AmericaA Divided Union – Civil Rights in the USA, 1945 - 74

McCarthyism & the Red Scare

Reasons for the Red Scare– After WWII, there was an increased fear of communism, this was due to:

– Berlin being cut in half by the Berlin Wall in 1961.– China becomes communist in 1949.– Russia builds atomic bomb in 1949.– North Korea invades the South. The communists help the North,

America helps the South. War ends at the 38th Parallel. Years 1950-1953

– Conflicts such as Space Race, WMDs.– The Soviets still held positions throughout Europe.

– Summarized by Churchill’s quote – “An Iron Curtain has descended”.

Truman Doctrine / Marshall Plan– Truman Doctrine was a American foreign policy in 1947.

– It provided economic and military aid to Greece and Turkey as they were threatened by communism.

– Containment policy to stop the Soviet communist expansion.– The Marshall Plan was an American program in 1948.

– It aimed to aid European countries to rebuild their economies and infrastructure, remove trade barriers and modernize industry.

– Provided both monetary and technical assistance.– Aimed to prevent the spread of Communism in weak countries.– Succeeded by the Mutual Security Plan in 1951.

Berlin Crisis– A brief conflict after the USSR provoked the allies by issuing an ultimatum

to have all their military forces removed from West Berlin.– In 1958, Khrushchev issued an ultimatum giving western powers six

months to withdraw from Berlin.– The western powers replied to this ultimatum by firmly reasserting

their determination to have free access to West Berlin.– In June 1961, Khrushchev again threatened to sign a peace treaty with

the East German Regime, that would end free access to West Berlin. The western powers again refused to leave.

– In spring and early summer, the Berlin Wall was built.– In July and August 1961, Kennedy ordered a massive increase in troops

near the border.– The East German government backed down after a tense face-off in the

border.

Korean War– A war between the DPRK and the Republic of Korea from 1950-53.

– After World War II, the Korean peninsula was split on the 38th parallel with Soviet forces holding the northern half and the US holding the southern half.

– Failure to hold free elections deepened the division between the North and South.

– North established a communist government.– South established a capitalist government.– DPRK forces invaded South Korea on 25 June 1950.– With help of UN forces, South Korea pushed the DPRK invasion back

past the 38th parallel almost to Yalu River.– The Chinese PRC entered the war on the North Korean side and pushed

the UN forces back to the 38th parallel.– On 27th of July 1953, an armistice was signed.– As the fighting sides were sponsored by external opposing powers US

and USSR, the Korean War was a proxy war.

Hiss & Rosenberg Cases– Alger Hiss was a government official who was accused of being a Soviet

spy in 1948 and charged with perjury in 1950.– In 1948, Whittaker Chambers, a former communist member, testified

under oath that Hiss had been a Communist while in federal service.– Hiss was called before the HUAC and denied the charge.– Chambers produced more evidence, and Hiss was charged with two

counts of perjury but due to the expiration of the statute of limitations, he could not be tried with alleged espionage.

– Ethel and Julius Rosenberg were American communists who were convicted and executed on June 19 1953 for conspiracy to commit espionage.– Their charges were related to passing information about the atomic

bomb to the USSR.– Only execution of civilians for espionage in US history.

HUAC & Hollywood Ten– The Hollywood Ten

– Ten entertainment professionals that were denied employment because their real or suspected political beliefs and sympathy towards the Communist Party.

– They were charged with contempt of court.– House Committee on Un-American Activities

– An investigative committee.– Part of the house of representatives.– Created in 1947, abolished in 1975.– Joseph McCarthy had no direct involvement with the Committee’s

investigations.

Joseph McCarthy– McCarthy was a Wisconsin US Senator from 1947 until his death in 1957.– Wheeling Speech

– McCarthy gained massive fame when he announced that he had a list of 205 communists that were working in the state department.

– Tydings Committee– McCarthy was accused of falsifying the figure and continually changing

it, later to 57 and then to 81. – The Tydings Committee hearings were called to conduct an

investigation on the solidity of McCarthy’s reports.– The Tydings Report called McCarthy a fraud and a hoax. But

Republicans who supported McCarthy said Tydings was guilty of treasonable conspiracy.

