american sign language articulation inventory8-19-11-1 · pdf fileamerican sign language...

To MG, JE and JP who were denied the option of ASL because of hand anomalies.

American Sign Language Articulation Inventory – Visual Edition

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Table of Contents

Chapter 1 - Introduction .................................................................................... 5

Chapter 2 - Purpose ........................................................................................... 9

Chapter 3 - Definition Of Terms ....................................................................... 12

Chapter 4 - Review of Literature ..................................................................... 14

A. Background ............................................................................................................ 17

1. Sign languages and their characteristics ............................................................. 15

2. Handshapes ............................................................................................................ 17 3. Palm orientation .................................................................................................... 17

4. Location ..................................................................................................................18 5. Movement .............................................................................................................. 18

6. Hand differences ....................................................................................................18

B. Cerebral Palsy ........................................................................................................ 17 1. Types ...................................................................................................................... 20

2. Impacts on ASL articulation .................................................................................21 C. Arthritis ................................................................................................................... 17

1. Cause ...................................................................................................................... 21

2. Impacts on intelligibility ....................................................................................... 22 D. Intelligibility of signed language: How precise does ASL have to be? .............. 18

1. Accepted variations of handshapes ..................................................................... 24 2. What factors effect intelligibility ..........................................................................25

3. Types of errors ...................................................................................................... 25

E. Sign language handshapes and the anatomy of the hand and wrist ................... 20 Similarity between handshapes of world sign languages ...................................... 20

Chapter 5 - Administration of the Inventory .................................................. 24

A. Who can administer the inventory? ...................................................................... 25 1. How do I prepare for administering the inventory .............................................33

2. How do I administer inventory .............................................................................33


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B. Administration ..........................................................................................................34 C. Scoring the inventory ...............................................................................................35

Chapter 6 - Interpreting the results ................................................................. 38

Appendices ...................................................................................................... 44

Appendix I .................................................................................................................... 44 A. An Overview of Tactile American Sign Language and its use in this inventory35

1. Introduction ............................................................................................................44 2. The continuum .......................................................................................................45

3. Grammar differences between ASL and TSL .....................................................46

B. How do I use my hands while communicating in TSL? ....................................... 37 1. The monologue position ........................................................................................ 47

2. The dialogue position ............................................................................................ 47

3. "Levels" of TSL .................................................................................................... 48 4. The environment in TSL ...................................................................................... 49

5. Backchanneling ..................................................................................................... 39 C. Changes to signs in TSL ......................................................................................... 40

1. Changing signs for logistical purposes ................................................................ 51

2. Changing signs for clarity .................................................................................... 52 3. Conclusion ............................................................................................................. 53

Appendix II .......................................................................................................................

Factors to take into account when considering ASL as a communication method for

individuals who experience significant disabilities ................................................... 41

1. What are the pros of using ASL? ........................................................................ 41

2. What are the cons of ASL? .................................................................................. 42

3. What factors should be taken into account when choosing ASL or Signed English..................................................................................................................................... 55

Appendix III ................................................................................................................. 58

1. Artiuclation Inventory .......................................................................................... 58


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2. Results .................................................................................................................... 58 3. Handshapes ............................................................................................................ 59

4. Palm Orientation ................................................................................................... 61 5. Location ................................................................................................................. 61

6. Movement .............................................................................................................. 62

Works Cited ....................................................................................................... 64

Thanks

§ [To be added later]


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1 I

CHAPTER 1

Introduction


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INTRODUCTION

As a consultant and advocate for Deaf and Deaf-blind individuals in rural Alaska, I travel long distances to meet with students, and in doing so, have had many professional and logistical adventures. I’ve eaten mucktuk (whale blubber) and traveled by dogsled and small plane into the arctic. I have seen the northern lights and the midnight sun. But the memories that stick with me the most are those of my students.

In rural areas, as well as urban ones, special education teachers are often expected to be well trained in every area of special education. This can range from educating students with mild learning disabilities, to students with many challenging behaviors, to individuals with profound, multiple disabilities. Their students can be from an array of linguistic, socioeconomic, and cultural backgrounds, and some have had traumatic or abusive backgrounds. I have great respect for special educators. I also understand that no one can be an expert in everything. It stands to reason that an educator who has never worked with sign language before would be asked to teach my students, who present in extremely low numbers.

The outcome is that non-traditional signers, signers prone to visual “white noise” in their signing due to spasticity, or who might articulate signs differently because of anomalies of the hand or wrist, are often denied the opportunity to sign or even to communicate fully because it’s assumed that their sign would be unintelligible. One Deaf student with cerebral palsy, autism and vision loss that was transferred to a new school was considered angry and violent. Upon meeting him, I saw the staff ignoring his sign, which had been learned after years of difficult work on his part. His inability to be understood was understandably causing frustration and outbursts. When I asked about this, I learned that they weren’t aware that he was signing, and believed that his motions were simply a non-intentional outcome of his disability. In another case, a young deaf student with webbed hands was assumed to be unintelligible in ASL. Despite multiple skull anomalies, his instruction in communication was “on hold” until he had intelligible speech, despite also having multiple skull anomalies. Another very bright, non-verbal student with cerebral palsy (labeled as hearing) originally wasn’t given language instruction because they assumed that his cerebral palsy would limit his ability to speak or sign. A co-worker, who met the student when he was eight, said that he acted as if he was deaf. After an audiogram was performed, it confirmed that he was profoundly deaf (not hearing, as his records stated) and he had the motor skills for intelligible ASL. This could have been taught at a much earlier age but it was assumed that his lack of speech was due to his cerebral palsy, and not a hearing loss. ASL wasn’t even tried. At eight years old, he was “discovered” to be deaf.


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There is currently no assessment (and very little research) on the development of ASL skills in individuals with mobility impairments or hand anomalies. I researched and wrote an assessment in the hopes that these heartbreaking communication breakdowns will be avoided in the future.


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2

CHAPTER 2 Purpose


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PURPOSE

Deaf individuals can have the same "articulation" difficulties in a signed language as a speaker can have with English. The inability to produce the ‘1’ handshape (due to webbed hands for example) would effect the "articulation" of the signs for "understand," "red," etc. in ASL. In order to assess articulation, we would need to know:

1. The number of handshapes the student can produce. 2. The level of frequency and importance of any handshapes that he or she cannot

produce. 3. Any handshapes in which his or her slightly modified form would make them look

identical to others (and thus lead to misunderstandings). 4. If ASL is an appropriate language for the student1. 5. If articulation errors are minor, which interventions (if any) had the best

prognosis for improving intelligibility? The resulting data supplies the information needed to make informed decisions and plans regarding language development.

