alternate fuels for automobiles by m a qadeer
DESCRIPTION
This Book is for JNTU FInal year automobile Engineering students only.TRANSCRIPT
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M A QADEER SIDDIQUI ALTERNATE FUELS FOR AUTOMOBILES
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BY
MD ABDUL QADEER SIDDIQUI [Bhaskar Engineering College, JNTU Hyderabad]
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ALTERNATE FUELS FOR AUTOMOBILES
Md Abdul Qadeer Siddiqui B-Tech (Automobile Engineering)
Bhaskar Engineering College (JNTU Hyderabad)
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Preface This book Alternate fuels for automobiles caters the need of JNTU-H specially. Each topic is explained in simple way to make student understand and comprehend the subject.
Alternate fuel for automobiles is the study of various different fuels being used for
automobiles. Various types of fuels other than petrol and diesel which are used in
automobiles are discussed with their properties, advantages and limitations in details.
Chapter 1 deals with the introduction to alternate fuels. The different types of fuels being
used for automobiles, what are the benefits using these fuels are discussed.
Chapter 2 deals with the CNG fuel in vehicles with its composition and properties and effect
on vehicles.
Chapter 3 is on LNG fuel in vehicles with its composition, properties and preparation.
Chapter 4 deals with the LPG fuel in vehicles with its composition and properties and effect
on vehicles.
Chapter 5 deals with Liquefied hydrogen fuel. How it is produce, store and its efficiency with
vehicle is discussed in brief.
.
Chapter 6 and chapter 7 focus on Bio fuels and electric vehicles. How the vehicle
performance emissions differ with these fuels are discussed in these chapters.
Chapter 8 gives a brief introduction to fuel cell power vehicles. The benefits of this fuel with
different types of fuel cells are discussed here. The corrections, suggestions and feedbacks from the readers are always appreciated and duly acknowledged. You can reach the author at [email protected]
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Contents
1) OVERVIEW ..4 2) CNG(Compressed Natural Gas)..21
3) LNG(liquefied Natural Gas)47
4) LPG (Liquefied Petroleum Gas).60
5) LIQUIFIED HYDROGEN.82
6) BIO FUEL98
7) ELECTRIC VEHICLES..126
8) FUEL CELL VEHICLES.157
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CHAPTER 1
OVERVIEW
INTRODUCTION
Alternative fuels are derived from resources other than petroleum. Some are produced domestically,
reducing our dependence on imported oil, and some are derived from renewable sources. Often, they
produce less pollution than gasoline or diesel.
CLASSIFICATION OF ALTERNATE FUELS
Natural Gas
Natural Gas for use in automobiles is very popular in America because more than
80% of the natural gas used in U.S.A is produced in the country making it a lot
cheaper than conventional petroleum. It is used either as Compressed Natural Gas
(CNG) or Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG) when running motor vehicles. Moreover, it
promises a reduction in smog of between 60 & 90% and a reduction of carbon
emissions of between 30 & 40%. However, certain modifications need to be made on
the cars and their tanks in order to use the fuel.
Ethanol
Ethanol is a biofuel used to run engines that originally used petrol. There are a few
modifications done to the vehicle so that it can run efficiently on Ethanol. A vehicle
with these modifications is classified as an FFV or a Flexible Fuel Vehicle. Brazil is
one of the countries that have embraced this technology into their system becoming
the second largest producer of ethanol in the world by producing sugarcane based
ethanol .Through these developments, Brazil has been able to thrive in the Flex Fuel
Vehicle market enabling them to manufacture cars like the Brazilian Fiat 147 [7], the
first modern automobile that could run on pure-unblended ethanol followed by
Volkswagens, Chevrolets, Toyotas and Nissans just to name a few .
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Biodiesel
Like ethanol, biodiesel is a renewable alternative fuel for cars. This is because it is
made from plants.
Biodiesel does not require fermentation like ethanol; it is made by a process called
trans-esterfication which converts vegetable fat into an oil that can be used to run
ordinary diesel engines without any modifications necessary.
Some vehicle manufacturers are wary of warranting their vehicles against the use of
high blends of biodiesel above 5% [9] because there are concerns of the fuels
impact on the engine.
Biofuel from Watermelon & Plant Waste
To counter the claims of environmentalists who are against the use of food crops for
biofuel production and the use of arable land to grow energy crops rather than food
crops , researchers have developed a biofuel from plant waste .
It is estimated that about 20% of the watermelons produced in a farm cannot be sold
for human consumption and go to waste; these can be converted into a biofuel
because watermelon juice contains a considerable percentage of amino acids and
directly fermentable sugars, which are essential for the production of bio-ethanol.
Biofuel generated from plant wastes was used to power the limousines that
transported certain heads of state to the Copenhagen Climate Summit in 2009.
Alternative Fuel for Cars from Waste Chocolate
A lot of research has gone into the improvement of biofuel production and
application. One such study has led a firm in Preston called Ecotec to produce a
biofuel from the waste collected during the processing of chocolate. The waste
chocolate is turned into bio-ethanol then mixed with vegetable oil to run a special car
they have branded the Bio-Truck.
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Propane/ Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG)
LPG is made up of a mixture of hydrocarbon gases of which propane is in the largest
percentage thus the fuel is often called Propane .LPG is produced from the
processing of natural gas and the refining of petroleum. It can also be used
domestically for cooking and boiling water. The propane is gaseous at room
temperature but is liquefied when compressed to about 200 psi for storage in a
special gas cylinder. The use of LPG to run automobiles is more popular in Europe
that the US and makes up more than 10% of the motor fuel used in Netherlands.
Hydrogen
Hydrogen, as an alternative fuel for cars, is deployed either for use in Fuel Cell
Vehicles (FCVs) or Internal Combustion Engines (ICEs).
Hydrogen is considered the clean energy of the future burning in an internal
combustion engine to produce heat and water vapor as well as other oxides of
nitrogen which are also carbon neutral. In Fuel Cell Vehicles, Hydrogen is used in a
totally different way; Hydrogen is stored on board and mixed with oxygen in the air to
generate electricity via the fuel cell stack to power an electric motor that drives the
vehicle. There are however, several challenges to overcome before hydrogen for
automobiles can be used commercially. The Fuel Cell Vehicles as well as the
Hydrogen Fuel is currently very expensive to produce and the technology of
production is not widespread thus ordinary consumers cannot afford to use them.
Furthermore, hydrogen contains less energy per unit volume compared to
conventional automobile fuel; therefore, filling stations need to be established at high
frequencies in the country of use before the technology can be commercially viable.
Electricity
Last but not least we have electricity. Electricity is the modern mans fire and every
technology is inclined to maximize the use of this energy source.
The use of electricity as an alternative fuel has birthed vehicles of all shapes and
sizes, from SUVs to Sports cars .The use of electricity has also led to the
development of hybrid cars that run on fossil fuels and electricity alternatively
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depending on the vehicles settings such as the Toyota Prius and Honda Insight.
However, like all mobile electric appliances, these vehicles contain batteries that
need to be recharged. They have an advantage over hydrogen cars because they do
not need several filling stations because electricity sources are widespread, but it is
still a tedious time consuming process. The tesla motor company, which has
specialized in the electric car production, has one of its best cars running for only
160 miles per charge .Electric cars are still not very popular because the automobile
industry has not embraced the technology fully thus the cars are still rare. They do
have several advantages over gasoline cars in that they do not produce any tail pipe
emissions and cost about 2 US cents per mile compared to gasolines 12 US cents.
Furthermore they do not require any of the services that a gasoline car needs such
as oil changes and emission checks.
SCENERIO OF CONVECTIONAL FUELS
The set of scenarios presented in this report describes a number of external
developments, policy measures and manufacturer strategies that might influence the
penetration of the various technological options.
