alht106 – psychology for allied health2. explain principles of major learning theories in...
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ALHT106–Semester1Notes 1
Biopsychology-physicalbasisofpsychology
phenomena
Developmental-ofthought,feelingsand
behaviouracrosslifespan
Social-individualandgroupinteracDon,
theoreDcalapproachi.e.whendopeoplebehave
aggressively
Clinical-natureandtreatmentofpsychologyprocessesresulDngindistresse.g.mood
disorder
CogniDve-natureofthought,memory,
snesaDonpercepDonandlanguage
Personality-impactontheirreacDon,disorders,
impactofthoughts,feelingsandbehaviours
onpersonality
Industrial/OrganisaDonal-behaviourofindividuals
inorganisaDonsandsolveorganisaDonal
problems
EducaDonal-psychologicalprocessesinlearningineducaDonal
seMngs
Health-psychologyfactorsinhealthand
disease
Counselling-diagnosis/treatmenttoindividuals,couples,families,groups,
organisaDons
Forensic-prevenDonandtreatmentofcriminal
behaviour
ConservaDon-reciprocalrelaDonshipsbetweenhumansandnature
ALHT106–PsychologyforAlliedHealthLearning Outcomes 1.Describethescientificapproachofmodernpsychologyandprinciplesforgeneratingknowledge.(GA4,5)
2.Explainprinciplesofmajorlearningtheoriesinpsychology;identifyimplicationsforunderstandingbehaviourinhealthsettings.(GA1,4,5)
3.Describethemaintheoriesofhumanmemoryandsomeoftheirimplicationsforunderstandingbehaviourinhealthsettings(GA5,8,9).
4.Explainthemajortheoriesofmotivationandemotionandtheiruseinhelpingtoexplainalliedhealthpractices(GA1,4,5)
5.Throughparticipationinagroupworkexercise,identifyanddescribegroupworkprinciplesused,andtheirlinktotheory(GA1,4,5,7)
6.Locate/extractappropriateinfofromelectronichealthdatabasesinpreparinganessayusingrelevantacademicconventions.(GA7,8,9,)
Introduction to Psychology Psychology:studyofthehumanmindandbehaviourincludingscience,behaviourandmentalprocesses. Apersonrequiresattentiontotheir:biology,psychologicalexperience,culturalcontextStructuralism(theoretical)àemphasisesconsciousthough,classificationofmindstructurally;uncoverbasicelementsofconsciousnessFunctionalism(applied)àfunctionofmind,reasoningbehindthoughtprocesses;attemptstoexplainpsychologicalprocesses(theirrole)ContemporaryPsychologyPerspectivesPerspective KeyFigures BasicPrinciples MethodologyPsychodynamic SigmundFreud Behaviourlargelyresultofunconsciousprocesses,
motivationandearlyexperiences-actionsdeterminedbyconnectionofthoughts,feelings,wishes-mentaleventsoccuroutsideconsciousawareness-mentalprocessesconflictresultingincompromise
Casestudy,observationofthoughts,feelingsandactions
Behaviourist Pavlov–animals:2eventscombinedformuniqueresultsWatson–extendedquestiontohumansSkinner–focusonexternalstimuli,causesandconsequencesofaparticularaction
Behaviourlearnedandselectedbyitsenvironmentalconsequences
Experimental,imperialism,morestructured
Humanistic Maslow:basicphysicalneeds→needsforsafety/security→developrelationshipsRogers:observedthenclientunderwentownmotivation,emphasisesself-actualisation(peoplemotivatedtoreachfullpotential)
Behaviourandexperienceshapedbyneedtoself-actualise,tofulfilinnerpotential
Person-centredtherapeuticapproach,respectandacceptanceofindividual
Cognitive ReneDescartes–earlyphilosophicalquestionsledcognitivepsychologiststoemphasiseroleofreasonincreatingknowledge
Behaviourisproductofinfoprocessing;storage,transformationandretrievalofdata-Wordrecognitionmodel(McClelland)-Workingmemorymodel(Baddeley)
Experimentation,scientific,empirical
Evolutionary CharlesDarwin–naturalselection,adaptivetraits
Focusonadaptiveaspectsofpsychologyandhowadaptiontoenvironmentshapesbehavioursandmentalprocesses
Deductive,comparative,experimental
SubdisciplinesinPsychology
ALHT106–Semester1Notes 2
ResearchTheoreticalframework:systematicwayoforganising,explainingobservationsStandardisedprocedures:allparticipantsexposedtoassimilarproceduresaspossible,variationintroducedtotesthypothesisGeneralisability:studythatisinternallyvalid(design)andexternallyvalid(applicabletosituationsoutsidelab),samplethatrepresentspopulationObjectivemeasurement:reliability(consistentresults),validity(accuratelyassessconstructintendedtomeasure),repetitionEvidencebasedpractice:empiricalmethodologyusedtogainknowledge,methodsbelowMethod Description Usesandadvantages PotentiallimitationsExperimental Manipulatevariablesto
assesscauseandeffect- demonstratescausalrelationships- canberepeated- maximisescontrolovervariables
- generalisabilityoutsidelab- complexphenomenanotreadily