There are a few benefits to using already established articulation theory and processes. These are proven to be best practice for spoken languages after years of trial and research. ASL, being like any other language, can benefit from this research, being that its articulation is just as vital to its intelligibility as any spoken language. Some practitioners are familiar with speech and fine motor skill development, but not with signed languages. But even a skilled interpreter might have difficulty building ASL articulation and it isn’t covered in most interpreter curriculums. Specialists skilled in pathology and rehabilitation of the hands, such as occupational therapists, typically don’t know ASL. These fields are all needed to build ASL articulation skills.

This author set out to create an inventory and assessment to meet these needs. This inventory is intended to assess and document the skills of deaf, hard-of-hearing, and deaf-blind individuals with hand differences, (formerly called hand “deformities”), cerebral palsy, arthritis, and other limitations of fine motor skills and/or range of motion. It is intended to: 1 A student who can’t sign because of mobility issues is not limited in his or her ability to understand sign (receptively).


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§ Document an individual’s physical ability to produce ASL, not the cognitive processes of acquiring or understanding language.

§ Be applicable to an individual of any age who has difficulty with ASL articulation. § Document and assess a specific individual’s intelligibility at a certain point or

across time. § Form a baseline from which to build skills, discuss communication options, and

eventually evaluate growth. Using this inventory assumes the test subject is cognitively ready to use complex, abstract language. If his or her cognitive ability to perceive, receive, store, process or retrieve complex language is in question, this must be assessed first. See Appendix II for a list of considerations for the educational team considering ASL for an individual who is currently not using it. This inventory does not give a developmental age or percentile rank in which the subject is functioning. This was very purposeful on the part of the author and reflects two facts: First of all, the test subjects using this inventory don’t have an issue with speed of development2 or cognition. Their issue is with their physiological state. In many cases the physiological state is not going to change, so we are attempting to develop compensatory skills. These skills go above and beyond what the test subject’s peers have to master before being intelligible, and don’t reflect a typical trajectory. Secondly, the research and data on the intelligibility of signed languages in this population is so minimal that developmental milestones in acquiring skills in the area have not been established. Even if more research had been developed, it would be very difficult to establish a developmental continuum due to the wide variety of etiologies, resulting effects on fine and gross motor skills, ages, and relatively low incidence of the intended test subjects. There simply would not be enough test subjects to give norms for each variable.

2 Keep in mind the difference between a person’s anatomy and physiology and his or her cognitive development. Even the most

profound physical involvement does not imply a cognitive delay. And neither imply that the individual is like a much younger

child.


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It is important to understand how intelligible a student is and will be in ASL. A language can be understood by native speakers even with a variety of errors or omissions. It is usually with great consideration that a team dismisses or supplements speech as a communication option for a hearing student solely on the basis of intelligibility. ASL should be given the same weight for a Deaf or Deaf-blind individual. By the same token, if the communicator spends a majority of his or her energy on the muscle planning and production of signs, the ability to focus on the message of the utterance will be diminished. This will cause fatigue and frustrations due to a delay in production, misunderstandings, and the need to change a sophisticated or subtle message into a simpler one that can be easily produced. In this case, ASL would not be the best choice for expressive communication. ASL can still be used receptively but many devices can be used more effectively for expressive communication by an individual with even the most involved mobility issues. The devices would lesson fatigue and frustration, and the speech output could be understood by hearing individuals. For people who are not familiar with ASL, this metaphor between articulation theory and developing intelligibility in ASL demonstrates the complexity of the language, and its equality among spoken languages.


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3

CHAPTER 3 Definition Of

Terms


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DEFINITION OF TERMS

Introduction In the field of Deafness, some words have different meanings to different people. For the sake of clarity, I will define ambiguous words that will be used in this text. Administrator The individual giving or scoring the inventory. ASL For the sake of brevity, the term “American Sign Language” (ASL) will assume inclusion of its tactile counter-part. This inventory was specifically designed to be assessable to deaf-blind individuals, both as test subjects and administrators. Braille and large print editions with tactile graphics are available. See Appendix I for special considerations for deaf-blind individuals. Prompt (noun) The visual or tactile description of a handshape to be copied by the subject. There are several different variations. This term encompasses them all. Subject The individual being assessed. TSL Tactile (American) Sign Language


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4

CHAPTER 4 REVIEW

OF LITERATURE


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REVIEW OF LITERATURE

A. Background

Sign Language and its characteristics There are hundreds of signed languages throughout the world. According to the Gallaudet University Library website’s list of world sign languages, there are:

114 sign languages derived from the Ethnologies database (www.ethnologue.com/, 11/8/01, "Browse the Web Version" link); 157 more sign languages, systems and dialects, and references, added by Thomas R. Harrington, Gallaudet University Library. Total, 271 identified sign languages, dialects, and other sign systems.

Many countries have developed their own signed language, although some are linguistic descendants of an educator who brought the signed language from an established school for the Deaf in another city or country. Most signed languages have component parts, just as a spoken language does. These are called morphemes, which are the smallest “chunks” of a language that can be strung together with others to form the larger language. In American Signed Language, these chunks consist of: • Handshapes

This is composed of the contours of each finger and joint. The “thumbs up” gesture is an example.

• Palm orientation

• Location

Typically on the body where the sign is made.

• Movement Each etiology will effect an individual’s movement in a different way. Some disabilities only effect handshapes, but not movement (many hand differences, for example), or vice versa (arthritis).

• Hand differences

This term refers to congenital differences of the structure of the hand. There are a number of different types of hand differences and resulting difficulty in handshape production. The following chart outlines the specifics:


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Anomaly Description Handshapes whose production is effected

Handshape groups which are made indistinguishable

Radial Ray anomaly (or dysplasia)

Effects the thumb. Results in a small, stiff or missing thumb.

A, Open A, F, G, Y, n, m, bent o, t, L-1, 3, bent 3, 5, bent 5

(A, open A, E), (B, Open B), (D, L, 1), (4, 5), (8, open 8), (V, 3)

Symbrachydactlly Results in missing fingers, and a small arm or shoulder.

Depends on specific fingers missing.

Depends on specific fingers missing.

Polydactyly Extra Fingers. Most likely will not affect sign intelligibility greatly. Check for production of I, W, Y, L-1, 1-L, and 4.