The baseline scenario is used as the reference case. It corresponds to the outlook
for each technology if the current trends in demand are sustained, if fuel and vehicle
prices and fuel economy follow the path predicted by current surveys of trends in
vehicle technologies, and if no significant policy measure is implemented. According
to the baseline scenario, no clear winner among the non-conventional technologies
is identified. Fuel cells are expected to become an option only at the end of the
2010s, while electric vehicles seem capable of securing a niche. Hybrids may play
an interim role in the transition between ICEs to fuel cells. Total demand in the
passenger car sector (expressed in total number of vehicle kms) is expected to rise
(though slower than GDP growth). CO2 emissions from passenger cars are
expected to show a slight increase by 2010 (3%) and a reduction of 13% by 2020.
This is the combined result of the improvement of conventional technologies, the
gradual removal of older cars from the fleet, and the introduction of alternative
technologies.
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In the high oil scenario an increase of the price of oil is assumed. The increase is
applied to the fuel prices predicted by the POLES model during the whole period of
the simulation. As a reference, the price increase is considered to be equal to 28%
(that would correspond to an increase from 25 to 32 US$ per barrel). Such an
increase would have a minimal impact in the medium term (up to 2010), since the
alternative technologies would not be mature enough (i.e. have competing costs) by
then to benefit and increase their share. In the longer term, an increase in the price
of oil would benefit the alternative technologies, since their difference from the
conventional technologies in terms of variable cost would become smaller. As
regards the conventional technologies, higher oil prices would reinforce the shift from
gasoline to diesel, as fuel economy becomes a decisive factor. A higher oil price
would also slow down growth in transport demand. The slower growth in demand,
combined with the shift towards alternatives and more efficient vehicles, would also
lead to further reductions in CO2 emissions. The high oil scenario is also equivalent
to a fuel tax scenario, i.e. the same results would appear if fuel taxes were raised by
28%.
The low oil scenario corresponds to the opposite case of the high oil scenario. A
decrease of the price of oil by 28% is assumed (e.g. from 25 to 18 US$ per barrel).
The results have in general the opposite direction of those for high oil: the
introduction of alternative technologies is delayed and gasoline remains the most
attractive option. Transport demand would increase, though still slower than GDP
growth (saturation levels are reached). CO2 emissions would increase significantly
by 2010 and in the long term brought down to the levels of 2000 as a result of
improved technology.
In the carbon tax 50 scenario, a carbon content related tax equivalent to 50 euros
per ton of CO2 is imposed. The difference from the high oil price scenario (that also
corresponds to imposing a fuel tax) is that it affects gasoline and diesel in a different
manner. Diesel has a higher carbon content and is cheaper than gasoline. So while
this carbon tax would mean an increase of gasoline prices by 12%, it would mean
double the increase for diesel prices. As a result, although the results have the same
direction as the results in the high oil scenario as regards the penetration of
alternative technologies, they strongly favour gasoline as compared to diesel.
Trends in Vehicle and Fuel Technologies Scenarios for Future Trends
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European Commission JRC-IPTS 12 the ESTO Network
The carbon tax 100 scenario assumes a carbon content tax equivalent to 100 euros
per ton of CO2. At that level of carbon tax the results would be comparable to that of
the high oil price scenario, with the exception that gasoline has an advantage over
both diesel and fuel cells.
The other two alternative options, electric and mainly hybrid- would also benefit.
The three scenarios on subsidy for electric, hybrid and fuel cells correspond to a
decrease of the purchase cost of each alternative technology by 2000 euros. This
would decrease the price differential of these technologies compared to conventional
technologies and accelerate their introduction. For electric, although its share is
increased, this is not enough for the difference in costs to be covered. For hybrid and
fuel cells, penetration is accelerated and each of the two can become an important
technology by 2020. Subsidies would not have any significant impact on total
transport demand, but would further marginally reduce CO2 emissions (except
in the case of fuel cells).
The zero emissions scenario assumes the prohibition of conventional technologies in
urban areas. This would favour hybrid vehicles in the medium term and all alternative
technologies, in a proportional way, in the longer term. The main losers would be the
light gasoline (and in the longer term, the light diesel) cars, since their predominantly
urban role would be played by alternative technologies. This scenario also leads to a
reduction in CO2 emissions, though lower than in the case of high oil or carbon tax
100, where restrictions are applied to the whole fleet.
In order to test the case of industry selecting winning technologies and concentrating
solely on them, a number of scenarios where one or more of the alternative
technologies is abandoned were investigated. The rationale behind those scenarios
is that manufacturers will not be willing to concentrate on all five paths (2
conventional and 3 alternatives) but will instead concentrate only on a limited
number (2 to 4). In all cases of concentrating in only 4 paths, the projected share of
the technology that is abandoned is expected to be divided proportionally between
the 4 paths. That is to say, none of the alternatives is in fact blocking the
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development of the other alternatives or the demand for them, although abandoning
one of them could help establish the critical mass for either or both of them. In no
electric, no significant impacts on the penetration of the other alternatives, since the
projected share of electric was too small to make a difference. In no hybrid,
conventional technologies would still monopolise the market in 2010, since no
alternative options would be sufficiently attractive. By 2020, the lost projected share
of hybrid would again be divided proportionally among the remaining options. No fuel
cells, would have no impact until the end of the 2010s.
If fuel cells are the only alternative technology to be developed, the market will again
be monopolised by conventional technologies until fuel cells improve significantly.
But fuel cells will have then an important share of new registrations, higher than in
baseline but still lower than in the high oil or subsidy fuel cells scenarios. But the
situation in terms of CO2 emissions would be worse, since the hybrids that they
would replace would emit less.
The case of none of the alternative technologies being attractive enough (or
manufacturers deciding to abandon all of them and concentrate on conventional
technologies) is tested in no new scenario. Gasoline and diesel would share the
market between them, and the main impact would be the worsening of the CO2
emissions outlook. Instead of being significantly reduced, emission levels would
remain at year 2000 levels. The 2 variants of no new, are a combination with the oil
price scenarios. If oil prices are high (no new, high oil), demand slows down and
emissions demonstrate a small improvement. But in the case of low oil prices
(no new, low oil), both transport demand and CO2 emissions increase dramatically.
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OIL RESERVES OF THE WORLD
List of Top 10 Oil Reserves Countries in the World
Rank Country Oil Reserves (Billion Barrels) % of World Total
1 Venezuela 297.6 18.2
2 Saudi Arabia 265.4 16.2
3 Canada 173.1 10.6
4 Iran 154.6 9.4
5 Iraq 141.4 8.6
6 Kuwait 101.5 6.2
7 UAE 97.8 6
8 Russia 80 4.9
9 Libya 48 2.9
10 Nigeria 37.2 2.3
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FUEL QUALITY ASPECTS RELATED TO EMISSION
The automobile industry has to address the following issues at all the stages of
vehicle manufacture:
Environmental Imperatives
Safety Requirements
Competitive Pressures and
Customer Expectations
There is a strong interlinking amongst all these forces of change, influencing the
automobile industry. These have to be addressed consistently and strategically
to ensure competitiveness.
Since pollution is caused by various sources, it requires an integrated,
multidisciplinary approach. The different sources of pollution have to be
addressed simultaneously in order to stall widespread damage.
THE PARAMETERS DETERMINING EMISSION FROM VEHICLES
Vehicular Technology
Fuel Quality
Inspection & Maintenance of In-Use Vehicles
Road and Traffic Management
While each one of the four factors mentioned above have direct environmental
implications, the vehicle and fuel systems have to be addressed as a whole and
jointly optimised in order to achieve significant reduction in emission.
VEHICULAR TECHNOLOGY
In India, the vehicle population is growing at rate of over 5% per annum and
today the vehicle population is approximately 40 million. The vehicle mix is also
unique to India in that there is a very high proportion of two wheelers (76%).
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History of Emission Norms in India
The significant environmental implications of vehicles cannot be denied. The
need to reduce vehicular pollution has led to emission control through
regulations in conjunction with increasingly environment-friendly technologies.
It was only in 1991 that the first stage emission norms came into force for petrol
vehicles and in 1992 for diesel vehicles.
