage

Through Culverts,” USDA Forest ServiceTechnology and Development Center Report No.FHWA-FL-90-006, 1990.

Mason, L. Portable Wetland Area and StreamCrossings, USDA Forest Service Technology and

Development Center, 1990.

Forest Roads

Kochenderfer, J.N. Cost of and Soil Loss in“Minimum-Standard” Forest Truck RoadsConstructed in the Central Appalachians, USDA

Forest Service Research Paper NE-544, 1984.

Swift, L.W. “Soil Losses from Roadbeds and Cut

and Fill Slopes in the Slopes in the Southern

Appalachian Mountains,” Southern Journal ofApplied Forestry, 8, (1984), 209-215.

Swift, L.W. “Gravel and Grass Surfacing Reduces

Soil Loss from Mountain Roads,” Forest Science,30, (1984), 656-670.

The Layman’s Guide to Private Access RoadConstruction in the Southern AppalachianMountains, Tennessee Valley Authority,

Waynesville, N. C.: Haywood Press, Inc. 1985.

Wallbridge, T.A., Jr. The Paper Location of ForestRoads, Blackburge, AA, Virginia Polytechnical

Institute and State University, 1989.

28

Wallbridge, T.A., Jr. The Direct Location of ForestRoads, Blacksburg, VA, Virginia Polytechnical

Institute State University, 1990.

Timber Harvesting

Brinker, R.W. Best Management Practices forTimber Harvesters, Alabama Cooperative

Extension Service Circular ANR-539, 1989.

Simmons, F.C. Handbook for Eastern TimberHarvesting, USDA Forest Service Northeastern

Area State and Private Forestry, 1979.

Swindel, B.F. “Multi-Resource Effects of Harvest,

Site Preparation and Planting in Flatwoods,”

Southern Journal of Applied Forestry, 7, (1983),

6-15.

Reforestation/Stand Management

Beasley, R.S., and A. Granillo, “Water Yields and

Sediment Losses from Chemical and Mechnical

Site Preparation in Southwest Arkansas,”

Forestry and Water Quality. A Mid-SouthSymposium, Arkansas Cooperative Extension

Service, 1985.

Wetlands

Gosselink, J.G. and L.C. Lee. Cumulative ImpactAssessment in Bottomland Hardwood Forest,Baton Rouge, LA, Center for Wetlands

Resources, Louisiana State University LSU-CEI-

86-09, 1987.

Federal Manual for Identifying and DelineatingJurisdictional Wetlands, Federal Interagency

Committee for Wetland Delineation, 1989.

Forested Wetlands of the Southeast: Review ofMajor Characteristics and Role in MaintainingWater Quality, USDI Fish and Wildlife Service

Publication 163, 1986.

Forested Wetlands of the United States:Proceedings of the Symposium, USDA Forest

Service Southeastern Forest Experiment Station

General Technical Report SE-50, 1988.

Good, R.E., D.F. Whigham and R. L. Simpson.

Freshwater Wetlands: Ecological Processes andManagement Potential, New York, Academic

Press, 1978.

Kellison, R.C. et al. Regenerating and ManagingNatural Stands of Bottomland Hardwoods,American Pulpwood Association, 88-A-6, 1988.

Kibby, H.V. “Effects of Wetlands on Water

Quality,” Proceedings of the Symposium onStrategies for Protection and Management ofFloodplain Wetlands and Other RiparianEcosystems, USDA Forest Service Publication

GTR-WO-12, 1978.

Larson, J.S. “Wetland Value Assessment: State of

the Art,” National Wetlands Newsletter, Vol. 3,

No. 2, Mar-Apr 1981.

National List of Plant Species That Occur inWetlands: Southeast (Region 2), U.S. Fish and

Wildlife Service, Biological Report 88 (26.2),

1988.

National Wetlands Policy Forum, The Conservation

Foundation, 1989.

Wharton, C. H. et al. Forested Wetlands of Florida,Their Management and Use, Gainesville, FL,

Center for Wetlands, University of Florida, 1977.