Most likely will not affect sign intelligibility greatly.

Cleft hand Missing middle finger. Creates a “slice” down the center of the hand.

K, M, N, Open N, R, U, V, W, 3, bent 3, 4, 5, 8, open 8

(B, 8), (3, 4), (K, 1, u, v, w), (g, h)

Ulner Ray anomaly Under-development of the hand.

All (may consider using other hand as dominant if the condition is unilateral).

All (may considering using other hand as dominant if the condition is unilateral).

Macrodactyly Results in a longer finger.



Construction Ring Syndrome

Causes bands to develop on the arms or hands. Results in amputation to webbed hands to visible rings.

Depends on specific anomaly.

Depends on specific anomaly.

Hypoplastic thumb Missing or underdeveloped thumb.

Open A, B, Open B, F, Open F, G, L, Open N, O, Baby O, Flattened O, T, Y, 3,

All (may consider using other hand as dominant if the condition is unilateral).


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Anomaly Description Handshapes whose production is effected

Handshape groups which are made indistinguishable

bent 3, bent 5, 8

B. Cerebral Palsy

Cerebral palsy is an umbrella term for a group of disabilities effecting movement. It results from injury during pregnancy, birth, or infancy.

Types There are four types of cerebral palsy.

§ Spasticity results in muscle spasms and clonus, involuntary muscle spasms due to muscle tightness.

§ Ataxia is uncoordinated muscle movements. § Athetoid/dyskinetic is a mixture of tight and loose muscles, which make it

difficult for the hand to follow an intentional trajectory and make sustained handshapes.

§ Hypotonic results in loose, limp muscles.

Impacts on ASL articulation Cerebral palsy can impact an individual in a few different ways.

§ Ataxia can add visual or tactile “white noise” to the movements of signing. Intelligibility is further reduced by the interruption of a message, which has the same receptive effect as stuttering (although the causes are very different).

§ Cerebral palsy can affect tactile sensitivity, limiting the deaf-blind communicator’s receptive ability.

§ The joints in the arm, wrist, and hand can have contractures, making them permanently tight and fixed. This has the potential to limit the space in which he or she can sign, the length of possible hand movements, or the ability to transition from handshapes such as Q, which require a bend in the wrist.

§ Thumb-in-palm is where the individual’s thumb(s) is permanently tucked into the hand. This limits the use of the thumb in handshapes and the other fingers’ ability to touch the palm.

§ Low muscle tone can make his or her signing appeared “slurred,” as precise handshapes and movements tend toward the neutral and indistinguishable.

C. Arthritis Cause

§ Arthritis is the pain, swelling, stiffness, and limited movement caused by inflammation of one or more joints due to the breakdown of cartilage. There are over 100 different types.


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§ Cartilage is important because it protects joints by absorbing shock. Without the usual amount of cartilage, the bones rub together, causing pain, swelling (inflammation), and stiffness. (Mark James Borigini: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmedhealth/PMH0002223)

Impacts on intelligibility § Arthritis impacts the flexibility of joints. This causes difficulty and/or pain when

producing a closed handshape, especially “A”, “S”, or “E. ” § It can cause swelling of the joint, putting it in a permanently fixed position. This

would limit the complete extension in the handshapes “3,” “4,” “5,” “W,” “R,” “B,” “D,” “F,” “I,” “L,” “P,” “U,” “V,” and “Y.”3

§ Arthritis might limit range of motion or cause pain when moving.

D. Intelligibility of signed language: How precise does ASL have to be? Not very. Some educators assume that if a handshape or sign is not made correctly or is missing, that this error will render the entire message incomprehensible. This is unfounded. Like any language, ASL native speakers can understand it with errors and omissions. Studies of ASL intelligibility show that with mobility or hand differences resulting in misarticulated or missing handshapes and movements, the signer will be intelligible if certain aspects of the message are in tact. Like any language, ASL is plastic and presented in different ways due to dialect and individual variation and fluent communicators are accustomed to understanding messages with variation. One study found that in the handshape “1,” only the index finger is related to intelligibility. In cases where the “1” handshape is used to point, only the position of the fingertip, and not the articulation of the finger or the position of any other fingers, is needed (Bayley, R., Lucas, C., Rose, M., 2002). Another study describes “weak drop,” which is where the non-dominant hand (the flattened hand in the sign “help”) can be dropped entirely and this will not significantly affect intelligibility. The study also explains that it’s the target position (where the hands “end up”) and not the movement “amplitude” that carries information. The same economy of effort that makes difficult speech easier by “cutting corners” is basically in ASL as well (Ann, 2002). A number of early studies on transmitting ASL over phone lines, the modern equivalent of videophones, looked at how much of a visual message can be omitted and still convey intelligible ASL. As with any language, ASL users can understand a message that has a high degree of missing components (Sperling, Landy, Cohen & Pave, 1985; 3 We will find out later, however, that precise flexion is more important to intelligible then full extension.


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Ciaramello F, Ko J & Hemami S, 2010). In fact, a signer can be understood as long as his or her image is transmitted in at least a 96 X 64 pixel line drawing (the equivalent of .06 of a megapixel)! To put this in perspective, this document is being typed on a laptop with 1280 X 800 pixel resolution screen. The same can be said of an ASL message with a fair amount of visual “white noise”(Pavel M., Sperling, G., Reidl T. & Vanderbeek, A., 1987). Although this was tested from the perspective of low quality video transmission, it illustrates that the visual “white noise” of added movements, such as a person with spasticity might exhibit, would not necessarily render the message incomprehensible.

1. Accepted variations of handshapes Just as with any language, the phonemes of ASL are plastic. They are produced with slight variations depending on local dialects, the individual signer and their contexts within words. This gives the administrator a small amount of flexibility when considering a movement or handshape “correct”. Take for example the “R” handshape. As long as the index and middle fingers are extended and crossed, the positions of the other fingers are of minimal importance. In fact, in various well-respected instructional materials and dictionaries the R handshape is illustrated differently! The Random House American Sign Language Dictionary shows the pinky and ring finger in a curved position, with the thumb opposing the ring finger. The Joy of Signing, by Lottie Riekehof, shows the pinky and ring fingers in a completely closed position with the thumb folded over both. The “Gallaudet True Text Fingerspelling Font” available online from Lifeprint here:

[http://www.lifeprint.com/asl101/pages-layout/gallaudettruetypefont.htm] shows the pinky bent all the way across the palm, the ring finger curved, and the pad of the thumb laid across the fingernail of the ring finger. In fact, as long as these three fingers are abducted (spread), many fluent ASL signers would find the handshape intelligible with the thumb, pinky and ring finger only slightly bent, completely closed, or occasionally even if they are extended. Another study shows that, as long as a joint is flexed, the degree to which it is flexed can vary from 45 to 55 degrees without linguistic impact (Ann, 2006). For this reason, each handshape prompt for “R” also shows accepted variances.

