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416 ALBERT BAN]l)URA

PERCEIVED SELF-EFFICACY IN THE EXERCISE... 417

isms goveming personal empowerment over pervasive social threats (Ozer & Badura, 1989). Sexual violence toward women is a prevalent problems. Because any woman may be a potential victim, the lives of many women are distressed and constricted by a sense of inefficacy to cope with .the threat of sexual assault. To address this problem at a self­iprotective leve!, women participated in a maistery modeUing programme in which they mastered the physical skills to defend themselves succes­sfully against s·exual assailants. Masrery modelling enhanced perceived coping efficacy and cognitive !Control efficacy, decreased perceived vul­nerability to assault and reduced the incidence of instrusive thoughts and anxiety arousal. 11hese changes were accompanied by increased freedom of action and decreased avoidant social behavior. Path analysis of the causal estructure revealed a dual path of regulation of behaviour by perceived self-efficacy: One path was mediated through the effects of .pe11ceived coping self-efficacy on perceil\Ted vulnerability and risk dis­cernment, and the other through the impact of pe11ceived cognWve control 1self-efficacy on intrusive aversive thoughts (Figure 12). A strong sense of coping efficacy rooted in performance capabilities has substan­tial impact on perceived self-efficacy to abort the escalation or perse­veration of perturbing cognitions.

Perceived coping effiicacy reguates avoidance behaviour in risky situation, as weH as anxiety arousal. The iStronger t.1he perceived coping efficacy the more venturesome the behaviour, regardless of whether self­beliefs of efficacy are strengthened by mastery experiences, modelling influences, or cognitive simulations. The role of perceivied self-efficacy and a�iety arousal in the caUJSal structure of avoidant behaviour has been examined in a number of studies. The results show that peopLe base their actions on self-percepts of efficaley in situation they regard as risky. Wiilliams and hiis colleagues (Wifüams, Kinney & Falbo, 1989; Williams, Dooseman & Kleifield, 1984; Wifüams, Turner & Peer, 1985) have analysed by 1partial correlation numerous data sets from studies in which perceived self-efficacy, anticipated anxiety, and phobic behaviour were measured. Perceived self-efficacy account for a substantial amount of variance in phobic behaviour when anticipated anxiety is partiaUed out, whereas the relationship between antilcipated anxiety and phobic

behaviour essentially disappears when perceived self-efficacy is partialed

out (Table 1). StU<lies of other threatening activities similary demostrate

the predictive superiority of perceived self-effi.cacy over perceived danger­

ous outcomes in leve! of anxiety arousal. (Hackett & Betz, 1984; Leland,

1.983; McAuley, 1985; Wiilliams & Watson, 1985).

The data taken as a whole indicate that anxiety arousal and avoidant

behaviour are largely coeffelcts of perceived coping inefficacy rather

rev. · 11sp. ped. XL.VHl, 187, 19901

418 ALBERT BANDURA

TABLE 1

COPING BEBAVIOR

ANnaPATED ANXJETY PERcEIVED SELF-DFICACY .... wifh

Williams & Rappoport (1983) Pretreatment 1 -.12 .40* Pretreatment 2 -.28 .59** Posttreatment .13 .45* Follow-up .06 .45•

Williams et al. (1984) Pretreatment -.36* .22 Posttreatment -.21 .59***

Williams et al. (1985) Pretreatment -.315* .28• P�sttreatment ,05 .. 72*** Follow-up -.12 .66•••

Teloh et al. (1985) Pretreatment -.56••• -.28 Posttreatment .15 .48•• J?ollow-up -.05 .42*

Kirsch et al. (1983) Pretreatment -.34* ,54••• Posttreatment -.48 .. .48**

Aroow et al. (1985) Pretreatment .17 .77 ... Posttreatment -.08 .43* Follow-up -.06 .88**

WiJlliams et al. (1989) Midtreatment -.15 .óS••• Posttreatment .()2 .47** Follow-up -.03 .11•••

*p<.OS Up<.01

***p<.001

rev. esp. ped. XLVHI, 187, 1990

420 ALBERT BANDURA

In acicord with social cognitive theory, the directional effects of negative goal discrepancies are predictable from the relationship bet· ween :perceiived self-efficacy for goal attainment and level of personal goals (Bandura & A!brams, 1986). Whether negative discrepancies are motivating or depressing dependls on ,beliefis on one'-s efficacy to match them. Negative disparities give rise to high motivation and low despon­dency when people believe they have the efficacy to fulfil difficult goals and continue to strive for them. Negative disparities diminish motivation and generate .despondency for people who jud'ge themselves as ineffica­cious to attain dif.ficult goals but conti'nue to demand them of themselves. People who view diJfficult goals as bey-0nd their capabilities and abandon them as unrealistic for themselves become apathetic rather than des­pondent .