testedDescriptive:casestudy
In-depthobservationofsmallnumberofcases
- psychologicalprocessesinindividualcases
- studyofcomplexphenomena- providesdatausefultoframe
hypotheses
- generalisability- replicability- researcherbias- can’testablishcausation
Descriptive:naturalisticobservation
In-depthobservationofphenomenonasitoccursinnature
- phenomenaastheyexistoutsidelab
- studyofcomplexphenomena- providesdatausefulinframing
hypothesis
- generalisability- observereffects:mayalterbehaviour- replicability- researcherbias- can’testablishcausation
Descriptive:surveyresearch
Askingpeoplequestionsre.attitudes,behaviours
- revealsself-reportedbehavioursoflargesampleofpeople
- quantificationofattitudesandbehaviours
- self-report:maynotbeaccurate- can’testablishcausation
Correlational Examinesextenttowhichtwoormorevariablesarerelated,usedtopredictoneanother
- revealsrelationshipsamongvariablesoutsidelaboratory
- allowsquantificationofrelationshipsamongvariables
- cannotestablishcausation
Learning and Behavioural Analysis Learning:theacquisitionandmodificationofknowledge,skills,strategies,beliefs,attitudesandbehaviours.Itinvolvescognitive,linguistic,motorandsocialskillsandcantakemanyforms.[Schunk,2000]
− Linguistic:newlanguage/jargon− Motor:manualhandling,handlingclients− Social:rangeofpeoplewedealwith,professionalpractice
LearningTheoriesTwomainaims:
− Conceptualframeworkthatattemptstosystematisewhatisknownaboutlearning,tounderstandifthesametheoryisrelevantindifferentenvironments
− AssistancewithpracticalsolutionsAgreedupon: Variablyincluded:• Behaviourist
paradigm• Cognitive
paradigm
• Constructivist–throughreflectingoneverydayexperiences,oneconstructstheirownlearning• Humanistic–emphasisesimportanceofthepersonfromsubjectiveandobjectivepointsofview• Sociallearning–observationofsocietalnorms• Experimental–learningthroughdiscovery,exploration• Blendedlearningtheory–facetofaceaswellasonlinelearning,mixedmodality• Connectivism–hypothesisoflearningemphasisingroleofsocialandculturalcontextoflearning,
connectingtheoryandpractice• Multipleintelligences–individualshavestrengthsandweaknesses,placeemphasisontheirstrengths
− Linguistic,mathematical,interactionwithenvironment,musical,visual/spatial,interpersonal,intrapersonal,naturalist(noticingsubtledifferences),existential
• Technology/internet–text,audio,visualBehaviouristApproachesToLearningPavlov–ClassicalConditioning“typeoflearninginwhichastimulusacquirescapacitytoevokeresponseoriginallyevokedbyanotherstimulus”UCS-unconditionedstimulus,evokesunconditionedresponsew/opreviousconditioningUCR-unconditionedresponse,unlearnedreactiontoUCSw/opreviousconditioningCS-conditionedstimulus,previouslyneutralstimuluswithacquiredcapacitytoevokeconditionedresponsethroughconditioningCR-conditionedresponse,learnedreactionduetoconditioning.NS-neutralstimulus• Implication:CRattainablebypairingCSandUCStochangebehaviour(bedwetting,bellandpad)• Extinction:ofCSoccursifCSpresentedw/oUS.Conditionedresponsegraduallydisappears(butreturnoccasionally)
ALHT106–Semester1Notes 3
o Implication:ceasepairingofCS/UStochangebehaviour• Spontaneousrecovery:aCRwillreappearafterarestperiod,evenafteraseriousofCS(noUS)pairings
o Implication:thinkabehaviourhasceasedbutitcaneasilyreturno Warnclientsthisisn’tasetback/unusualintermsoftherapy
• StimulusGeneralisation:aCRtooneCSseemstogeneralisetoothercloselyrelatedstimulie.g.bellswithslightlydifferenttoneso Implication:wedon’tneedtoteacheveryskill/behaviour
• DiscriminationtoCS:afterteachingCR,furtherpairingstootherCSresultsinselectiveCRthusonlyCSmostcloselymatchingtrainingCSelicitresponse
o Implication:abletoteachspecificityofresponses
• Secondorderconditioning:originalpairing(CS1)linkedwithCS2,withrepeatedexposurestheCRoccursonlywithexposuretoCS2notCS1
o Implication:abletoscaffoldconditioningofresponses
• Counterconditioning:pairCSthatelicitsfearwithastimulus(US)thatelicitspositiveemotion(UR)
o Implication:canreplaceoneresponsetoastimuluswithanother
o E.g.givingachildalollipopafterinjections
Watson–StudyofEmotionsAim–expandonPavlovtodemonstratethatemotionalreactionscouldbeclassicallyconditionedinpeopleKey–observation,LittleAlbertexperimentsconditionedfearImplication–canconditionnegativeresponsestopreviouslyneutral/positivestimuli;counterconditioningmayberequiredinalliedhealthSkinner–OperantConditioning‘nurture’overnatureLearnerispassive,acquiringskillsviainfluencesofenvironment.Allbehaviourisalearnedbehavioure.g.language,ridingbike.Consequencesdrivebehaviour.