2. What factors affects intelligibility? - The context in which a handshape or sign is made. The receiver can understand a

part of the message in error if it can be understood in the context of the whole.


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- Familiarity. Liz Helpern, a deaf-blind tactile sign communicator, explained: “The only

‘problem’ I had over the decades [of signing with individuals with hand differences or cerebral palsy]…was similar to hearing parents of kids just learning to talk: it takes a while to get used to that person's signs and what they mean, then there's no problem at all.”

- Environmental factors. Examples are lighting, movement (for example, while being

driven on a bumpy dirt road), visual background clutter of the signer’s clothing, etc. 3. Types of errors

Omission The individual may leave out certain signs, handshapes, or movements either because he or she can’t produce the handshape or to make a sign or message easier to produce. Place The individual may make the correct handshape, but in the wrong place on the body. For example, by substituting “onion” for “key.” Substitution The individual may use one, well-mastered movement or handshape in place of one that is problematic. Number Verbs and nouns are often distinguished by the number of times the sign is articulated. For example, “chair” versus “sit down.” Errors like this may be a linguistic error or the result of a motor issue. Fluency A person with jerky, interrupted, paused, or repeated movements while signing is said to lack fluency.

E. Sign language handshapes and the anatomy of the hand and wrist

The vast majority of signed languages have a finite number of handshapes. The American Sign Language Handshape Dictionary was the source for the 40 handshapes described in this book. It is understood there is some disagreement.4

Similarity between handshapes of world sign languages

4 Note the difference between a language’s letters and its speech sounds in spoken English. “th” is one speech sound, and “j” as in “pleasure” is actually two sounds, a “blur” from “d” to “sh” sounds. In ASL, there are 40 handshapes, but only 26 letters.


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It is interesting to note the similar characteristics of the handshapes in world sign languages. Of course, some of the similarities are due to a sign language being brought to a new country or countries. The sign language may change linguistically to reflect the local language and culture but keep many of the handshapes. For example, the handshapes of Norwegian Sign Language are the exact same as those of English, with the exception of a slight variation of “T” (the “T” of German Sign Language) and the addition of letters not found in English. Some signed languages have handshapes very similar to that of ASL, except for very minor changes to many letters. For example, in Spanish Sign Language there are very small differences to “B, “F, “H,” “M,” “N,” “P,” “Q,” “S,” “T,” “V,” and “Y.” British Sign Language and the signed languages derived from it (Polish Sign Language, for example) have a very different, two-handed alphabet, but still use similar handshapes to ASL. Even though the number of handshapes in each signed language varies, they are pulled from a fairly small pool of possibilities. Even if the language developed in isolation, the author’s findings showed about 50 possibilities. Why is this? Take a hypothetical handshape; one where the ring finger is extended (held straight out), and the other fingers are closed in a tight fist. This handshape is not used (in a fully extended version) because it is anatomically impossible. The handshapes that are used but considered very difficult anatomically are developmentally the last to evolve (Cheek A., Cormier, K, Repp A & Meier, R, 2000) and are used infrequently, (such as the “K”) while handshapes such as the Open 5 are considered easy (Ann J. 2006). This is due to the anatomy and physiology of the hand and wrist. Each finger is not a group of separate bones attached by joints, but a complicated structure of bone, muscles, tendons, nerve, and skin that act on each other. Starting with the carpel bones (in your palm), notice that the first metacarpal of the thumb (the long, thin bone attaching the two bones of the thumb to the palm) is movable. If you hold it between the thumb and fingers of your other hand and press down, you can feel its movement. If you try the same movement with the pinky and ring finger, first rotating your palm toward the floor and pushing the bones downward at the knuckle, you will notice that they are slightly movable. Last, if you try to move the index and middle fingers, you will find that they are fixed. Ann points out that, counter-intuitively, a bone fixed at one end will have more flexibility, because it has a solid base to work from. Thus, our index and middle fingers have more dexterity and strength than our ring finger and pinky.


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Another anatomical fact is that the thumb, index and pinky fingers each have their own extensors (the muscle that pulls the finger straight) while the middle and index fingers share one, making them very dependant on each other. The juncture tendon that extends across the back of the hand in a sense connects the fingers, in a sense. Even though they can act somewhat independently, the action of one finger will effect others. If you place your palm down firmly on a hard surface (with your arm parallel to the floor) such that your thumb and index, ring and pinky are extended, and your middle finger is curled under, you will not be able to lift up your ring finger as you can your others. These anatomical features have two implications: 1. The difficulty of a handshape is determined by the anatomy, physiology, and

pathology of the hand. It is not by linguistic factors (Herman R.), or even the extent that each is iconic (Cheek).

2. There is a developmental order in which handshapes are expected to develop and

should be taught. The same is true in English and all other spoken languages.5

A few studies examine this idea. Although they agree on the concept, each has its own numbers of groupings and anatomical features taken into account (Anderson, D & Reilly, J. 2002; Bonvillian, J. & Seidlecki, T, 2000; Herman, R.; Ann, 2006; Obrian, N 1985). A meta-analysis suggests teaching handshape development in the following order, which is based on both developmental age of expected development and difficulty:

Order of difficulty of typical and developmental6 handshapes in ASL

1. 5 24. H

2. A 25. T

3. 1 26. M

4. S 27. E

5. FLATTENED 0 28. N

6. BENT 5 29. P

5 Earlier, in the sections on cerebral palsy and arthritis we will discussed the development of hand and arm movement.

6 This term is used to describe shapes of the hand that are early approximations of handshapes, but are not in the lexicon of ASL.