Much human depression is oognitively generated by dejecting thought patterns. Therefore, perceived self-efficacy to exercise control over ruminative thought figures prominently in the oocurrence, duration and recurrence of depressiiVe episodes. Kavanagh and Wilson (1988) found that the weaker the perceived effiloacy to terminate ruminative thoughts the higher the depression (r = .51), and the stronger the perceived thought control efficacy intHled through treatment the greater the de­cline in depression (r = .71) and the lower the vulnera'hility to recurrence of depressive episodes (r = -.48). Perceived self-efficacy retains its pre­dictiveness of improvement and reduced vulnerability to relapse when level of prior depresision is controlled.

D. Selection processes

People can exert sorne influence over their life paths by the environ­ments they select and environments they create. Thus far, the distcussion has centred on effioacy-related processes that enable people to create beneficia! environments and to exerciise control over them. Judgements of personal efficacy also shape developmental trajectories by influencing selection of activities and situations they ibelieve exceed their coping capabilities , but they readily undertake challenging aicti'Vi.ties and pick social environments they judge themselves capable of handing. Any

factor that influences choice behaviour can profoundly affect the direc­tion of personal development. Thls iis because the social influences opera­ting in selected environments continue to ;promote certain competencies,

values, and interests long after t'he decisional determinant has rendered

its inaugurating effeict (Bandura, 1968; Snyder, 1986). Thus, seemingly

inconsequential efficacy determinants can initiate seleotive associations

that produce major and enduring personal changes.

The power of self-efficacy beliefs to affect the oourse of life paths

rev. esp. ped. XLVHI, 1B7, 19901

422 ALBERT BANDURA

explanatory and predictirve power, but also by its · operational power to enhance the ·quality of human functioning. Social cognitive theory pro­vides prescriptive specificity on how to empower people with the competencies, self-regulatory icapabilities and resilients self�belief or efficacy that enaibles them to enhance their psychological well-being and accomplishments.

Address of the author: Al!bert Bandura, Department of �ohology, Staniforo Univenity, Stamord 94305 • 3096, Califomfa, &taidos Unidos. ·

Received: IO.XiJI.1990.

RIBFERIENOOS

ATIUNSON, J. W. (1964) An Introduction to Motivation (Princeton, N. J., Van Nos-trand). .

BANDURA, A. (1986) Social Foundations of Thought and Action: A social cognitive . theory (Englewoods Cliffs, NJ., .Prentice:Ha�l).

BANDURA, A. (1988a) !Perceived ·sielf-efficacy: exercise of control through self•belief, en ·DAUWAU>ER, J. 1P., ,Pmuuiz, M. & HOBI, V. (eds.) Annual Series of European Re­search in Behavior Therapy, 2, pp. Tl-59 (Llisse, N. L., Swets & Zeitlinger). ·

BANDURA, A. (1988b) Self-regulation of motivation anJd action through goal systems, en HAMILTON, V., BoWER, G. H. y FRUDA, IN. H. (eds.) Cognitive Perspectives on Emotion and Motivation (Dordrecht, Kluwer Academic Publishers).

BANDURA, A. y ABRAMs, K. (1987) Self-regulatory mechanisms in motivatmg, apath� tic, and despondent reacti<>DIS to unfulfilled standars. Manmcrito inédito (Stan. ford, Stanford University). .

BANDURA, A. y ADAMS, N. LE. (1977) Analysis of self-efficacy theory of ibehavioral change, Cognitive Therapy and Research, l, pp. 287-308.

BANDURA, A. y CERVONE, D. (1986) Self-evaluative and self-iefficacy mechanisms go­verning the motivational effects of g0al systems, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 45, pp. 1017-1028.

- (1986)Differential engagement of self-reactive influences in cognitive motiva· tion, Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 38, p. 92-113.

BANDURA, A., CLOFFI, :P., TAYLOR, c. B. y BROUILLARD, M. ·E. (1988) Perceived self­efficacy in copin,g with cognitive stresS;ens and opioid activation, Journal of Personality and Sbcial Psychology, SS, pp . .of79-488.

BANDURA, A., REEsE, L. y ADAMs, N. ·E. (1982) Microanaly.sis of action and! fear arousal as a function of differential levels of perceived self-effioacy, 1 ournal · of Consul· ting and Clinical Psychology, 43, pp. 5-21.

BANDURA, A. TAYLOR, C. B., WILLIAMS, S. L., MELFORD, l. N. y BARCHAS, J. D. (1985) Catecholámine siecretion as a function of ,perceived coping self-efficacy, Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 53, pp. 406414.

BANDURA, A. y Wooo, R. E. (1989) 'Effect of perceived controllability and performance standars on self-regulation of complex decision-making, Journal of Personality nnd Social Psychology, 56, pp. 805-814.

BANDURA, M. M. y UWECK, C. S. (1988) The relationship of conceptions of intelligence and achievement goals to achievement-related cognition, affect and behavior, Manuscript sUbmitted for publication.

BARLING, J. ,y ABBL, M. (1983) Self-efficacy beliefs and performance, Cognitive The­rapy and Research, 7, PP. 265-Tl2.

rev. esp. ped. XLV.liM, 187, 199G

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