• AntecedentàbehaviouràconsequencesChangingbehaviour-seetheoreticalconstructsi.e.reinforcementandpunishment
Thorndike–Connectionismstimulusàresponse(preSkinner)
1. Lawofeffect–behaviourfollowedbypleasantconsequenceslikelytoberepeated(viceversa)2. Lawofreadiness–seriesofresponsescanbechainedtogethertosatisfysomegoalwhichwillresultinannoyanceifblocked3. Lawofexercise–connectionsbecomestrengthenedwithpracticeandweakenedwhenpracticeisdiscontinued
TheoreticalConstructsReinforcement(reinforce=tostrengthen,reinforcer=anyeventwhichstrengthensormaintainsbehaviourthatitconsistentlyfollows)
1. Intrinsicvs.extrinsic2. Primary(sleep,food,airetc.)vs.secondary(physicalrewards)3. Artificial(settingupthesituatione.g.goodjobforsametask)vs.naturallyoccurring(usingpraiseinnormalsituation)4. Natural(readingbecauseyouenjoyit),Logical(reasonablereinforcers,notexcessive)andArbitrary(readingforareward)
ALHT106–Semester1Notes 4
CategoriesofPotentialReinforcers:1. Tangible–touchandfeel2. Consumable-lollies3. Social–hug,attention,approval4. Activity–gettoengageinaparticularactivityafterdesirable
activity5. Token–afteracertainnumber,abiggerrewardachievede.g.
stickers6. Intrinsic–doitforyourself
FactorsInfluencingReinforcerEffectiveness:1. Deprivation–workharderforreinforceriftheyhaven’thadit
inawhile2. Satiation–toomanyreinforcements3. Immediacy–otherwiselinkbetweenact/reinforcerdissipates4. Amount-varying5. Schedule–reinforcevaryingtimes/days6. ConcurrentSchedules–multipleschedulesinplace
ReinforcementSchedules:
• Continuousreinforcementschedule–reinforceallcorrectresponses• Extinctionschedule–reinforcenoinstancesoftheresponse• Intermittentreinforcementschedule–reinforcesomecorrectresponses(fixedorvariableratio)
ShapingConceptsofshapinginclude:
• Differentialreinforcement,forsomebutnotother• Reinforcementcriterionwhichisgraduallychanged(alterrewardwithimprovements)• Specifybehaviouralobjective,specifystartingbehaviour,sequenceoflearningsteps,findreinforcer,starttrainingonfirststep,
decidewhentoadvance,backtrackifnecessary,repeatuntilobjectiveachieved,intermittentreinforcementChainingChaining–linkingbehaviourstogethertoachieveafinalresult
• Initially,conductataskanalysistodeterminedifferentcomponentsofsequenceviaobservation,self-completion,writinglistofcomponents
• i.e.chainofstepstomakeacupofcoffee• Forwardchaining–startatfirststepoftask• Reversechaining–dofirststepsandleavelaststep,teachthatstepandlearnercompletestaskandgetsreinforced=usefulin
reallifesituations,morereinforcingandlesstimeconsumingPromptingandFadingPrompting–inducepersontoperformdesiredbehaviourbypresentingprompt
o Physical–manualguidanceo Auditory–verbal,non-verbalauditorycues(alarm,notes)o Visual–gestural,pictorial,modelling/limitation
Fading–weananindividualoffpromptsbygraduallyreducingstrengthofprompt
1. Pairdesiredstimulusandprompt2. Reinforcecorrectresponses3. Startfadingprompt4. Continuereinforcementofcorrectresponses5. Probeoccasionallytoseeiftransferofstimuluscontroliscomplete6. Stopifsuccessful,ifnotrepeat3-5untilsuccessful7. Graduallyshifttointermittentscheduleofreinforcement
WeakeningBehaviour
1. Extinction→ Withholdingreinforcerforpreviouslyreinforcedresponsetocause↓inlevelofresponse→ Initialeffects–extinctionburst(initialtemporary↑inundesirableresponse/emotionalbehaviours)
2. Differentialreinforcement:→ Incompatiblebehaviour(DRI)–suggesttaskswhicharephysicallyincompatiblewithbehaviour→ Alternativebehaviour(DRA)–reinforceanybehaviouralternative→ Otherbehaviour(DRO)–onlyreinforceifbehaviourisn’tshownforanamountoftime→ Lowrates(DRL)–reinforcesmalleramountsofbadbehaviour
3. Punishmenttype1→ Simpleovercorrection–makethemcorrectresultsofmisbehaviour
ALHT106–Semester1Notes 5
CogniDvemaps Latentlearning Insight Expectancies Learnedhelplessness Explanatorystyle
→ Overcorrection–positivepractice(makethemdotasktwice),restitution(additionaltasktodo,improvethestakes)4. Punishmenttype2
→ Timeoutfrompositivereinforcement–movetolessreinforcingenvironment→ Responsecost–removalofsomethingdesirablei.e.dessert,TV
ImplicationsforHealthProfessionals