General BMPs

Alabama Nonpoint Source Management Program,Montgomery, Alabama. Alabama Department of

Environmental Management. October 2000.

http://www.adem.state.al.us/Education%20Div/

Nonpoint%20Program/ManagePlan/partIIsi.pdf

Best Management Practices for SilviculturalActivities on TVA Lands, Norris, TN, Division of

Land Resources, Tennessee Valley Authority,

1990.

29

Burns, R.G., and J.D. Hewlett. “A Decision Model

to Predict Sediment Yield from Forest Practices,”

Water Resources Bulletin 19, (1983), 9-14.

Dissmeyer, G.E. and G.R. Foster. A Guide forPredicting Sheet and Rill Erosion on ForestLand, USDA Forest Service State and Private

Forestry Southeastern Area, Technical

Publication SA-TP 11, 1980.

Dissmeyer, G.E. and N.D. Kidd. “Multiresource

Inventories: Watershed Condition of Commercial

Forest Land in South Carolina,” USDA ForestService Research Paper SE-247, 1984.

Erosion Control on Forest Land in Georgia,Georgia Cooperative Extension Service, 1979.

Forestry and Water Quality: A mid-south sympo-sium, Arkansas Cooperative Extension Service,

1985.

Glasser, S.P. Summary of Water Quality Effectsfrom Forest Practices in the South, Atlanta, GA,

USDA Forest Service Southern Region, 1982.

Golden, M.S. et al. Forestry Activities and WaterQuality in Alabama: Effects, RecommendedPractices, and an Erosion Classification System,Alabama Agricultural Experimental Station

Auburn University, Bulletin 555, 1984.

Golden, M.S. et al. Guidelines for Refinement ofBest Management Practices in Alabama, Auburn

University, AL, Department of Forestry, 1984.

National Management Measures to ControlNonpoint Source Pollution from Forestry, U.S.

Environmental Protection Agency, Office of

Water, Washington DC 20460 (4503F)

EPA-841-B-05-001 April 2005.

http://www.epa.gov/owow/nps/forestrymgmt/

(May 2005).

30

Sources of Technical AssistanceTechnical assistance and/or additional informa-

tion may be available from the following agencies

and organizations to help you plan forestry opera-

tions that may affect water quality.

Alabama Department of Conservation and Natural Resources

64 North Union Street, Suite 468

Montgomery, AL 36130

(334) 242-3465

www.outdooralabama.com

Alabama Department of EnvironmentalManagement (ADEM)

1400 Coliseum Boulevard

Montgomery, AL 36110-2059

or

P. O. Box 301463

Montgomery, AL 36130-1463

(334) 271-7700

http://www.adem.alabama.gov

Alabama Cooperative Extension System109-D Duncan Hall

Auburn University, AL 36849

(334) 844-4444

www.aces.edu

Alabama Forestry Association555 Alabama Street

Montgomery, AL 36104

(334) 265-8733

www.alaforestry.org

Alabama Forestry Commission513 Madison Avenue

Montgomery, AL 36130

(334) 240-9365 or 240-9332

www.forestry.state.al.us

American Forest and Paper Association1111 19th St. NW, Suite 800

Washington, DC 20036

(800) 878-8878

www.afandpa.org

U.S. Army Corps of EngineersMobile District

P.O. Box 2288

Mobile, AL 36628

(251) 471-5966

www.sam.usace.army.mil

Nashville District

P.O. Box 1070

Nashville, TN 37202

(615) 736-7161

www.orn.usace.army.mil

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)Region 4

Sam Nunn Atlanta Federal Center

61 Forsyth Street SW

Atlanta, GA 30303-8960

(404) 562-9900 or 1-800-241-1754

http://www.epa.gov/region04/about/index.html

USDA Forest Service2946 Chestnut Street

Montgomery, AL 36107

(334) 832-4470

www.fs.fed.us

USDA Natural Resources ConservationService

P.O. Box 311

Auburn, AL 36830

(334) 887-4560

www.nrcs.usda.gov/programs

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service1208-B Main Street

Daphne, AL 36526-4419

(251) 441-5181

www.fws.gov

31

Alabama Forestry Commission2007