– 1950 onward– McCarthy exploited the fear of Communism to gain power over his

political opponents by accusing them of being communist.– No evidence was provided, only McCarthy’s accusations.– Herbert Block’s cartoons coined the term McCarthyism.

Joseph McCarthy– McCarthy & Eisenhower

– Although McCarthy and Eisenhower were part of the same party, Eisenhower said he agreed with McCarthy’s goals but disagreed with his methods.

– While Eisenhower was in office, McCarthy repeatedly attacked him for not being efficient in the removal of Communist agents.

– McCarthy was made chairman of the Senate Committee on Government Operations in 1953.

– McCarthy – Army Hearings– In early 1954, the U.S Army accused McCarthy of improperly pressuring the

Army to give favorable treatment to his friend.– On June 9, Welch challenged McCarthy to give the Attorney General his list

of 130 communists in defense plants.– The public now knew that all of McCarthy’s accusations were baseless, and

both the democratic and republican party felt that McCarthy was a liability to the Government.

– McCarthy’s public image was ruined, he led an unspectacular life until his death in 1957.

Civil Rights in the 1950s

Brown v. Board of Education– Brown v. Board of Education, 1954

– In 1951, a lawsuit led by the NAACP on behalf of Linda Brown against the Topeka Board of Education.

– Linda Brown wanted to enroll in a neighborhood segregated school, instead of having to go to one miles away.

– In 1954, the Supreme Court reached a 9-0 unanimous decision declaring separated schools unconstitutional.

– This event was significant because:– By 1957, 300,000 black children were attending desegregated

schools.– 2.4 million black children in the south were still attending

segregated schools, due to the actions of the KKK and other extremist groups.

Montgomery Bus Boycott– Montgomery Bus Boycott, 1955

– Campaign in Montgomery, Alabama in attempt to integrate public transport.

– December 1955, Rosa Parks was arrested because she refused to give up a seat for a white American.

– NAACP leaders recognized this as a good motive for protest.– NAACP and Martin Luther King organized a boycott, which boycotted

buses and they organized a carpool system.– Demanded complete integration of the public transit in Montgomery.– Boycott caused massive financial deficit for the transit system.– This event was significant because:

– On June 4th, 1956, Supreme Court ruled segregation of public transport unconstitutional and ordered them to be integrated. Enforced in December.

– Martin Luther King got increasingly involved and gained fame within the civil rights groups.

Little Rock Nine– Little Rock Nine, 1957

– In 1957, 9 African-American students with high attendance were chosen by the NAACP to enroll into the still segregated Little Rock Central High School.

– Governor of Arkansas, Orval Faubus, sent the National Guard to support the segregationists and block the Little Rock Nine.

– This event was significant because:– Caused major protests and a city wide prayer.– Eisenhower intervened by federalizing the National Guard and

placing the 101st Airborne to protect the students.– Stayed under military protection for the remainder of the school

year.– Event drew nation-wide attention and proved that enrolling into

segregated schools was possible.

The Impact of Martin Luther King & Black Power

Freedom Riders– Freedom Riders, 1961

– Black activists that rode on interstate buses to the segregated south states from the north.

– The first ride left from Washington DC on May 4th 1961. – Riders were met with severe violence.– In Alabama, one of the buses were fire-bombed and passengers were

beaten.– Supported by the CORE and SNCC.– This event was significant because:

– The movement caused the desegregation of interstate transport.– Violence raised publicity.

Greensboro Sit-Ins– Greensboro Sit-Ins, 1960

– Began when four black students from a College in North Carolina sat down in the “whites only” counter of a Greensboro Store. Although repeatedly being told to leave, the students stayed until the store closed.

– Each day more students came to sit in the white only counters.– Spread to other cities such as Richmond, Virginia.– Boycotts spread to other public facilities.– This event was significant because:

– President Eisenhower supported the students.– Caught media attention.– Greensboro stores were told to abandon their segregation policies.– Partly contributed to the Civil Rights Act of 1964, which mandated

the desegregation of public areas.