• Manipulateastimulus,individual’sresponseandtheirownresponse(reinforce,ignoreetc.)• Premackprinciple:opportunitytoengageinahighprobabilitybehaviourmaybeusedtoreinforcelowerprobabilitybehaviour
Cognitive-SocialTheory- Acombinationofsociallearningandcognitiveparadigmplusbehaviourism- Proposesthatindividualslearnmanythingsfrompeoplearoundthem,withorwithoutreinforcementviasociallearningmechanisms- Concepts:SocialLearningTheory- Observationallearning,modelling(personlearnstoreproducebehaviourexhibitedbyamodel)- Threeconceptsatthecentreofsociallearningtheory:
→ Learningthroughobservation→ Internalmentalstatesessential→ Learningdoesn’tnecessarilyresultinbehaviourchange
- Vicariousconditioning(learningconsequencesofanactionbyobservingitsconsequencesforanother)- Tutelage(teachingconceptsprimarilythroughverbalexplanation)- Theindividualactiveinlearningprocess;mosthumanbehaviourisacquiredbyobservation- Anindividual’slearningandperformancedependson
→ Motorreproduction→ Motivation→ Attention→ Retention
- Bandura:reciprocaldeterminismin1986→ Individuals,theirbehavioursandsocialenvironmentaredynamicallyboundtogether→ Individuals:self-identity,self-esteem,self-efficacy,expectancy→ Overtbehaviour:actionsandperformancelevel→ Socialenvironment:distinctivegroupconceptions,socialstatus,socialinteractions
- Learningoccurswithinthesocialspheresandcontextof:→ Family:firstexperienceswithinfamily,childrenmodelbehaviourandattitudeonfamily→ Peergroups:interact,behave,conforminsociallyacceptableways→ Communitygroups:normative(religious/belief),civil(political,charity),interest(sport,photography),vocational
Bandura:‘BoboDollExperiment’onchildren’saggressivebehaviourin1961
→ Investigationintowhethersocialbehaviourscanbeacquiredthroughimitation→ 1/3childrenwatchedadultbehaveaggressivelytowardsblowuptoy;1/3exposedtononaggressivebehaviourtowardsdoll;1/3
notexposedtoanymodelatall→ Childrenbroughtintoanotherroomwithaggressiveandnonaggressivetoys;behaviourobservedinonewaymirrorevery5secs→ Childrenwithaggressivemodelsactedmoreaggressively;boysorelikelytoimitatesame-sexmodelsthangirls;boysactedmore
physicallyaggressivethangirls;verbalaggressionsimilarbetweengroups→ FindingssupportBandura’sSocialLearningTheory–socialbehaviourlearnedthroughobservationallearning→ Implicationsforeffectofmediaviolenceonchildren
ImplicationsHealthprofessionals
→ Learningshouldbefacilitatedwheneverprocessofmotivationtoattendtotargetbehaviourandimproveretentionofmodelledeventincorporated
→ Selectmodelwithwhomindividualcloselyidentifies,advisethemtomodeltargetbehaviour,reinforcemodelforcorrectattemptsatbehaviour,laterencourageindividualtodobehaviour,reinforceindividualforcorrectbehaviourproductions
Promoteroleoffamilies
→ Establishcommunicationlinkswithfamilies→ Makefamilymemberswelcome→ Fivefamilyactiveroleintasktohelpindividual’slearning→ Explaintermsoftherapytofamily→ Involvefamilyaseducatorsandrolemodels
ALHT106–Semester1Notes 6
→ Promoteintergenerationallearning
Promotepeerintegrationandcohesion
→ Usesmallgrouplearningtoencourageparticipation→ Strategiesforhealthycompetitionintask→ Varycompositionofgroups→ Assignspecificrolestomembers→ Organisetrips,extra-curricularactivitiestofostergroupcohesion
Promotepositiveself-identityandself-esteem
→ Mixedabilitygroups→ Encouragerecognitionofeachmemberscontribution→ Identifythosenotparticipatingandintegrate→ Permitfriendlycompetition→ Assigndifferentroles→ Protectfrompublicfailure→ Clientsopportunitiestobeteachers→ Recogniseeffortandachievement→ Celebrateindividualsuccess→ Praisecontribution→ Errors=opportunitiestolearnconstructively→ Avoidsarcasm,criticism,comparison
CognitiveApproachesToLearningCognitivism:theorythatattemptstoanswerhow/whypeoplelearnbyattributingprocessestocognitiveactivityFocusonperception,memoryandconceptformation,↑engagementinhypotheico-deductivescientificinquiryImplicationforhealthprofessionals:- Cuesustoaskwhysomeonecan’tcompleteatask- Cognitivefactors:languageissue,memoryissue,
processingspeed,executivefunctioning(planningproblem,sequencing,reasoning,attention)
- Motivationandemotion:personality,ICF(internationalclassificationoffunctioning)personalfactors