From April 1995 mandatory fitment of catalytic converters in new petrol
passenger cars sold in the four metros of Delhi, Calcutta, Mumbai and Chennai
along with supply of Unleaded Petrol (ULP) was affected. Availability of ULP was
further extended to 42 major cities and now it is available throughout the
country.
The emission reduction achieved from pre-89 levels is over 85% for petrol driven
and 61% for diesel vehicles from 1991 levels.
In the year 2000 passenger cars and commercial vehicles will be meeting Euro I
equivalent India 2000 norms, while two wheelers will be meeting one of the
tightest emission norms in the world.
Euro II equivalent Bharat Stage II norms are in force from 2001 in 4 metros of
Delhi, Mumbai, Chennai and Kolkata.
Since India embarked on a formal emission control regime only in 1991, there is
a gap in comparison with technologies available in the USA or Europe.
Currently, we are behind Euro norms by few years, however, a beginning has
been made, and emission norms are being aligned with Euro standards and
vehicular technology is being accordingly upgraded. Vehicle manufactures are
also working towards bridging the gap between Euro standards and Indian
emission norms.
FUEL TECHNOLOGY
In India we are yet to address the vehicle and fuel system as a whole. It was in
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1996 that the Ministry of Environment and Forests formally notified fuel
specifications. Maximum limits for critical ingredients like Benzene level in petrol
have been specified only recently and a limit of 5% m/m and 3% m/m has been
set for petrol in the country and metroes respectively.
In place of phase-wise upgradation of fuel specifications there appears to be a
region-wise introduction of fuels of particular specifications. The high levels of
pollution have necessitated eliminating leaded petrol, through out the country.
To address the high pollution in 4 metro cities 0.05% sulphur petrol & diesel has
been introduced since 2000-2001. The benzene content has been further
reduced to 1% in Delhi and Mumbai.
There is a need for a holistic approach so that upgradation in engine technology
can be optimised for maximum environmental benefits.
Other factors influencing emission from vehicles.
INSPECTION & MAINTENANCE (I&M) OF IN-USE VEHICLES
It has been estimated that at any point of time, new vehicle comprise only 8% of
the total vehicle population. In India currently only transport vehicles, that is,
vehicles used for hire or reward are required to undergo periodic fitness
certification. The large population of personalised vehicles are not yet covered
by any such mandatory requirement.
In most countries that have been able to control vehicular pollution to a
substantial extent, Inspection & Maintenance of all categories of vehicles have
been one of the chief tools used. Developing countries in the South East Asian
region, which till a few years back had severe air pollution problem have
introduced an I&M system and also effective traffic management.
ROAD & TRAFFIC MANAGEMENT
Inadequate and poor quality of road surface leads to increased Vehicle
Operation Costs and also increased pollution. It has been estimated that
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improvements in roads will result in savings of about 15% of Vehicle Operation
Costs.
CONCLUSION
The need for an integrated, holistic approach for controlling vehicular emission
cannot be over-emphasised. More importantly, it is time now for the auto and oil
industry to come together under the guidance of the Government in evolving fuel
quality standards and vehicular technology to meet air quality targets.
Petrol Vehicles
Three - Wheelers
(g/km)
Year CO HC HC+Nox
1991 12 - 30 8 - 12 - -
1996 6.75 - 5.40 -
2000 4.00 - 2.00 -
2005(BS II) 2.25 - 2.00 (DF =1.2)
Two - Wheelers
(g/km)
Year CO HC HC+Nox
1991 12 - 30 8 - 12 - -
1996 4.50 - 3.60 -
2000 2.00 - 2.00 -
2005(BS II) 1.50 - 1.50 (DF =1.2)
Car
(g/km)
Year CO HC Nox HC+Nox
1991 14.3 - 27.1 2.0-2.9
1996 8.68 - 12.4 3.00 - 4.36
1998* 4.34 - 6.20 1.50 - 2.18
2000 2.78 0.97
B.S II 2.2
0.5
B.S II 2.2 - 5.0
0.5 - 0.7
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B.S III 2.30 0.2 0.15
B.S III 2.3 - 5.22 0.20 - 0.29 0.15 - 0.21
* For Catalytic Converter Fitted vehicles
upto 6 seaters(A) & GVW upto 2.5 tons More than 6 seaters(B) & GVW upto 3.5
tons(A)(B)
Diesel Vehicles
Diesel Vehicles (GVM Upto 3.5 Tons)
(g/km) Engine Dynamometer
Year CO HC Nox HC+Nox PM
1992 14.0 3.5 18
1996 11.20 2.40 14.4
2000 4.5 1.1 8.0
0.36/
0.61 #
B.S II 4.0 1.1 7.0 0.15
For Four
Wheelers
only
Or
(g/km) Chassis Dynamometer
Year CO HC Nox HC+Nox PM
1992 17.3 -
32.6 2.7 - 3.7
Light Duty
Vehicles
1996 5.0 - 9.0 2.0 - 4.0
2000 2.72 -
6.90
0.97 -
1.70
0.14 -
0.25
B.S II 1.0 - 1.5 0.7 - 1.2 0.08 -
0.17
For Four
Wheelers
only
B.S II(2005) 1.00 0.85 0.10
For 2 & 3
Wheelers,
Appropriate
DF
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B.S III 0.64 -
0.95
0.50 -
0.78
0.56 -
0.86
0.05 -
0.10
Cars
(g/km) Chassis Dynamometer
B.S II 1.0 0.7 0.8 (A)
B.S II 1.0 - 1.5 0.7 - 1.2 0.8 -
0.17 (B)
B.S III 0.64 0.50 0.56 0.05 (A)
B.S III 0.64 -
0.95
0.50 -
0.78
0.56 -
0.86
0.05 -
0.10 (B)
Diesel Vehicles (GVM > 3.5 Tons)
(g/kwh)
Year CO HC Nox HC+Nox PM$ Smoke
(m-1) $
1992 14.0 3.5 18
1996 11.20 2.40 14.4
2000 4.5 1.1 8.0 0.36/
0.36 #
B.S II 4.0 1.1 7.0 0.15
B.S III 2.1 0.7 5.0 0.10/0.13 0.8
NEED FOR ALTERTNATIVE FUEL
1. Fossil fuels are in limited supply.
2. Global consumption of fossil fuels is increasing, and much of that increase is from
the transportation sector.
3. While automobile fuel efficiency has improved over the last 30 years,
improvements have been fairly level since the mid 1980s. Efforts to improve fuel
efficiency are limited by the increased use of heavy vehicles such as sport utility
vehicles and light trucks for personal use.
4. Fossil fuel combustion releases large amounts of greenhouse gases, the most
significant being carbon dioxide.
5. Greenhouse gases trap heat in the earths atmosphere.
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6. In a greenhouse, visible sunlight easily penetrates glass or plastic walls, but heat
(in the form of infrared radiation) does not escape.
7. Most scientists concur that the average temperature of the Earth is increasing,
and if human activity is the principal cause.
8. Increased concentrations of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere contribute to global
warming, which is receiving world-wide attention as a significant environmental
problem.
9. Individuals can have a positive impact on the environment by making appropriate
choices in our daily lives mostly with respect to transportation, home energy use,
and waste disposal.
Also Gasoline and diesel have been our primary fuels used in automotive, farm and
recreational vehicles for decades. Our dependence on other countries to provide us
with gasoline has gone into a downward spiral with the economy doing so poorly and
the poor mileage rated cars that are being produced. Without having a certain level
of efficiency in our vehicles, we are only pushing ourselves closer to the point of
necessitating an alternate fuel source. Oil production is expected to diminish to a
near halt as near as forty years from now. Its time to start really digging in and
getting other renewable energy sources into mainstream use.
Many automakers pride themselves in their high performance vehicles, and the world
has been brain washed into thing that bigger and faster is almost always better. We
need to start thinking smarter before its too late.