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7. BABY 0 30. R

8. O 31. K

9. C 32. 7

10. B 33. X

11. F 34. 6

12. L, 35. H

13. OPEN C 36. T

14. G 37. M

15. 4 38. E

16. 1-L 39. N

17. I 40. P

18. Y 41. R

19. D 42. K

20. 3 43. 7

21. V 44. X

22. OPEN A 45. 6

23. W


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5

CHAPTER 5 Administration

of the

Inventory


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ADMINISTRATION OF THE INVENTORY

A. Who can administer the inventory? This assessment was created specifically for use by an individual who is very familiar with American Sign Language linguistics and who has studied this guide. The administrant can be hearing, deaf or deaf-blind, and does not need a teaching degree. This individual needs a working knowledge of language development and be familiar with, or be able to consult with, an occupational therapist or other individual familiar with the movements of the hand and wrists. The administrant should also be familiar with the test subject in order to understand the subject’s mobility and positioning needs. 1. How do I prepare for administering the inventory? The inventory should only reflect the subject’s ability to make the handshapes and movements. It is not intended to reflect his or her ability to attend, perceive the instructions, or reposition their own trunk to stabilize their hand or arm movements. It’s important to first learn the test subject’s best body position for the inventory. For example, some individuals with cerebral palsy have more control over their arms if their trunk is supported. Also consider non-traditional positioning for the inventory, including a stander, side-lyer, etc. Make sure that he or she has access to any prescribed device/technology that will help in understanding the task or will physically support the body, such as braces, glasses, and hearing aids. In addition, the administrant needs to collect information on other environmental factors that can impact the test subject’s ability to attend or move. Factors may include time of day, proximity to a meal, lighting, medications, or environmental noise. Any interpreter or assistant who would affect the individual’s ability to attend or understand the instructions should remain present. Keep in mind that this person cannot assist the subject in making the handshapes. Also consider not having an individual in the room that might distract the test subject.

2. How do I administer the inventory? Begin by taking into account the factors listed above.

- In the case of a test subject with hand differences whose mobility or range of motion is not affected (for example, webbed hands). Only administer the section marked “handshapes”. The other sections relate to movement and range of motion, and don’t need to be given.


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You may use a still camera. Set up a plain background in a color that contrasts that of the test subject’s skin tone. This can be a wall, tablecloth, sheet etc. Prompt each handshape (see below for instructions) and have a third individual take sharp close-ups of each, from different angles if necessary, while the subject holds the handshape in place.

- In the case of a test subject whose movement is effected, has spasticity, or

who can’t hold a handshape for more then a few seconds. All four parts on the inventory should be given. A video camera should be used to capture fleeting handshapes. Set up a video camera to document the subject’s response to prompts. Both the test subject and the administrant should be visible The camera should be close enough to document each handshape but far enough to capture information about range of motion, and if pertinent, any compensatory gross motor movements, such as having to go into an extensor position before bringing the hands to midline.

B. Administration Begin by explaining that you will show handshapes, and the individual is to simply copy them. This can be modeled with another person, if necessary. Any language or communication method familiar with the individual should be used. Since the linguistic or communicative development of the subject is not being assessed, the inventory will not be invalidated by needful repeated explanation and/or prompts of instructions as long as the actual production of handshapes is unassisted.

When the administrant is sure the individual understands the task, begin the inventory. Communicate each handshape on the inventory form to the student. Prompts can take a few forms. Remember that the type of prompt will not affect the subject’s ability to reproduce it, assuming that he or she understands the task. Present in order the enclosed visual (or tactile) prompts, which feature pictures and descriptions of each handshape. This can be done with or without an explanation and the handshapes can be modeled by the administrator and then copied.


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Except in the case of a deaf-blind administrator, allow the video or still camera to capture the response in a neutral manner without the administrator indicating correct or incorrect responses. Doing so might skew the results. If needed, prompt the subject to “copy me” or “now you.” After each response, show comprehension by communicating a neutral “nice work,” or “I got that one.” This inventory doesn’t have to be done in one sitting. It’s important to give breaks if the subjects becomes tired or looses attention. C. Scoring the inventory Review each photograph or movie file. For the best accuracy, this should be done as a team or separately as individuals. Using the chart on the first page of the test booklet, determine if each handshape or movement is: - Correct Defined as falling within the rage of accepted variances of the handshape or

movement. Mark the first column with an X. - Incorrect Defined in the handshape section as either intelligible but with errors, unintelligible

because it is formed in the same way as another handshape, or as unintelligible. Distinguish between the three by writing the following notation in the second column. If this distinction isn’t needed, simply mark the box with an X.

I Intelligible but with errors.

S

Unintelligible because it may or may not be similar to the prompt, but is formed in the same way another handshape and the two can be confused (i.e. another handshape is substituted for it).

U Unintelligible because of overall lack of articulation or absence of anatomical structure(s) which is(are) critical to its formation.


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In the case of a movement or position, Incorrect can be defined as the complete inability to move in that direction or the inability to do so without exhaustive effort, repositioning of the body, or assistance from another body part.

- Substituted If a substitution for an easier handshape is given, write the handshape making the

substitution here. - Partial Defined as a movement that is present, but not to the extent needed for clear

communication.

Tally the number of responses in each column, and write the sum in the appropriate box. Copy this information into the chart on the first page of the test booklet.


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6 In

CHAPTER 6

Interpreting the

Results


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INTERPRETING THE RESULTS

Using the results to establish a baseline § Before beginning any remediation, it’s important to establish a

baseline. This will not only be used to track progress later, but will show the team exactly what to focus on.

§ After giving the assessment, look at the overall picture of the student’s articulation. The following chart is optional, but will assist you in finding trends.

§ Highlight all of the rows corresponding to handshapes that the subject made incorrectly.

§ In order to generate the results, we will need to find the percentage of bold formatted boxes that are also highlighted. In the “total” row on the last page, divide the highlighted bold formatted boxes by the total number of bold formatted boxes. This is the “total.” The cells in bold represent characteristics of that handshape and fingers that are most vital to its articulation.

§ In the “difficulty” column, write the sum of all highlighted numbers. Also note the sum of non-highlighted numbers.

§ Looking at the totals, you will be able to see if any finger or type of articulation stands out.

§ After consulting with a physical or occupational therapist, you can use this information to either decide how intelligible the sign is, if the errors are “correctable” with remediation, and what to work on for articulation development.

§ Keep in mind the data from the test form on whether errors make the sign indistinguishable from another.

§ This is also an indication of whether ASL is a good choice for the individual.