ExperientialLearningandConstructivismExperiential–learningthroughaction,doing,experience,discoveryandexplorationConstructivism–explainshowpeopleacquireknowledgeandlearn,fromexperiencesKolb’sCycleofExperientialLearningàKolb–implications:- Differencebetweenyouandyourpeers,lecturers,
professionalpracticeeducators,clientPiagetandtheOriginsofIntelligenceIntelligenceseenasevolvingwithphysicalmaturationandexperience,threefundamentalprinciples:
1. Equilibrium2. Organisation3. Adaption
Implications:- Createdisequilibriumtochallengeclient- Encouragesproblem-solvingandanalysis- Providesphysical,interactive,manipulativetoolstoworkwith- AllowsexplorationofenvironmentVygotsky:ZoneofProximalDevelopment(ZPD)Implications:- Guidedlearning:jointknowledgeconstructedbyclientandclinicianbyclinician
managinglearning- Scaffolding:provideappropriatesupportstohelpclientsconstructnewknowledge
→ Clinicianprovidesscaffolds→ Teachclienttoself-scaffolde.g.self-talk→ Removescaffoldsasclientlearnstask→ Re-introducescaffoldsiftaskisaltered
ALHT106–Semester1Notes 7
PersonalLearningTheoriesLearningStyle DescriptionDeepLearning DeveloprealunderstandingSurfaceLearning LearningjustenoughtopasstaskStrategicLearning
Deliberatesurfacelearninge.g.forexam
BehaviourChangeSelecttargetbehaviour→identifycontingencies(antecedents,consequences)→measuringandrecordingbehaviour(narrativerecording,counting,timing,checking,rating)
1. Precontemplation2. Contemplation3. Preparation4. Action5. Maintenanceortermination
Sensation and Perception Sensation:bodygathersinformationaboutenvironment,transmitsinfotobrainviaelectricalenergyforinitialprocessingPerception:activeprocess,bywhichthebrainselects,organisesandinterpretssensoryinformationOutlinethethreebasicprinciplesandprocessesthatapplyacrossallsenses
1. Noone-to-onecorrespondencebetweenphysicalandpsychologicalreality2. Sensationandperceptionareactiveprocesses,whereenergyisconvertedintoaninternalrepresentation3. Sensationandperceptionareadaptive,servingafunctionalpurposetofacilitatesurvivalandreproduction
Describetheprocessescommontoallsensorysystems- Detectphysicalenergye.g.lightwaves- Transduction:translatephysicalstimulationintoneuralsignals
→ Processoftransformingoneformofenergyintoanother→ Sensoryreceptorsspecialisedtorespondtoenvironmentalenergy,whichisconvertedintoneuralimpulseswhichare
interpretedbybraino Visual(lightenteringeye),auditory(pressurechangesinair),touch(pressuretransmittedthroughskin),smell
(chemicalsenternose),taste(chemicalsentermouth)- Threshold:eachsystemrequiresaminimumamountofenergytoactivatethesystem
→ Signaldetectiontheoryproposestwodistinctprocessesrequiredfordetectingastimulus:o Initialsensoryprocess:observer’ssensitivitytostimuluso Decisionprocess:observer’sresponsebias
→ Peopledifferintimeittakestoreachthresholde.g.painthresholds- Sensationinvolvesefficientandautomaticdecisionmaking- Sensorysystemsaresensitivetochangesinstimulationlevel
→ Tendencyofsensorysystemstorespondlesstostimulithatcontinuewithoutchange→ Makessensefromevolutionaryperspective;constantsensoryinputprovidesnonewinformationaboutenvironment→ Habituatingtostimuliuseful,onlyrespondtousefulcues
ExplainhowlightwavelengthsaretransformedintovisionandcolourLight- Electromagneticspectrumisacontinuumof
electromagneticenergy–producedbyelectricchargesandradiatedaswaves
- Visiblelightrangesfrom400-700nanometres
Eye- Containreceptorsforvision- Lightentersviapupil,focusedbythecornea
andlenstoformsharpimagesofobjectsontheretina
Retina- Visualreceptors,rodsandconescontain
lightsensitivechemicals(visualpigments)whichrespondtolightandtriggerelectricalsignalswhichtravelviaopticnervetobrain- Shape:rodsarelargeandcylindrical,conesaresmallandtaperedprovidingdetailedvision- Distributiononretina:imagefallsonfoveaconsistingofcones,peripheryhasmorerodsthancones- Approximately120millionrods,6millioncones- Informationprocessing:signalsgeneratedtraveltobipolarcellsthentoganglioncells.Ganglionaxonstransmitsignalsoutofretinain
opticnerve
ALHT106–Semester1Notes 8