REGULATORY FRAMEWORK FOR CNG/LPG VEHICLES IN INDIA
1. Petrol/CNG/LPG Driven Vehicles
Measured at idling:
Vehicle Type CO
(%)
*HC
(ppm)
2&3 wheelers (2/4 stroke) (vehicles manufactured 4.5 9,000
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before 31/3/2000)
2&3 wheelers (2- stroke) (vehicles manufactured after
31/3/2000) 3.5 6,000
2&3 wheelers (4 stroke) (vehicles manufactured after
31/3/2000) 3.5 4,500
Bharat Stage -II compliant 4 wheelers 0.5 750
Four wheelers other than Bharat Stage -II compliant 3.0 1,500
* For CNG & LPG vehicles the measured Hydrocarbon
value shall be converted using the following formula
and then compared with the limits
For CNG Vehicles- Non Methane Hydrocarbon,
NMHC = 0.3 X HC
For LPG Vehicles- Reactive Hydrocarbon, RHC = 0.5
X HC
2. Diesel Vehicles
Free Acceleration Smoke Test
Method of Test Maximum Smoke Density
Light Absorption
Coefficient (1/m)
Hartidge Units
Free Acceleration Test for Turbo
Charged engine and Naturally
aspirated engine
2.45 65
Notes:
1. Test should be done at Authorised Pollution Check Centers
2. Test should be done every six months or as per State Government's direction
3. No vehicle shall ply in the country without a valid pollution under control
certificate
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Looking Into the Future
With the continually rising cost of gasoline it has never been more important to
explore alternatives in getting us from one place to another. We have some really
great options available to us today that have shortcomings that should be simple to
overcome. For instance, if each filling station would install one single EV charging
station or any of the other above listed methods, they would all become viable
solutions.
My personal favorite at the moment is electric, because the conversion is so simple
and emmission free at the vehicle level. Once we can create clean electricity via
wind farms, water turbines, solar farms etc... I think that this option with really take
off.
My second favorite in this list is Biodeisel. While I'm not a huge fan of deisel engines,
I do quite fancy the idea of being able to run my vehicle on recycled fryer grease.
No matter how you look at it or which option is your personal favorite, it's good to
keep an open mind, because someday, gasoline may no longer be a viable option.
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CHAPTER 2
COMPRESSED NATURAL GAS (CNG)
Safe for transportation?
Yes, natural gas vehicles or NGVs, must meet the strictest of safety standards. The
vehicles, fuel systems, conversion companies, and tank manufacturers must each
meet separate government regulated guidelines and codes to sell in the market
place.
Compared to gasoline
The fuel itself is safer than traditional gasoline in many ways. 1) Natural gas is lighter
than air. This means, in the case of accident and gas is released, natural gas will
disperse into the atmosphere, where gasoline will collect and spread on the ground.
2) Natural gas has a higher ignition temperature than gasoline, which means it takes
higher temperatures to start a flame. 3) Last the tanks must withstand extreme tests
against dynamite, gunfire, bonfires and others that would destroy a normal gasoline
tank.
More Safety
To learn more specifically about regulations and safety guides, visit Department of
Transportation or check out our links pages for others sources.
Availability
Natural gas is drilled from wells or extracted from crude oil production. This fuel
powers about one quarter of the United States energy usage, of that less than one
percent goes toward transportation. America has also set up a vast natural gas
distribution system that stretches coast to coast and boarder to boarder. This system
delivers gas economically and quickly to almost all 48 states in the continental US.
Sources have indicated that America owns roughly 2,074 Tcf (trillion cubic feet) of
natural gas, which is more than a 100 year supply.
There are about 12,000 fueling stations across global roads, but only about 1,100 on
U.S. roadways. However many initiatives are in place to expand infrastructure, such
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as the Triangle, Atlanta and the existing infrastructure established in the West,
demonstrates that infrastructure is on the rise and so is demand.
American
Eighty to ninety percent of the natural gas used in the U.S. is found here in America.
This helps promote Americas energy independence from the reliance on foreign
fuels. Only 3 percent of US natural gas consumption comes from sources other than
America, compared to oil imports. The US imports more than 50 percent of its oil
from foreign oil, greatly hindering Americas energy independence.
Affordable
CNG is much cheaper than gasoline or diesel, in most cases half as much, in others
as much as 80 percent less, depending on the station and state. Natural gas costs
range from 20-40 percent less than crude oil on an energy-equivalent basis. Fleet
owners will experience the greatest savings. A May 2012 Wall Street Journal article
stated that Waste Management will convert trucks over the next five years to natural
gas at a cost of $30,000 per truck. These vehicles will save $27,000 each year in
fuel costs compared to diesel.
Greener
Natural gas produces far less emissions than engines running on petroleum based
fuels. NGVs emits 25 percent less CO2 than vehicles that run on traditional gasoline
or diesel. Natural gas is also available in renewable forms such as methane from
landfills, stranded gas wells, agricultural operations, and new emerging methods that
can be converted to clean natural gas. NGVs also make it much easier to meet
stringent EPA standards.
Other benefits
Easy fill-up- Just as fast and easy as gasoline or diesel
Government support- Federal & state incentives
Extended vehicle life by up to 50,000 miles
Reduced maintenance
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HISTORY OF CNG
Natural gas was first used as a transportation fuel in Italy in the 1930s after
World War II. There are more than 14.8 million vehicles on global roads today. Most
located internationally in countries such as Iran, Pakistan and Argentina; these three
countries make up the largest users of natural gas vehicles (NGVs). The U.S. has
been slow to join the alternative fuel vehicle (AFV) market. Unfortunately, less than
120,000 vehicles are running on natural gas in the U.S. The average global growth
rate is about 30 percent since 2000; however Americas NGV growth rate is only
about 3.7 percent per year.
Over the past forty years, natural gas has increased in pressure four times, from
2,000 pounds per square inch (psi) to 2,400; 3,000; and most recently 3,600 psi.
These increases of pressure, have advanced tanks to hold more and more fuel in
smaller and smaller spaces. These advanced pressures were accomplished by new
technologies in tank designs.
Todays tanks have advanced into four main categories:
How is CNG produced?
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Once a potential natural gas deposit has been located by a team of exploration
geologists and geophysicists, it is up to a team of drilling experts to dig down to
where the natural gas is thought to exist. Although the process of digging deep into
the Earths crust to find deposits of natural gas that may or may not actually exist
seems daunting, the industry has developed a number of innovations and techniques
that both decrease the cost and increase the efficiency of drilling for natural gas.
Advancements in technology have contributed greatly to the increased efficiency and
success rate for drilling natural gas wells. Within the last decade new technology in
horizontal drilling has enabled experts to access deeper shale plays of natural gas
as well as to drill horizontally in all directions to enable one well to reach a much
larger reserve of natural gas than traditional shallow wells were are able to do.
Determining whether to drill a well depends on a variety of factors, including the
economic potential of the hoped-for natural gas reservoir. It costs a great deal of
money for exploration and production companies to search and drill for natural gas,
and there is always the inherent risk that no natural gas will be found.
The exact placement of the drill site depends on many factors, including the nature
of the potential formation to be drilled, the characteristics of the subsurface geology,
and the depth and size of the target deposit. After the geophysical team identifies the
optimal location for a well, it is necessary for the drilling company to ensure that it
completes all the necessary steps so that it can legally drill in that area. This usually
involves securing permits for the drilling operations, establishment of a legal
arrangement to allow the natural gas company to extract and sell the resources
under a given area of land, and a design for gathering lines that will connect the well
to the pipeline.
If the new well, once drilled, does in fact come in contact with natural gas deposits, it
is developed to allow for the extraction of this natural gas, and is termed a
development or productive well. At this point, with the well drilled and
hydrocarbons present, the well may be completed to facilitate its production of
natural gas. However, if the exploration team was incorrect in its estimation of the
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existence of a marketable quantity of natural gas at a wellsite, the well is termed a
dry well, and production does not proceed.