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Thumb

Index

Middle

Ring

Pinky

Difficulty

Bent

Curved

Opposed

Closed

Open

A 1

Open A

B 2

Open B

Bent B

C 3

D

E 5

F 5

Open F

G 1

H 4

I

K 4

L 3


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Thumb

Index

Middle

Ring

Pinky

Difficulty

Bent

Curved

Opposed

Closed

Open

M 5

N 5

O 3

Baby O 3

Flattened O 1

R 5

S 1

T 4

U 4

V 4

Bent V 5

W 5

X 4

Y 4

L-I 5


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1-I 5

1 2

3 4

Bent 3 5

4 3

5 1

Bent 5 1

Total

Are there any trends in the student’s articulation? - Does the student’s ability follow the typical developmental order of

handshape and movement development? - Are there fingers or joints whose lack of dexterity seem to have a large

impact? - Is overall intelligibility an issue, or is the problem mostly with one or two

features?


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8

Appendices


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APPENDICES

Appendix I A. An Overview of Tactile American Sign Language and its use in

this inventory

1. Introduction American Tactile Sign Language (TSL) is very similar to American Sign Language (ASL) but is linguistically complete on its own. Although many aspects of ASL stay the same when presented tactually, some parts of the language’s grammar need to be changed when signs are received manually. Examples include: § Information needs to be added about the environment that a deaf-

blind individual should be aware of, such as who is present. § Information about how a message is perceived, called

backchanneling, is signed differently. An example of backchanneling in spoken English would be, “I see.” or, “No WAY! ”

§ Some signs have to be altered slightly so that the receiver can keep his or her hands on the communicator’s hands without struggling or reaching; For Example, signs that are made on the body where the receiver would otherwise have to bend forward to “follow” them.

§ Adverbs which are typically conveyed through facial expressions in ASL must be encoded manually in TSL.

2. The continuum Although there are distinctions between ASL and TSL, there is also a continuum between ASL and TSL, just as there is a continuum between Signed Exact English and American Sign Language. A deaf student who is losing his vision is more likely to progress through all of the steps. Another might stay at an intermittent step in the continuum if he retains some functional vision. The following list describes modes of


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communication from ASL to TSL for an individual with Ushers Syndrome. § ASL is signed in its typical form, but the signer wears a contrasting

colored shirt and ensures good lighting so the message is intelligible to the Deaf-blind receiver.

§ ASL is signed, but in a smaller area than is typical. The distance from the communicator to the receiver is modified to account for both the field loss ("tunnel vision") and the acuity loss (similar to an out-of-focus projector). Some grammar aspects of TSL might be adopted, such as letting the receiver know who is present.

§ ASL is signed with some of the grammar aspects of TSL. The receiver puts his hands on the wrists or hands of the communicator to aid the Deaf-blind person in tracking the signs across space, and to keep the hands in his visual field.

§ TSL is signed into the receiver's hands.

3. Grammar differences between ASL and TSL - In ASL, facial expressions typically mark the difference between

questions and statements7. In TSL, this difference must be signed explicitly so that questions and statements are not confused. At the end of a sentence, deaf-blind individuals use the sign for “question” to mark an utterance as a question8.

For example, you might sign “SICK YOU QUESTION?” to say “Are you sick?"

- Negative operators must also be encoded negatively; words like “not”. In ASL, the phrase “…don’t understand” is said with the word “understand” along with a negative facial expression. In TSL,

7 Grossman, 23 8 Petronio 61


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the word “no” is substituted for the facial expression9. For example, the sentence “I didn’t find it” which in ASL would look like “Find-it

I” with a negative facial expression, would look like “Find-it I no

no no” in TSL. B. How do I use my hands while communicating in TSL? There are two basic positions when using TSL: the monologue position, and the dialogue position10. 1. The monologue position § This position is used when one person talks to another for an extended

time. This is also used when the deaf-blind individual is with an interpreter.

§ Two people sit opposite each other, one with his hands resting on the others. Both hands are used if the two are seated or standing opposite each other, such as when the deaf-blind individual is chatting in the hallway.

§ If the two are seated beside each other, the receiver only uses the one hand that is closer to the communicator. This is the most common position among skilled TSL users.11

§ It is important to use both hands or to check for comprehension with deaf-blind individuals who are developing communication skills.

2. The dialogue position § This position is used when two people are having a conversation. It also supports a

give and take type of conversation, rather than simply a receptive one. § Two people sit across from each other. Each has his right hand under the others left.

9 Petronio, 83 10 Mesch, 42 11 5 Petrono, 60


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§ In this position, the dominant hand of each person (typically the right hand) is under the passive hand of the other person (typically the left). This allows both people to sign and to also take turns rapidly.

3. “Levels” in TSL12

§ When using TSL, the differences in the vertical and horizontal planes between the two people are used to help determine whose turn it is to speak.

§ The expresser may signal that he is ready for his turn to be over by lowering his hand slightly, or he is not ready to finish his turn, but needs time to think, by hesitating with his hands at the same level as when he was signing.

§ There are also other positions used to indicate whose turn it is to speak. In these illustrations, the communicator is on the left. 1) At Rest: Both hands are lowered when two people are both paused in a

conversation, such as when both are thinking. 2) Hesitation level: When a communicator is thinking about what to say, he

holds his hands higher, near to his body and keeps them still. This signals that he is thinking, and not finished with his utterance.

3) Turn level: The communicator beings the receiver's hands towards his body, indicating a desire to have a turn.

4) Turn change level: The speaker signals that his utterance is done by putting both hands in a neutral position. In this position either person can speak

4. The environment in TSL

§ The sighted person should give relevant information to the deaf-blind communicator about his or her environment. Although this information may not be part of the linguistic message conveyed, it is important for the deaf-blind individual to be aware of.

§ For example, sign “hahaha” if the deaf-blind communicator’s words were considered funny by either the receiver, those around him or her, or the audience in the case of a presentation. It is important for the speaker to know how his words are perceived.

12 6 Mesche, 82


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§ The receiver can disagree with the speaker by making the sign for “no.” The sign in this case is made by the receiver gently _________ on the back of the communicator’s hand with two fingers.

§ Notice the difference between “hahaha” and “no.” They look similar but mean

almost the opposite. In the sign for “hahaha,” the thumb is tucked down. In the

sign for “no,” it is out. § To indicate that you didn’t understand or you want something repeated, the

receiver should gently pull the communicator’s hands toward their own.13 Signing can continue just as it would if people were speaking over each other or facial expressions were being made while someone was talking.

§ You don’t have to continue signing the same environmental information if it continues. But if it changes, for example, a person goes from smiling to frowning, that information should be conveyed.14

§ It's also important to give other information about the environment, such as who is present, just as you would as a sighted guide. One researcher suggests developing a code with the person to signal these things with a series of taps15. The hearing receiver might give one tap for a person entering the environment and two for a person leaving. Of course, this information would only be given if that person is relevant to the deaf-blind individual.