Albany Movement– Albany Movement, 1961

– A non-violent movement between the SNCC and SCLC.– Occupation of white-only areas such as libraries and restaurants by

African Americans.– This movement was insignificant because:

– It achieved few changes.– Activists were mass arrested by the police.– Did not raise much media attention as the chief did not use

dramatic and violent tactics to arrest the protesters.

Birmingham Campaign– Birmingham Campaign, 1963

– Protest aimed at desegregating businesses.– Meant to be non-violent, but there were several violent clashes with

the police.– Police responded with brutality, sent dogs and fired high-pressure

water hoses at men, women, children.– This campaign was significant because:

– It caused massive outrage due to the widespread publicity from the photographs of the cruelty.

– Kennedy intervened by immediately desegregating businesses.– MLK gained popularity as he was one of the leaders.

March on Washington– March on Washington, 1963

– Began as a cry for jobs and freedom.– Combined effort between SCLC, SNCC, NAACP, CORE.– A non-violent march.– 300,000 people walked to the Lincoln Memorial.– Martin Luther King delivers his speech “I have a dream”.– 25% were not African – American.– This event was significant because:

– People saw how many people (not only blacks) wanted equality.– King gained a lot of fame as people were inspired by his speech.– Politicians in Washington were now more aware of the immense

support for racial equality.

Freedom Summer– Freedom Summer, 1964

– A project in Mississippi in 1964 to attempt to register as many blacks as possible for voting.

– Organized by NAACP, CORE, SCLC, SNCC.– Originally only 5% of the African-American population was registered to

vote.– In June, three civil workers were abducted, tortured and killed by

members of the KKK.– This event was significant because:

– Caught the attention of media, provoked outpouring of national support for the Civil Rights Movement.

– Led to the passing of the Voting Rights Act in 1965, enabling the federal system to intervene with local voting registrations.

Selma Campaign– Selma Campaign, 1965

– A series of marches from Selma to Montgomery in 1965.– The first and second march drew attention from the police, they used

tear gas and released dogs on the protestors.– 2000 protestors arrested.– The third march was significant because:

– US Army and Alabama State Troopers escorted the protestors from start to end under federal jurisdiction.

– 25,000 went to listen to MLK speak.– Encouraged the passing of the Voting Rights 1965.

Civil Rights Legislation– Civil Rights Act, 1964

– Segregation in public areas was banned.– Federal government could being cases where discrimination occurred

to court.– Attributed to the March on Washington.– Barred employment discrimination by sex, race.

– Voting Rights, 1965– After Selma Campaign, President Johnson promised to put forward a bill

that would enfranchise black Americans.– End literacy tests and allowed federal agents to monitor and intervene

in the voter registration process.– End of 1968, over 1 million black Americans had registered to vote.

Malcolm X– Malcolm X, 1925 – 1965

– Member of the Nation of Islam.– Sought separatism and believed that violence was justified to secure a

separate black nation.– Set up educational and social programs for black youths in ghettoes.– Helped black Americans reconnect with their African heritage.– Disliked mainstream civil rights campaigns and criticized MLK.– Killed in 1965 after his departure from the Nation of Islam.

Black Power– Despite civil rights legislation, many young black Americans still lived in

poverty. And we unemployed.– In 1965, LA riots leave 34 dead and over 1000 injured.– Waves of riots spread across the US. In total, 130 die and 700 million in

property was damaged.– Stokely Carmichael and others in the SNCC created the Black Power

movement to increase the influence of blacks.– Adopted African dress and slogan “Black is beautiful”.– In 1968 Olympics, at the winner’s ceremony, black athletes gave the

“clenched fist salute” and wore only black socks to represent poverty and black scarves for black pride. They received death threats.

Black Panthers– Black Panthers were founded in 1966.– Were prepared to use revolutionary methods to achieve their aims.– Fought against capitalism and were willing to ally with white supremacist

groups to achieve their aims.– “Class struggle not race struggle”– Wore uniforms and used weapons.– Had 5000 members by 1968.– Disbanded in 1982 due to confrontations w/ the police and FBI.

Protest Movements

Women’s Movement (Causes)

– During WWII, women in employment increased from 12 million to 18.5 million in 1940.