Onshore and offshore drilling present unique drilling environments, requiring special
techniques and equipment. The first diagram depicts both the horizontal drilling and
traditional shallow drilling techniques to access the deeper shale plays and the
shallow sandstone plays, respectively. The second diagram depicts various types of
offshore drilling setups.
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CNG Properties
CNG in general
CNG is a natural product. It evolved from organics matters over 600 Million years
ago. Today it is drawn from domestically drilled gas wells or in conjunction with crude
oil production. CNG is used in its primary gasiform state. Since it does not have to be
transformed into any secondary energy such as fuel oil or electricity, the user can
utilize it right away and in addition no environmental pollution through any complex
transformation occurs. Stocking, ordering or delivery dates are not necessary in
connection with CNG.
Chemical Composition
Natural gas consists of about 90% methane. In its natural form natural gas does not
smell. Therefore, the gas is odorized prior to distribution in order to detect possible
leakage. Gas can therefore be smelled already at a concentration of 0.3%. As CNG
requires a concentration of about 5% to 15% to combust, 0.3% is far below the
dangerous combustion level.
Physical attributes of CNG
If the cylinder is depleted and refilled with CNG, the cylinder will get warm. This is
nothing to be concerned about. If a gas is put under pressure, the density of the
molecules will increase, and therefore the temperature will rise. After a while it will
adopt the temperature of its environment again.
Contrariwise the cylinder cools down while driving. When gas expands the density of
the molecules decreases and the temperature drops; a nice side-effect in a warm
climate like Singapore.
These physical attributes also have an effect on the total storage capacity of the
cylinder when refueling. If the temperature increases, the pressure in the cylinder
increases as well. The dispensers at the filling stations automatically stop dispensing
CNG, once a pressure of 200 bar is reached. If a cylinder can theoretically
accommodate 18 kg CNG under standard conditions (200 bar pressure, 15
Celsius), the cylinder will carry a bit less than 18 kg. Practically this means that the
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cooler the cylinder and the temperature around the cylinder is the more kg of CNG
can be pumped into the cylinder.
A CNG car can be left in the sun without concerns, as this heat is never sufficient
enough to heat up the cylinder to a critical point. The cylinders are tested and can
sustain a pressure of up to 500 bar - a pressure dimension, which is usually never
reached in our daily environment.
CNG measured in Kg
CNG is measured in the mass unit kg and not in liters or m, both measures for
volume. One cubic meter of CNG under 10 bar pressure has just a fraction of the
energy value than one cubic meter of CNG under 200 bar pressure. However, one
kilogram of CNG has always the same calorific value, no matter whether it has a
volume of 500 liters, or just a volume of 60 liters - under 200 bar pressure.
1 kg CNG = 1.51 liters of Petrol
How is CNG Stored?
As mentioned, natural gas is highly pressurized as it travels through an interstate
pipeline. To ensure that the natural gas flowing through any one pipeline remains
pressurized, compression of this natural gas is required periodically along the pipe.
This is accomplished by compressor stations, usually placed at 40 to 100 mile
intervals along the pipeline. The natural gas enters the compressor station, where it
is compressed by either a turbine, motor, or engine. Turbine compressors gain their
energy by using up a small proportion of the natural gas that they compress. The
turbine itself serves to operate a centrifugal compressor, which contains a type of fan
that compresses and pumps the natural gas through the pipeline. Some compressor
stations are operated by using an electric motor to turn the same type of centrifugal
compressor. This type of compression does not require the use of any of the natural
gas from the pipe; however it does require a reliable source of electricity nearby.
Reciprocating natural gas engines are also used to power some compressor
stations. These engines resemble a very large automobile engine, and are powered
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by natural gas from the pipeline. The combustion of the natural gas powers pistons
on the outside of the engine, which serves to compress the natural gas.
In addition to compressing natural gas, compressor stations also usually contain
some type of liquid separator, much like the ones used to dehydrate natural gas
during its processing. Usually, these separators consist of scrubbers and filters that
capture any liquids or other unwanted particles from the natural gas in the pipeline.
Although natural gas in pipelines is considered dry gas, it is not uncommon for a
certain amount of water and hydrocarbons to condense out of the gas stream while
in transit. The liquid separators at compressor stations ensure that the natural gas in
the pipeline is as pure as possible, and usually filter the gas prior to compression.
Natural gas, like most other commodities, can be stored for an indefinite period of
time. The exploration, production, and transportation of natural gas takes time, and
the natural gas that reaches its destination is not always needed right away, so it is
injected into underground storage facilities. These storage facilities can be located
near market centers that do not have a ready supply of locally produced natural gas.
Traditionally, natural gas has been a seasonal fuel. That is, demand for natural gas
is usually higher during the winter, partly because it is used for heat in residential
and commercial settings. Stored natural gas plays a vital role in ensuring that any
excess supply delivered during the summer months is available to meet the
increased demand of the winter months. However, with the recent trend towards
natural gas fired electric generation, demand for natural gas during the summer
months is now increasing (due to the demand for electricity to power air conditioners
and the like). Natural gas in storage also serves as insurance against any
unforeseen accidents, natural disasters, or other occurrences that may affect the
production or delivery of natural gas.
Natural gas storage plays a vital role in maintaining the reliability of supply needed to
meet the demands of consumers.
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ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF CNG
ADVANTAGES OF CNG:
a) Affordable Price
One of the biggest advantages CNG it that it provides is an affordable energy
source. As the world continues to experience high costs of gasoline, the low price of
CNG offers a glimmer of hope. A classic example, would be in the case of where a
consumer uses natural gas vehicle (NGV) that is powered by CNG for about 50 km
daily in the west of America. This car owner is actually able to save more than
$600 per year by taking advantage of the 85 gallon per gasoline equivalent
compared to his counterparts who use gasoline for $4.33. CNG is typically, at least,
30% cheaper than gasoline.
b)*Fuel*economy
Not only is CNG cheaper, it also gives consumers fuel efficiency. Considering the
price of gasoline in India, which costs 50 Rs/liter (even though being largely
government subsidized), in comparison to CNG that sells for only 22 Rs. While
expensive petrol gives a standard car owner about 15 km per liter, the low-cost CNG
offers close to 20 km . A CNG full cylinder promises more than 300 km of driving
range.
Many fueling stations sell both CNG and gasoline available for purchase, and the
choice is therefore placed in the hands of automobile owners. As far as fuel saving is
concerned, it is clear that CNG is giving consumers the upper hand.
c)*Reduced*up*keeping*cost!
Besides, CNG becoming a vehicle owners best friend as it offers the potential of
preserving the well being of the vehicle, which translates into reduced up keeping
cost. CNG is non-corrosive in nature, and is free from lead-like substances that are
widely used as additives in gasoline. This makes it possible to prevent spark plugs
from lead poisoning. In addition to that, it must be noted that CNG fuel system is
designed to keep the gas lock in, thus eliminating its probabilities of dispersing into
the air, or spilling. CNG is also known to preserve the life of oils and lubricating oils
and has been known to last longer due to the non-contaminating quality of natural
gas. CNG, which scores low on flammability, contrasted by a high auto ignition
temperature, it is not likely to cause a fire, considering that it is lighter than air.
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d)*Environmentally*Friendly!
Apart from that, the clean attributes of CNG gives it reasons to be applauded by
nature conservationists for being environmentally friendly. As a concerted effort is
being taken across the globe to save the earth, CNG is way better that petrol, as it
emits less harmful gases such as carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons,
nitrogen oxides and sulfur oxides into the air releases less carbon dioxide by almost
6000 grams, compared to a gasoline-powered engine. Its colorless and odorless
traits make it a clear burning fuel that prevents black fumes when burnt. The use of
CNG is definitely a forward move; lessening the emission of greenhouse gases that
pose the risk of global warming.
e) Abundant*Supply!