§ In ASL, pronouns are typically made with a point of the index finger. Since directionality isn’t as concrete in TSL as in ASL, it is important to give the speaker’s name, and avoid the pronoun.16

5. Backchanneling

§ Backchanneling refers to a giving of information about the listener’s response to the speaker so that the speaker is aware of the listener's response. In spoken English, this could refer to facial expressions, such as a look of surprise, or phrases such as “Oh no!” In ASL, this is also the case.

§ In TSL, facial expressions are not accessible. Even though the phrase “Oh, I

see” can be used, it requires the speaker to stop communicating, possibly

13 Morgan 14 Morgan 15 Frankel, 171 16 Morgan


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change positions, and to wait for the other communicator to sign. This causes stress on the smooth nature of the utterance17.

§ TSL has a few ways of effectively backchanneling. One is for the listener to gently tap the communicator’s hand to signal understanding, a movement similar to “Yes, I agree” that doesn’t require a break in the conversation.18

§ Another is for the communicator to slow the rate of his or her signs or to hold his or her hands still for a moment. This indicates that they want feedback. It basically means “Do you agree?”19 If two people are in dialogue position, this facilitates quick remarks like “yes” to show agreement.

Changes to signs in TSL

1. Changing signs for logistical purposes § Although most ASL signs stay the same when presented tactually, some have to

be altered. § There are some signs, such as “work,” that are made on the back of the hand.

If the receiver’s hands are on the back of the communicator’s, their hand would cover the area where the signer needs to “be” in order to properly make the sign. In this case, simply make the sign on the top of the receiver’s hand, as if their hand was part of your own.20

§ There are some signs that are made on the signer's body, such as the sign for “mine.” It would be logistically, and possibly personally awkward, to force the receivers arms to follow yours into your body space. Also, it would be tiring for the receiver to follow the communicator’s hands around a large area. When signing tactually the sign space is fairly small. If a sign is made close to the body the signer should lean forward slightly, or bend his head for signs made on your head so that the receiver has less of a distance to move when “following” your signs.21

2. Changing signs for clarity

§ Receiving signs tactually isn’t always an exact science. The receiver’s hands do not need to be aware of the entire sign made by the communicator. For

17 Frankel, 171 18 Mesch, 56 19 Mesch, 56 20 Mesch, 60; Frankel, 171 21 Mesch, 44


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example, the sign “island” is made with the “I” handshape, which might be missed entirely if the receiver does not have his or her hands in the exact right shape. On the other hand, a skilled tactile communicator will read signs mostly through movement and location rather than through handshapes alone.

§ Some authors have suggested fingerspelling signs that might be confused when received tactually. The word “gun” and “21” are very similar. In this case, you

might want to sign “21,” and finger-spell “gun.”22

3. Conclusion Deaf-Blind individuals experience the world very differently than hearing, sighted individuals. Is tactile sign language “harder” than spoken English? Although modifications have to be made for TSL, the language itself is not harder to learn than any other language and can convey the same depth and range of emotions as other languages. It is important to follow these guidelines, however, to keep the meanings from becoming ambiguous.

Appendix II Factors to take into account when considering ASL as a communication method

for individuals who experience significant disabilities There are many types of signed languages, including ASL and signed English. These can be presented either visually, or tactilely (signed into a person’s hands). Although some students who experience disabilities use sign language, it’s not the best choice for every student. These guidelines can help guide the educational team as they decide if or when to use signs with a student, and how to modify their use of it to best fit the needs of the student. 1. What are the pros of using ASL?

§ Because ASL is a visual language, it is more accessible to a student whose vision is much stronger than his or her hearing. Tactile ASL, which is signed into the listener’s hand, bypasses both the visual and auditory channels, making it Accessible to the person with less vision and hearing.

22 Morgan


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§ Some individual signs in ASL are more concrete than spoken language, because they are a natural gesture that represents either what the object looks like or how it is used.

§ ASL takes less fine motor control than speech does. § Some students find sign language more interesting or motivating than speech. § Signs can be adapted to fit the cognitive and mobility status of a student, as long

as the communication partner can distinguish between signs. In addition, a dictionary of signs should be kept, so that all communication partners are in agreement over what specific signs mean.

§ Even if students are not able to sign themselves, due to mobility or cognitive impairments, signs may be used as a receptive form of communication, and he or she can use another method of communication for expressive communication.

§ If the student has a learning disability that effects his or her ability to process or attend to auditory information, using ASL would bypass this, and might be a good option. On the other hand, if the student’s disability effects his or her processing of language, ASL might not be a better option.

2. What are the cons of ASL?

§ Some members of the student’s community will not understand signs. § If a student is not cognitively ready to use spoken language, he or she may not

find sign language more accessible. In this case, functional sign language, picture or object cues, or another form of communication might be an option.

§ Sign language requires a certain level of fine motor control. Keep in mind that expressive language needs to be understood by the communication partner. If teachers or parents find themselves guessing what a student means, then communication can become more about what the instructor thinks the student wants, and not about his or her actual choices or ideas.

3. What factors should be taken into account when choosing ASL or signed

English? § Is the student motivated by signing? § What is the student’s hearing loss? How accessible is speech to him or her? § Is the student cognitively ready for sign language? § Does the student have sufficient fine motor skills to produce signs? § Can the student attend to signs both visually (or tactually) as well as cognitively?


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§ What forms of communication is the student using now? Will sign language be added to this, or used as a stepping-stone to another form of communication?

§ Will using sign language help build the student’s communication, cognitive, and social skills?

§ If the student can understand signs, can he, or will he in the future, be able to sign back, or should another communication method be used for expressive communication? - Should another communication method, such as speech or object cues, be

used with signs? § Are the people in the student’s environment familiar with signing?

- How will he or she best communicate with the community at large? - Will the student need another form of communication for this?

§ If you use visual signs, what is the student’s vision status? - Does the student have a visual field loss (parts of his visual field where he is

not able to see)? - Should you be signing in a certain part of the student’s visual field? - Are there certain environmental changes that can make the student better

able to see your signs, like a certain background or color, changes in lighting, or distance from the student?

- Can the student visually “find” your hand quickly, or do you need to make sure that he or she is looking at you hands before signing?

- How long does this take? Should you be signing in a large or small area? § If you want to use tactile signs, does the student have good tactile sensitivity?