– Women earned 1/2 of what men earned, and were excluded from high paying jobs.

– In the 50s, women became much better educated.– They became frustrated with their role as housewives.– Betty Friedan’s The Feminine Mystique, published in 1963, showed that

there was a life beyond the house, and condemned the archetype “housewife”. It inspired many women.

Women’s Movement (Events)

– The Woman’s Liberation Movement was radical, they burned bras and protested against beauty pageants.

– Feminist lawyers went to Supreme Court to challenge abortion in 1965, and encouraged later successful abortion cases, such as Roe v. Wade case in 1970, a woman that already had 3 children did not want another.

– Some women opposed the women’s movement for a wide variety of reasons.

– Eleanor Roosevelt set up a commission to investigate the status of women at work in 1961.

– Results in 1963 show substantial discrimination against women.– The commission makes recommendations. Including fair hiring practices,

paid maternity leave, and affordable child care.

Women’s Movement (Results)

– Equal Pay Act in 1963, making it illegal for employers to pay differently on the basis of race.

– Civil Rights Act in 1964, bars discrimination in employment opportunities on the basis of race and sex.

– Establishment of Equal Employment Opportunity Commission to investigate complaints and impose penalties.

– Education Amendments in 1972, bars sex discrimination in schools.– Establishment of women’s right to safe and legal abortion in 1973, as a

result of Roe v. Wade.– Pregnancy Discrimination Act in 1978, bans employment discrimination

against pregnant women.

Youth Movement (Causes)– The work of Martin Luther King in the African-American rights movement

encouraged the young generation that change could be achieved through peaceful protests.

– The assassination of President John F. Kennedy in 1963 angered many people as he was a pioneer in civil rights.– Established the Presidential Commission of the Status of Women– Created a reform program in which young Americans could contribute

to the progression of the US.– The 50s in the states was a time of boredom, conformity and traditional

value.– New films such as Rebel without a Cause.– The swinging sixties was a period of greater freedom.

– Contraceptive pill was introduced.– New songs such as those sung by Bob Dylan and Jimi Hendrix.

Youth Movement (Events)– Campaigned against the war in Vietnam.

– Evaded and refused to be drafted into the war.– Peace demonstrations, concerning the brutal methods of warfare

employed.– The media also massively increased the publicity for the Vietnam war.

– The first war to be televised.– Demonstration such as the one in Kent State University led to violence and

death.– Four people were killed and eleven injured after the National

Guardsmen fired on them.– The young generation had an attitude of rebellion, they rebelled against

their parent’s belief, such as heavy drinking and sexual activities.– Formed a group called the “hippies”, young people who decided to

abandon their parent’s values and choose an alternative way of life.– They were anti war and wore flowers as a symbol of peace.– They dressed in unique clothing and grew their hair long.– They settled in communes and experimented in drugs.

Youth Movement (Results)– Greater publicity for racism and discrimination.– Impacted the youth culture and youth’s individuality.– Youths now more conscious of their appearance and fashion and more

sexually permissive.– They demanded a greater influence in the decisions concerning them.

Watergate Scandal

Watergate Scandal (Events)– 17 June 1972: 5 burglars caught in the offices of the Democrats in the

Watergate compound. They all have government connections.– 1 August 1972: Washington Post discovers a check of $25,000 intended for

the Nixon campaign was banked by a Watergate burglar.– Nixon denies involvement in the scandal, later discussing stopping the FBI

investigation. The conversation is captured on tape.– November 1973: Tapes are released to the public after pressure from the

Senate.– Nixon’s attitude and language shocks the public.– The tapes are revealed to be edited.

– Nixon finally hands over unedited tapes after a Supreme Court ruling.– Tapes prove that Nixon was involved in the scandal, the impeachment

hearings begin.– 9 August 1974: Nixon resigns.

Watergate Scandal (Results)– Over 30 White House officials are tried and jailed.– Democrat Jimmy Carter is elected. Honest and well meaning, but ultimately

unsuccessful.– The international reputation of America was ruined.– Americans became more suspicious and cynical of their government.– National Emergencies Act of 1976 is passed, balancing the usage of

emergency powers by the president.