Another big plus point about CNG is in abundant supply as it is widely available
throughout the world. According to official energy statistics from the U.S government,
Middle East accounts for the largest increase in regional natural gas production from
2006 to 2030, and is projected to contribute to more than one-fifth of the total
increment in world natural gas production. Following this Europe and Eurasia will
produce the second highest amount of CNG. Nigeria also shows great potential for
natural gas productions. As of now, Russia holds the worlds largest reserve of
natural gas, followed by Iran. North
America also produces CNG in enormous volumes, storing up reserves that are
enough for the next hundred and twenty years, according to a study by Navigant
Consulting, Inc. The daily production of natural gas from shale formation in 1998 was
a bare billion cubic feet per day. Now, the number has increased tremendously to 5
billion cubic feet per day, creating a compounding yearly growth rate of more than
20%. This is more than 30 times the rate for that period of time. Asia is also not left
behind, with China exhibiting the highest CNG production.
f) Lower*Dependency*on*Foreign*Fuel*Imports!
As observed, natural gas production is increasing in different countries across the
globe. This brings about another advantage for countries to experience lower
dependency on foreign fuel imports. Over the years, the Middle East has been
monopolizing the supply of petroleum and oil prices predicted to continue to soar.
This had made countries like the United States fuel dependent, which led the former
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President, President Bush to say that the U.S was addicted to oil. President Obama
is aiming towards zero oil imports into the United States. The world is turning
towards natural gas as a substitute. According to the
International Energy Outlook 2009 by the Energy Information Administration of USA,
an average of 1.6 percent of yearly increase is expected for the total consumption of
natural gas, globally. This means that in 2030, 153 trillion cubic feet of natural gas
consumption is projected, from a total of 104 trillion cubic feet in 2006. Considering
this, the US has reason to be pleased that North America is a self-contained market
of natural gas, and the continuous increase of its supply will ultimately help make the
country independent on fuel imports.
Given the benefits of CNG, natural gas offers significant development and progress
on the countries economy besides, being kinder to consumers and also the
environment. Needless to say, CNG is much more promising than petroleum based
fuel. Considering its advantages, further research and studies are being conducted
to bring natural gas to greater heights and make it accessible for greater use as the
alternative energy of the future.
DISADVANTAGES OF CNG
a) The*Lack*of*Fueling*Stations*Within*Regions*
There are close to 120,000 natural gas vehicles in the United States and around
150,000 NGVs being used on the road; the most of them consisting of trucks.
Altogether, there are about 10 million natural gas powered vehicles in the world. To
cater for this need, it is estimated that there are only about 1,500 natural gas fueling
stations on a national scale in the US. Only about half of these stations are open to
the public. In contrast, there are more than 190,000 gasoline stations in the US.
Many vehicle owners are reluctant to switch to CNG because of the difficulty they
face refueling. For example, they might drive to locations that are not equipped with
CNG stations. Car users find it more convenient to utilize petrol as their source of
fuel as it is easily accessible everywhere. This shortfall in fueling infrastructures has
led to many consumers to turn down CNG as their main fuel for their vehicles. If the
use of CNG increases, it is still questionable whether the infrastructure can be
developed at a matching pace worldwide, considering the cost to be incurred.
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b) Vehicle*Owners*Attitude*
Besides the fact that fuel stations are rather limited, vehicle owners have doubts
about the usage of CNG for their vehicles. This is because CNG vehicles presently
own a lesser range compared to gasoline powered vehicles. An energy gallon
equivalent of natural gas, whether compressed natural gas or liquid natural gas,
contains less energy, if measured up against a volumetric gallon of petrol or diesel
fuel. It is said that compressed natural gas needs to be keep at an extremely high
pressure, close to 4,000 pounds per square inch, to attain satisfactory driving range.
Attempts have been made by liquefied natural gas to rectify this problem but it
requires special storage equipment. This is very problematic and will also bring
about additional costs. Considering this, vehicles running on natural gas are not as
good traveling long distances. The lesser driving range offered by CNG powered
vehicles once again cause consumers to prefer cars using gasoline.
c) Additional*Equipment*Have*to*be*installed*
It must also be noted that vehicles operating on CNG cost more than vehicles
running on gasoline.
This is because natural gas vehicles have to be installed with additional components
for the storage of fuel, which are more costly than gasoline tanks. For example, the
Honda Civic Sedan that consumes gasoline costs around $22,255 in the United
States.
CNG DISPESING SYSTEMS
CNG Dispensers Fueling the Greens
Maximize your fueling options; minimize your costs. Gilbarcos Encore CNG
dispenser makes it easy to bring Compressed Natural Gas to your forecourt.
Integration into your existing POS and the familiar Encore user interface increase
throughput and enhance your customers experience. Seamless integration. The
familiar Encore frame and door construction allows integration into your forecourt
with trusted Encore dispensers. The Encore CNG dispenser also ties to your existing
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forecourt controller, minimizing impact to your site payment network and saving you
the cost of a separate POS system.
Familiar user interface
The intuitive Encore user interface enhances the customer experience while
shortening their wait time. Encore S and Encore 700 S models provide consistent
options and payment features.
Fast, safe and efficient fill. The new Sequence Control increases fill rate, improving
throughput. External and manual shut off valves allow for continuous flow of gas to
the vehicle until stopped by the electronic flow control system or stopped manually.
And with the carbon sensor in lieu of a cabinet purge system, you minimize your
operational cost while maintaining a safe fueling environment.
Flexibility at the pump
Now you can have one dispenser for hi and standard flow applications, giving you
the flexibility to fill cars or busses from the same dispenser.
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Compressed natural gas (CNG) is a highly pressurized fossil fuel that acts as an
alternative to gasoline, diesel and LPG. Popularly known as the green fuel because
of its environment friendly characteristics and being extremely cost effective in
comparison to gasoline and diesel, CNG is quickly turning into the most preferred
alternative fuel around the world.
And in line with Gilbarcos commitment to offer its customers superior and future-
ready equipment, the Encore series is a one-of-its kind unit that offers the broadest
set of flexible fuel options. The re-designed Encore retains all its primary features
and comes with added environment friendly alternatives.
Fully equipped to dispense up to six different fuel types namely unleaded gasoline,
diesel, CNG, biodiesel, E85, and LPG, the Encore dispenser line helps dispense a
variety of environment friendly fuels from a single fueling position. Additionally, the
single fuel position also helps keep the number of tanks needed to a minimum
thereby optimizing the sites efficiency.
The Encore series is well known in the industry for its low-maintenance and high-
return-on-investment proposition and the added capability to dispense environment
friendly fuel is the ideal way for you to associate your enterprise with the green
initiative and maximize your branding and sales opportunities. And all this comes to
you with the unmatched durability and reliability you have come to expect from the
industry leader in flexible fuel.
CNG Transportation
The efficient and effective movement of natural gas from producing regions to
consumption regions requires an extensive and elaborate transportation system. In
many instances, natural gas produced from a particular well will have to travel a
great distance to reach its point of use. The transportation system for natural gas
consists of a complex network of pipelines, designed to quickly and efficiently
transport natural gas from its origin, to areas of high natural gas demand.
Transportation of natural gas is closely linked to its storage: should the natural gas
being transported not be immediately required, it can be put into storage facilities for
when it is needed.
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There are three major types of pipelines along the transportation route: the gathering
system, the interstate pipeline system, and the distribution system. The gathering
system consists of low pressure, small diameter pipelines that transport raw natural
gas from the wellhead to the processing plant. The United States has an extensive
transportation and storage system in place, as we have been using natural gas as a
heating and electrical source of energy for quite some time. The good news is that
these same pipelines can be utilized to help the United States achieve transportation
energy independence by transporting natural gas to be used as vehicular fuel as
well.
CNG FUEL KIT
1) CNG is fed into the high pressure cylinders through the natural gas receptacle
2) When the engine needs natural gas, CNG leaves the storage cylinders and
passes through the master manual shut-off valve.
3) CNG enters the engine chamber via the stainless steel high pressure line.
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4) The regulator accepts the CNG and reduces its pressure from 3,000 psi to
approximate atmospheric pressure.
5) The natural gas solenoid valve lets the natural gas flow from the regulator into
the gas mixer or fuel injectors. This same solenoid valve also shuts off the
natural gas when the engine is stopped.