BlindSpot- Areainretinacontainingnoreceptors- Locatedoffsideofvisualfield- AmechanisminbrainfillsinplacewhereimagedisappearsVisualpathways- Signalstransmittedviaopticnervetolateralgeniculatenucleus(LGN,groupofneurons)ofthalamus- SignalsthentraveltovisualreceivingareainstriatecortexWhat(ventral)andWhere(dorsal)pathways- Fromprimaryvisualcortex,visualinfoflowsalongtwoprocessingstreams- What:involvedindeterminingwhatanobjectis,incorporatestemporallobe,neutralstream- Where:locatingobjectinspace,followsitsmovements,guidingmovementtowardsit,dorsalstreamPerceivinginColourBrightness–intensityofcolour;Hue–typeofcolour;Saturation–purityofcolour,addingwhitereducessaturationRetinaltransductionofcolour–coneswithdifferentphotosensitivepigmentsrespondinvaryingdegreestodifferentwavelengthsofthespectrum,conereceptorsfatigueafterprolongedstaringTheoriesofColourVision- TrichromaticTheory(Young-Helmholtz)
→ Colourisexplainedbydifferentialactivationof3colourreceptorsineye- Opponent-ProcessTheory
→ Coloursderivedfromactivityof3antagonisticsystems(black-white,red-green,blue-yellow)- Boththeoriesarecomplementary:Trichromaticappliestoretina,Opponent-ProcessappliesathighervisualcentresinbrainExplainhowsoundwavesaretransformedintohearingSound:pressurechangesintheairorothermedium(physical);istheexperiencewehavewhenwehear(perceptual)Pressurechanges- Vibrationscausepressurechangesinair/watersurroundingobject- Pattern=soundwave- Speedofsoundinair=340metres/second- HearingistheexperiencecausedbysoundwavesNatureofSound- Frequency(pitch)=timespersecondthepressurechangesrepeat,
measuredinHz- Complexity(texture)=howmanyfrequencies- Amplitude(loudness)=differencebetweenhighandlowpeaks,measuredindecibels(Db)
OuterEar § Soundwavesfirstpasshere
§ Consistsofpinnaandauditorycanal§ Collectsandmagnifiessounds
MiddleEar § Whensoundwavesreachtympanicmembrane,theycauseittovibrate§ Vibrationistransmittedtostructuresinmiddleear§ Ossicles-malleus(hammer)movesduetovibration;incus(anvil)transmitsvibrationofmalleus;stapes
(stirrup)transmitsvibrationsofincustoinnerearviaovalwindowofcochleaInnerEar § Cochlea–fluid-filled,snail-likestructureapprox.35mmlong
§ SemicircularcanalsTransduction(actionofcochlea)- Movementofstapescreatespressurechangesofliquidincochlea- Cochlearpartitionmovesinupanddownmotion- MotioncausesOrganofCortitovibrateandthetectorialmembranetomove- Motioncausesciliaofinnerhaircellstobend- Triggersactionpotentialsinsensoryneuronsformingauditorynerve,whichtransmitsauditoryinfotobrain
ALHT106–Semester1Notes 9
SensingPitch- Placetheory
→ Differentareasofthebasilarmembranearemaximallysensitivetodifferentfrequencies- Frequencytheory
→ BasilarmembranevibratesmorefrequentlybasedonfrequencyofsoundwavesNeuralPathwaysSensoryinformationtransmittedalongauditorynerve,endsupinauditorycortexoftemporallobes’SoundlocalisationCriticalcues:differenceinloudness,timingofsoundsarrivingateachearDistinguishthefunctionsofsmell,taste,touch,thevestibular,andkinaestheticsystemsOlfaction/smell § Functions:detectdanger,detectspoiledfoods
§ Gasmoleculesinair,enterbodythroughnoseandmouth§ Smellreceptorslocatedinnasalcavities§ Transductionofsmelloccursinolfactoryepithelium(thinpairofstructuresattopofnasalcavities)§ Movementofciliainolfactoryepitheliumtransducesphysicalenergy-Chemicalmoleculesinairbecometrappedinmucusofepithelium,theymakecontactwitholfactoryreceptorcells;axonsofolfactoryreceptorsformolfactorynerveswhichtransmitsinfotoolfactorybulb,informationtravelstoprimaryolfactorycortexdeepinfrontallobes
Taste § Functions:protectorganismfromingestingtoxicsubstances,regulatesintakeofnutrientse.g.sugarsandsalt§ Contributionofnoseandmouthtotasteisalmostindistinguishable§ Transductionoccursintastebuds(withinpapillae),eachcontaining50-150receptorcells§ Tastereceptorsstimulateneuronsthatcarryinfotomedullarandponsofbrain,thenalong1of2pathways:- Leadstothalamusandgustatorycomplex(respondstosweet,sour,salty,bittertastes)toenableidentificationof
tastes- Leadstolimbicsystemtoproduceimmediateemotionalandbehaviouralresponses
Touch § Function:protectbodyfrominjury,aidinidentifyingobjects,maintainbodytemperature,facilitatesocialinteraction