- Is the student tactilely defensive? § Does the student have a period of latency?

- How long after you are finished signing should you wait for the student to sign back?

§ What positioning would best allow the student full use of his or her body for signing? - This should include the face, neck, hands, arms and trunk.

§ What are the student’s communication needs? Should you be signing a few concrete signs, like “more”, “play”, and “eat” consistently and by themselves. Or should you be exposing the student to a large number of signing vocabulary and grammar?

§ How can you do comprehension checks to make sure the student is understanding and attending to your signs?


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Appendix III

Articulation Inventory

Name:

Date:

DOB:

Administrator:

School/ organization:

Student’s hand preference:

Assistive technology used:

Positioning:

Prompt used:

Results Number Correct Number

substituted or partial

Number Incorrect

Handshapes

Palm orientation

Location

Movement


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Handshapes

Handshape Correct Incorrect handshape substituted

A

Open A

B

Open B or Closed 5

Bent B or Bent Closed 5

C

D

E

F

Open F

G

H

I

K

L

Bent L

M


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N

O

Baby O or Closed X

Flattened O

R

S

T

U

V

Bent V

W

X

Y

L-I

1-I

1

3

Bent 3

4

5

Bent 5 or Claw 5

8

Open 8


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Total


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Palm Orientation

Orentat ion Correct partial Not present

Palm up

Palm down

Palm facing r ight

Palm facing left

Open 8

Total

Location

Location (Hand may be in any shape)

Correct (L or R)

Partial (L or R)

Not present

Hand on heart

Hand on side of head

Hand face

Hand on top of head

Hand on bel ly

Hand on chest

Hands together


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Total

Movement

Location (Hand may be in any shape) Correct (L or R)

Partial (L or R)

Not present

Hand from chest forward

Hand from chest sideward

Bring hands together

Raise hands

Lower hands

Rotate arm at elbow

Rotate hand at wrist

From an outstretched hand,

Touch chin

Make circle with palm in front of body

Move hand up and down


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Close and open hand

Total


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7

Works Cited


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Works Cited

Anderson, Diane & Reilly, Judy. 2002. The MacArthur Communicative Developmental Inventory: Normative Data for American Sign Language. Oxford University Press, Oxford England.

Baker, Stephanie A., Idsardi, William J.; Michnick Golinkoff, Roberta & Pettitto, Laura-Ann. 2005 The Perception of Handshapes in American Sign Language. Memory and Cognition. 33 (5) 887-904.

Bayley, Robbert; Lucas, Cell & Rose, Mary. 2002. Phonological Variation in American Sign Langauge: The case of 1 Handshape. Language Variation and Change. 02: 19-54.

Bonvillian, John D. & Seidleki, Theodore. 2000. Young Children’s Acquisition of the Formational Aspects of American Sign Language. Sign Language Studdies 1-45-64.

Cheek, Adrianna; Cormier, Kersy; Repp, Ann & Meier, Richard. 2001. Prelinguistic Gesture Predicts Mastery And Error In The Production of Early Signs.

Ciarmello, Frank; Ko, Jung & Hemami. 2010. Quality Versus Intelligibility: Evualtiong the Coding Trade-offs for American Sign Language Video. Information Science and Syatems. March.

Eliasson, Ann-Christin et al. 2006. The Manual Ability Classification Syatem (MACS) For Children with Cerebral Palsey and Evidence of Validity and Reliable. Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology. 48: 549-554.

Frankel, Mindy A., “Deaf-blind Interpreting: Interpreter’s Use of Negation in Tactile American Sign Language”. Sign Language Studies. 2:2 Winter 2002.

Frankel, Mindy A., “Deaf-blind Interpreting: Interpreter’s Use of Negation in Tactile American Sign Language”. Sign Language Studies. 2:2 Winter 2002.

Grossman, Ruth B. & Judy Kegl. “Moving Faces: Catagoratization of Dynamic Facial Expressions in American Sign Language by Deaf and Hearing Participants”. Nonverbal Behavior. 31:23 2007.

Grossman, Ruth B. & Judy Kegl. “Moving Faces: Categorization of Dynamic Facial Expressions in American Sign Language by Deaf and Hearing Participants”. Nonverbal Behavior. 31:23 2007.

Herman, Ros. Measuring Deaf Children’s Achievements in BSL. Department of Language and Communication Studies, City University, London.

Hirsh-Pasek, Kathy. What Second Generation Deaf Students Brong to the Reading Task; Another Case for Metilinguisctics and Reading. 1982.


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Hung, Ya-Ching; Charles, Jeanne & Gorden, Andrews. 2004. Bimanual Cordination during a Goal-directed Task in Children with Hemiplegic Cerebral Palsy. Developmental Medicine & Child Neurology. 16: 746-753.

Mesch, Johanna. Tactile Sign Language. Hamburg, Germany. Signum Press. 2001.

Mesch, Johanna. Tactile Sign Language. Hamburg, Germany. Signum Press. 2001.

Morgan, Susie. Sign Language with People who are Deaf-Blind: Suggestions for Tactile and Visual Modifications. WWW.deafblind.com/slmorgan.html. Accessed Nov 7, 2007

Morgan, Susie. Sign Language with People who are Deaf-Blind: Suggestions for Tactile and Visual Modifications. WWW.deafblind.com/slmorgan.html. Accessed Nov 7, 2007

O’Brain, Nancy. Status Report on Speech Research. Reported to the US Deaprtment of Commerse 1986.

Pavel, M.; Sperling, George; Riedl, Thomas & Vanderbeek, August. 1987. Limits of Visual Communication: the Effects of Signal-to-noise Radio on the intelligibility of American Sign Language. Journal of the Optical Society of America. December 2355-2365

Petronio, Karen & Valrie Dively, “Yes, #no, Visibility, and Variation in ASL and Tactile ASL”. Sign Language Studies. 7:1 Fall 2006.

Petronio, Karen & Valrie Dively, “Yes, #no, Visibility, and Variation in ASL and Tactile ASL”. Sign Language Studies. 7:1 Fall 2006.

Proctor, Claude O. 2000. Signing in Fourteen Languages. Black Dog & Leventhal Publishers, Inc., New York, New York.

Sperling, George; Landy, Michael; Cohen, Yoav & Pavel, M. 1985. Intelligable Encoding of ASL Image Sequences at Extreamly Low Information Rates. Computer Vision, Graphics and Image Processing. 31, 335-391.

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