6) CNG mixes with air and flows down through the carburettor or fuel injection
system and enters the engines combustion chambers.
Layout of CNG kit in a vehicle
MATERIAL COMPATIBILITY FOR CNG
Stainless steel
Aluminium
Copper
Elastomers
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Chapter 3
LNG (Liquefied Natural Gas)
INTRODUCTION
Natural gas is a major source of energy, but many towns and cities that need the
energy are located far from the gas fields. Transporting gas by pipeline can be costly
and impractical. We create LNG by cooling the gas to a liquid to -160C, which we
can then ship out, safely and efficiently.
LNG is a clear, colourless, non-toxic liquid that can be transported and stored more
easily than natural gas because it occupies up to 600 times less space.
When LNG reaches its destination, it is returned to a gas at regasification facilities. It
is then piped to homes, businesses and industries.
Shell helped pioneer the LNG sector, providing the technology for the world's first
commercial liquefaction plant at Arzew, Algeria, in 1964. Since then, we have
continued to improve the technology behind LNG.
HISTORY OF LNG
Natural gas liquefaction dates back to the 19th century when British chemist and
physicist Michael Faraday experimented with liquefying different types of gases,
including natural gas. German engineer Karl Von Linde built the first practical
compressor refrigeration machine in Munich in 1873. The first LNG plant was built in
West Virginia in 1912 and began operation in 1917. The first commercial liquefaction
plant was built in Cleveland, Ohio, in 1941.17 The LNG was stored in tanks at
atmospheric pressure. The liquefaction of natural gas raised the possibility of its
transportation to distant destinations. In January 1959, the world's first LNG tanker,
The Methane Pioneer, a converted World War ll liberty freighter containing five,
7,000 barrel equivalent aluminum prismatic tanks with balsa wood supports and
insulation of plywood and urethane, carried an LNG cargo from Lake Charles,
Louisiana to Canvey Island, United Kingdom. This event demonstrated that large
quantities of liquefied natural gas could be transported safely across the ocean.
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Figure 3. British Gas Canvey Island LNG Terminal, A World First
Over the next 14 months, seven additional cargoes were delivered with only minor
problems. Following the successful performance of The Methane Pioneer, the British
Gas Council proceeded with plans to implement a commercial project to import LNG
from Venezuela to Canvey Island. However, before the commercial agreements
could be finalized, large quantities of natural gas were discovered in Libya and in the
gigantic Hassi R' Mel field in Algeria, which are only half the distance to England as
Venezuela. With the start-up of the 260 million cubic feet per day (MMcfd) Arzew
GL4Z or Camel plant in 1964, the United Kingdom became the world's first LNG
importer and Algeria the first LNG exporter. Algeria has since become a major world
supplier of natural gas as LNG.
After the concept was shown to work in the United Kingdom, additional liquefaction
plants and import terminals were constructed in both the Atlantic and Pacific regions.
Four marine terminals were built in the United States between 1971 and 1980. They
are in Lake Charles (operated by CMS Energy), Everett, Massachusetts (operated
by SUEZ through their Distrigas subsidiary), Elba Island, Georgia (operated by El
Paso Energy), and Cove Point, Maryland (operated by Dominion Energy). After
reaching a peak receipt volume of 253 BCF (billion cubic feet) in 1979, which
represented 1.3 percent of U.S. gas demand, LNG imports declined because a gas
surplus developed in North America and price disputes occurred with Algeria, the
sole LNG provider to the U.S. at that time. The Elba Island and Cove Point receiving
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terminals were subsequently mothballed in 1980 and the Lake Charles and the
Everett terminals suffered from very low utilization.
The first exports of LNG from the U.S. to Asia occurred in 1969 when Alaskan LNG
was sent to Japan. Alaskan LNG is derived from natural gas that is produced by
ConocoPhillips and Marathon from fields in Cook Inlet in the southern portion of the
state of Alaska, liquefied at the Kenai Peninsula LNG plant (one of the oldest,
continuously operated LNG plants in the world) and shipped to Japan. The LNG
market in both Europe and Asia continued to grow rapidly from that point on. The
figure below shows worldwide growth in LNG since 1970.
PROPERTIES OF LNG
Liquified Natural Gas (Liquid Methane) is made by cooling natural gas to a
temperature of -260F. At that temperature, natural gas becomes a liquid and its
volume is reduced 615 times. (A car reduced 615 times would fit on your
thumbnail.) Liquified natural gas is easier to store than the gaseous form since it
takes up much less space. LNG is also easier to transport. People can put LNG in
special tanks and transport it on trucks or ships. Today more than 100 LNG storage
facilities are operating in the United States.
Methane is a colorless, odorless gas with a wide distribution in nature. It is the
principal component of natural gas, a mixture containing about 75% CH4, 15%
ethane (C2H6), and 5% other hydrocarbons, such as propane (C3H8) and butane
(C4H10). The "firedamp" of coal mines is chiefly methane. Anaerobic bacterial
decomposition of plant and animal matter, such as occurs under water, produces
marsh gas, which is also methane.
At room temperature, methane is a gas less dense than air. It melts at -183C and
boils at -164C. It is not very soluble in water. Methane is combustible, and
mixtures of about 5 to 15 percent in air are explosive. Methane is not toxic when
inhaled, but it can produce suffocation by reducing the concentration of oxygen
inhaled. A trace amount of smelly organic sulfur compounds (tertiary-butyl
mercaptan, (CH3)3CSH and dimethyl sulfide, (CH3)2S) is added to give commercial
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natural gas a detectable odor. This is done to make gas leaks readily detectible. An
undetected gas leak could result in an explosion or asphyxiation.
Methane is synthesized commercially by the distillation of bituminous coal and by
heating a mixture of carbon and hydrogen. It can be produced in the laboratory by
heating sodium acetate (CH3COONa) with sodium hydroxide (NaOH) and by the
reaction of aluminum carbide (Al4C3) with water.
In the chemical industry, methane is a raw material for the manufacture of methanol
(CH3OH), formaldehyde (CH2O), nitromethane (CH3NO2), chloroform (CH3Cl),
carbon tetrachloride (CCl4), and some freons (compounds containing carbon and
fluorine, and perhaps chlorine and hydrogen). The reactions of methane with
chlorine and fluorine are triggered by light. When exposed to bright visible light,
mixtures of methane with chlorine or fluorine react explosively.
The principal use of methane is as a fuel.
Property Value
Symbol LNG
Melting Point 54.36 K
Boiling Point 111.6 K
Heat of Vaporization (@101.325 kPa) 212.9 kj/kg K
Specific Heat (Cp, 0C @ 101.325 kPa) 1.70 kj/kg K
Viscosity 188.0 kg/m-s X 106
Thermal Conductivity (k) 151.4 mW/m-k
Critical Temperature 154.576 K
Critical Pressure 5.04 MPa
Temperature at Triple Point 54.35 K @ 151
Mpa
Saturated Liquid Density (p) @ 0C, 101.325
kPa 442.6 kg/m
3
Phase at Room Temperature (20C) Gas
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THE ADVANTAGES OF LIQUEFIED NATURAL GAS
Liquefied natural gas (LNG) boasts a number of advantages, which are driving its
growth. It combines the clean combustion and calorific value of natural gas with the
transportation flexibility of liquid hydrocarbons.
Gas, a Clean, Efficient, Energy Option
The issue of monetizing gas resources is becoming increasingly crucial for producing
nations and oil and gas operators alike. Natural gas owes its growing appeal to its
numerous advantages:
It is a clean-burning fuel whose combustion generates no unburned residues,
particulates or soot, and releases less greenhouse gas than the other fossil fuels.
Its high calorific value allows latest-generation power plants to achieve high energy
efficiency using cogeneration or combined cycle configurations, limiting both energy
consumption and atmospheric emissions. On the strength of these advantages, the
share of natural gas in power generation is projected to rise from 20% in 2004 to
nearly 25% in 2030.