§ Mixtureofpressure,temperatureofobjects,pain§ Touchreceptorsrespondtodifferentaspectsofthesequalities§ Painpreventstissuedamage(↓timeofinjury),adaptivetoadegree- Whencellsaredamaged,chemicalsreleasedstimulatingfreenerveendingtotransmitpainmessages- Influencedbyculturalbeliefs,emotionalstates,personality(painthresholds)
Vestibular § ProprioceptiveSenses:registerbodypositionandmovement§ Providesinformationaboutthepositionofthebodyinspacebysensinggravityandmovement
Kinaesthetic § ProprioceptiveSenses:registerbodypositionandmovement§ Providesinformationaboutmovementandpositionoflimbsandotherpartsofthebodyrelativetooneanother
DescribethevariouswaysinwhichperceptionisorganisedPerceptualOrganisation:- Organisingsensoryexperience- Formsperception:organisationofsensationsintomeaningfulshapesandpatterns- GestaltPsychologists:proposedthewholediffersfromthesumofitsparts,perceptionisn’tbuiltfromsensations,butistheresultof
perceptualorganisation,involvingthegroupingofelementsinanimagetocreatelargerobjectsDepthPerception:- Organisationofperceptionin3dimensions- 2kindsofvisualinfoprovideimportantinfoaboutdepthanddistance:
→ Binocularcues:visualinputintegratedfromthetwoeyes→ Monocularcues:visualinputfromoneeye
- Interposition,elevation,texturegradient,linearperspective,shading,aerialperspective,familiarsize,relativesizeMotionPerception:- Perceptionofmovementofobjects- Ganglioncells(motiondetectors)particularlysensitivetomovementPerceptualConstancy:- Colour:tendencytoperceiveobjectcolourasstable,evenunderconditionsofchangingillumination- Shape:werecogniseanobjectashavingthesameshapedespiteviewingfromdifferentangle/distance- Size:objectsdon’tappeartodifferinsizewhenviewedfromdifferentdistance
Intell igence and Memory MemoryDescribehowinformationisencoded,storedandretrievedinlong-termmemory
ALHT106–Semester1Notes 10
• AcDveencodingpayscrucialroleinmemory• AoenDontoinformaDonessenDaltoremembering,involvingfocusingawarenessonnarrowrangeofsDmuli• SelecDveaoenDon=criDcaltoeverydayfuncDoning,likenedtoafiltertoscreenoutmostsDmuli• CogniDveloadinfluenceslocaDonofaoenDonalfilter(Lavie,2005)• DividedaoenDonreducesmemoryperformance(Craik,2001)• Levelsofprocessing:CraikandLockhart(1972)proposedthatincominginformaDoncanbeprocessedatdifferentlevels:Structural,Phonemic,SemanDc;deeperlevelsofprocessingresultinlongerlasDngmemorycodes• Improvingencoding:elaboraDon(linkingsDmulustootherinfoatDmeofencoding),visualimagery(visualimagestorepresentwords),self-referent(whetherinfoisself-relevantornot),moDvaDontoremember(highmoDvaDon,greaterrecall)
Encoding-formingamemorycode
• SensoryMemory:preservesinfoinoriginalsensoryformforabriefDme,itisadapDve,canbeofvisual(iconic)orauditory(echoic)info• Fullreport-typicallyonlyrecall4-5itemsfrom12,sensaDonyou'veseenmorebydisappearedbeforereported• ParDalreport-Sperling(1960),avoidsproblemofforgeMngduringreporDng,parDcipantsdon'tknowwhichrowwillbeselectedthusreporttreatedasrepresentaDveofwholearray,reported3itms(75%ofdisplay),sensorymemorycapacaityisvirtuallyunlimited
• Short-TermMemory:limitedcapacitystorethatmaintainsunrehearsedinfofor10-20seconds• rehearsal-processofrepeDDvelyverbalisinginfotomaintaininSTM• capacity-limitedto7(+/-2)(Miller,1956),whenfilledtocapacitynewinforeplacesold[Cowan2005arguesittobe<7aspreviousresearchdidntaccountforchunking-groupingoffamiliarsDmularasoneunit
• WorkingMemory-morecomplexmodelofshorttermmemoryproposedbyBaddeley• Long-TermMemory:unlimitedcapacitystore(theory-allinfostoredinLTM,forgeMngreflectsretrievalissue)• Knowledgeinmemory:• ClusteringàspontaneousorganisaDonofinformaDonintocategoriesforstorage,Bousfield(1953)• ConceptualHierarchiesàmulDlevelclassificaDonsystembasedoncommonproperDesamongitems,Bower1970• SchemaàorganisedclusterofknowledgeaboutparDcularobject/event• MorelikelytorememberinformaDonconsistentwithschemasoninfo,TuckeyandBrewer(2003)• BeoerrecallofinfoviolaDngschemaalsonoted,duetoincreasedaoenDonanddeepprocessing• SemanDcNetworksànodesrepresenDngconcepts,joinedbypathwayslinkedtopics,acDvaDonofanodespreadsalongpathway(spreadingacDvaDon)
Storage-maintainingencodedinformaDonoverDme