Liquefaction, Unlocking New Opportunities
One of the main reasons for the emergence of the LNG industry is that it
makes transporting natural gas over long distances both technically and
economically feasible. This spells opportunity for both gas-producing and gas-
consuming countries:
Exporting LNG by carrier means that huge reserves of gas located far from major
consumer regions can be tapped. Liquefaction creates new market opportunities,
generating revenues that stimulate the economies of producing nations. In
addition, liquefaction often contributes to the reduction of gas flaring associated with
crude oil production, thus limiting greenhouse gas emissions.
The LNG value chain not only promotes the use of an energy source with a smaller
environmental footprint than other fossil resources, it also addresses the concerns
of consumer nations regarding their diversity of supply while reducing their energy
dependence on countries that supply natural gas via pipeline.
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Unlike piped natural gas, a cargo of LNG can be diverted en route. This promotes
the flexibility that consumer nations need to manage their supply, and enables
producing nations to optimize the monetization of their assets. This flexibility has
been spurred by the increase in short-term LNG trading tied to market deregulation.
That same flexibility is proving an advantage for some countries such as Brazil,
which are counting on the forthcoming growth of this sector in an offshore context.
Shipping the gas by LNG carrier on a regional (as opposed to a transoceanic) scale
offers an alternative to the challenging and costly development of pipeline systems.
LNG in Four Steps
Presence across the Value Chain, Including Marketing
Most LNG is sold under long-term sale and purchase agreements between
liquefaction plants and gas marketers and/or power generators. Signing these
contracts is a vital prerequisite to building liquefaction facilities, because they
determine the economic viability of the plant an investment of several billion
dollars. LNG trading also takes advantage of the spot and short-term markets, which
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emerged about a decade ago in conjunction with natural gas market deregulation in
Europe and expansion in LNG production and shipping capacity. These fast-growing
trading opportunities provide an increasing degree of flexibility to market players.
DISADVANTAGES OF LNG
LNG operations are capital intensive. Upfront costs are large for construction of
liquefaction facilities, purchasing specially designed LNG ships, and building re-
gasification facilities.
Methane, a primary component of LNG, is considered a greenhouse gas because it
increases carbon levels in the atmosphere when released.
TRANSPORTATION OF LNG
LNG is transported in specially designed ships with double hulls protecting the cargo
systems from damage or leaks. There are several special leak test methods
available to test the integrity of an LNG vessel's membrane cargo tanks.
The tankers cost around USD 200 million each.
Transportation and supply is an important aspect of the gas business, since natural
gas reserves are normally quite distant from consumer markets. Natural gas has far
more volume than oil to transport, and most gas is transported by pipelines. There is
a natural gas pipeline network in the former Soviet Union, Europe and North
America. Natural gas is less dense, even at higher pressures. Natural gas will travel
much faster than oil through a high-pressure pipeline, but can transmit only about a
fifth of the amount of energy per day due to the lower density. Natural gas is usually
liquefied to LNG at the end of the pipeline, prior to shipping.
Short LNG pipelines for use in moving product from LNG vessels to onshore storage
are available. Longer pipelines, which allow vessels to offload LNG at a greater
distance from port facilities, are under development. This requires pipe in pipe
technology due to requirements for keeping the LNG cold.
LNG is transported using both tanker truck, railway tanker, and purpose built ships
known as LNG carriers. LNG will be sometimes taken to cryogenic temperatures to
increase the tanker capacity. The first commercial ship-to-ship transfer (STS)
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transfers were undertaken in February 2007 at the Flotta facility in Scapa Flow with
132,000 m3 of LNG being passed between the vessels Excalibur and Excelsior.
Transfers have also been carried out by Exmar Ship management, the Belgian gas
tanker owner in the Gulf of Mexico, which involved the transfer of LNG from a
conventional LNG carrier to an LNG regasification vessel (LNGRV). Prior to this
commercial exercise LNG had only ever been transferred between ships on a
handful of occasions as a necessity following an incident.
PIPING FOR LNG
The performance and economic advantages of vacuum insulation piping have been
realized in many industries and applications for decades. Extensive and
unnecessary boil-off gas, pipeline insulation maintenance and repair, and running
and maintaining large compressors and/or reliquefiers no longer need to be common
burdens and expenses for LNG plant and terminal operation.
ADVANTAGES
The double wall design acts as an added safety feature as a secondary barrier for
the Liquefied Natural Gas carrier pipe.
VIP (Vacuum Insulated Pipe) can be installed underground and under water whilst
MIP cannot.
Option for internal expansion bellows and loops (for thermal expansion and
contraction) for underground and under water installations.
Pipe diameters up to 60 are possible with an inner pipe constructed from stainless
steel (typically ASTM Type 304/304L), whilst the outer jacket can be constructed
from stainless or carbon steel depending on site conditions and specific
requirements of the facility owners.
The vacuum level greatly reduces the conductive and convective heat transfer from
the ambient surroundings into the cold LNG carrier pipe.
The annular space between the carrier and jacket pipes is fitted with a multiple layer
radiation shielding system, which further reduces the heat transferred into the LNG
piping
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LNG Dispenser
Design
The Cryogenic Fuels LNG dispenser unit is designed to perform a two-line vent fill
with the vent gas being metered and recovered to the facility main bulk storage tank.
The dispenser unit includes a density compensation metering subsystem, the
pneumatically operated, fuel delivery shutoff valves, a 40 micron filter, two direct
mass metering, flow meters, for liquid/vapor totalizing, and a back-pressure regulator
that may be preset to provide operating pressures of 50 to 110 psi in the vehicle
tank. The dispenser unit also includes an explosion-proof box that contains the
start/stop switches, a methane gas detector, hazardous warning lights and the
emergency stop button.
Computer Controller
The programmable system controller (PLC) for the dispenser is located in a non-
hazardous area that must be located at least 70 ft. from the fuel storage and fuel
dispensing area. This subsystem consists of the system electronic circuits that
transmit the signals from various control components including the pump prime and
pump start/stop commands and the signals from the liquid sensors. The station liquid
sensors control the plumbing cool-down and the start of the pump motor. Liquid
sensors are also installed in the dispenser and the fueling hose disconnect to control
re-circulation flow and automatic fuel shut-off when the vehicle tanks are 100 % full.
Fueling Disconnects
The Model C-1000-2 dispenser is also equipped with multiple fueling disconnects of
different types to accommodate a variety of fuel tank receptacles. The vehicle fill
process is initiated by depressing the "fueling start" button on the front of the
console. A liquid sensor installed in the dispenser provides the signal to
automatically terminate the fueling process when the fuel tank is filled to 90% of its
maximum allowable volume. The fill process may also be terminated at any time by
depressing an "emergency stop" switch, is also on the front of the dispenser console.
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CHAPTER 4
LIQUIFIED PETROLEUM GAS (LPG)
INTRODUCTION
Autogas is the common name for liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) when it is used as a
fuel in internal combustion engines in vehicles as well as in stationary applications
such as generators. It is a mixture of propane and butane.
Autogas is widely used as a "green" fuel, as it decreases exhaust emissions. In
particular, it reduces CO2 emissions by around 25% compared to petrol. One litre of
petrol produces 2.3 kg of CO2 when burnt, whereas the equivalent amount of
autogas (1.33 litre due to lower density of autogas) produces only 1.5 * 1.33 = 2 kg
of CO2 when burnt. It has an octane rating (MON/RON) that is between 90 and 110
and an energy content (higher heating valueHHV) that is between 25.5 mega
joules per litre (for pure propane) and 28.7 mega joules per litre (for pure butane)
depending upon the actual fuel composition.
HISTORY OF LPG
LPG was first identified as a significant component of petroleum in 1910.
The story goes that a Ford Model T owner asked Dr. Walter O. Snelling, a chemist
and explosives expert with the U.S. Bureau of Mines, why the gasoline he had
purchased was half gone by the time he got home. The car owner thought the
governmen