• retrievalcuesaresDmulithathelpsyougainaccesstomemories(richerretrievalcue,easiertoremember)• Contexteffect-recallbeoerwhenencodingandretrievalhavesamecontext,mood-dependdentmemory• Realitymonitoring-processofdecidingwhethermemoriesarebasedonactualpercepDonofevents(externalsources)orone'sthoughtsandijmaginaDons(internalsources)• Sourcemonitoring-processofmakinginferencesaboutoriginsofmemories,errorsinsourcemonitoringoccurwhenmemoryfromonesourceismisaoributedtoanothersource
Retrieval-recoveringinformaDonfrommemorystores
DescribeworkingmemoryMorecomplexmodelofshort-termmemoryBaddeley’sModel- Phonologicalloop
→ EquivalenttoSTMinpreviousmodels→ Involvedinrehearsalofinformation
- Visuospatialsketchpad→ Enablespeopletoholdandmanipulatevisualimagese.g.mapoutroutetotravelhomeinmind
- Centralexecutive→ Controlsallocation,switchinganddividingattention→ Coordinatesactionofothercomponents
- EpisodicBuffer→ Temporary,limitedcapacitystoreallowingcomponentsofWMtointegrateinformation→ ServesasaninterfacebetweenWMandLTM→ ConceptofWMstillcontainscharacteristicofSTM–limitedcapacity,storageduration→ WMcapacityisone’sabilitytoholdandmanipulateinformationinconsciousattention,influencedbyindividualdifferences
andsituationalfactors
ALHT106–Semester1Notes 11
Memory
Long-termMemory
DeclaraDveMemory
EpisodicMemory
SemanDcMemory
Non-declaraDve
Short-termMemory
Explainwhyremembering,misrememberingandforgettingoccurEbbinghaus’sCurve–hisstudylookedatmemoryfornonsensesyllables;overtime,hisretentionofnonsensematerialdroppedconsiderably(seeninretentioncurve)Whydoweforget?- IneffectiveCoding
→ Typicallyduetolackofattention(pseudoforgetting)→ Levelofprocessinginfluencesextenttowhich
materialisforgotten- Decay
→ Attributesforgettingtotheimpermanenceofmemorystorage→ Memorytracesfadeovertime
- Interference→ Proposesthatpeopleforgetinformationbecauseofcompetitionfromothermaterial→ Controlledbymeasuringsimilaritybetweenoriginalmaterialbeingtestedandmaterialstudiedin
interveningperiod→ Greatestwheninterveningmaterialismostsimilartotestmaterial(McGeoch,
McDonald,1931)→ Retroactiveinterference:newinformationimpairsretentionofpreviously
learnedinformation→ Proactiveinterference:previouslylearnedinformationinterfereswithretention
ofnewinformation- RetrievalFailure
→ Encodingspecificityprinciple:valueofaretrievalcuedependsonhowwellitcorrespondstothememorycode
→ Transferappropriateprocessing:occurswheninitialprocessingofinformationissimilartotypeofprocessingrequiredbysubsequentmeasureofretention
DescribetheneuropsychologyofmemoryThosewhosufferfromamnesia(deficitinmemoryduetobraindamage)providekeyinsightsintophysiologyofmemoryH.M.- Medialportionsoftemporalloberemoved- Resultedin↓convulsionseverityandfrequency;remainedemotionallystable;
suffereddevastatingamnesia- Ourunderstandingofmemoryhasbeengreatlyenhancedbyneuropsychological
patientH.M- Unabletoformlong-termmemories,normalshort-termmemory(showedimplicit
notexplicitmemory)- Showedretentionofcertaintypesoftasks,despitenoconsciousrecollectionSystemsandTypesofMemory
§ Declarative:factsandevents§ Procedural:knowledgeofproceduresandskills§ Semantic:generalworldknowledgeandfacts§ Episodic:memoriesofparticularevents§ Explicit:recollectionofinformation§ Implicit:memoryexpressedinbehaviourthatdoesn’trequireconsciousrecollection
- Prospectivememorycanhavesignificantimpactoncurrentlifestylee.g.knowledgeofwhentotakemedicinemaybeimpaired,needforfull-timecarer
Outlinethemajortypesoflong-termmemoryLong-termmemoryisanunlimitedcapacitystoreOnetheoryproposesforgettingreflectsissuesinretrievalofinformationratherthanstoragePenfieldandPerot(1963)- Memoriestriggeredbyelectricalbrainstimulation- Temporallobestimulationàvividdescriptionsofeventslongago- AssumedtobeexactplaybacksoflonglostmemoriesFlashbulbMemory- Unusuallyvividanddetailedrecollectionsofcircumstanceswherepeoplelearnedof
momentouseventsPermanencyIssues- RemarkablememoriesactivatedbyEBSàinvolvedmajordistortions- Flashbulbmemoriesàlessdetailedovertime,ofteninaccurate- Noconclusiveevidenceofpermanentstorage
OnsetofAmnesia
RetrogradeAmnesia
priortoonsetofbraindamage,can'trecall
memories,lovedonesetc.
AnterogradeAmnesia
memorylosspostbraindamage,can'tformnew
memories