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Chapter 5
Understanding Performance
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Module 1: Basic Model of Performance
• Basic definitions– Performance: Actions or behaviors– Effectiveness: Evaluation of results of
performance– Productivity: Ratio of effectiveness (output) to
cost of achieving that level of effectiveness (input)
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Campbell’s Model of Job Performance
• 3 direct determinants of job performance
– Declarative knowledge (DK)
– Procedural knowledge & skill (PKS)
– Motivation (M)
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Campbell’s Determinants of Job Performance
Figure 5.1Campbell’s Determinantsof Job PerformanceSource: Based on Campbell,McCloy, Oppler, & Sager (1993).
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Campbell’s Model (cont'd)
• 8 basic performance components
– 3 are essential for every job• Core task proficiency• Demonstrated effort• Maintenance of personal discipline
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Full Campbell Model
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Figure 5.2The Full Campbell ModelSource: Based on Campbell,McCloy, Oppler, & Sager (1993).
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Criterion Deficiency & Contamination
• Ultimate (theoretical) criterion– Ideal measure of all relevant aspects of job
performance
• Actual criterion– Actual measure of job performance obtained
• Differences between ultimate criterion & actual criterion represent imperfections in measurement – contamination & deficiency
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Criterion Deficiency & Contamination (cont'd)
• Criterion deficiency– When actual criterion is missing information
that is part of behavior one is trying to measure
• Criterion contamination– When actual criterion includes information
unrelated to the behavior one is trying to measure
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Criterion Contamination, Deficiency, & Relevance
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Figure 5.3CriterionContamination,Deficiency, andRelevance
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Module 2: Extensions of the Basic Performance Model
Task performance (Doing
just what is expected) vs.
Contextual performance (Going beyond what is
expected)
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Task Performance
• Requirements vary from job to job
• Individual differences tied to abilities & knowledge
• Activities part of job description
• Common to most jobs• Individual differences
tied to personality• Activities not part of
job description• Supports organizational
environment
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Contextual Performance
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Contextual Performance – 5 aspects
– Persisting with enthusiasm & extra effort– Volunteering to carry out task activities not in
job description– Helping & cooperating with others– Following organizational rules & procedures– Endorsing, supporting, & defending
organizational objectives
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Contextual Performance (cont'd)
• Increasing importance in today’s workplace
– Global competition will require more effort from employees
– Teams are more common now– Downsizing requires adaptability & extra effort– Customer service increasingly important
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Organizational citizenship behavior (OCB)
– Altruism• Helpful behaviors directed toward individuals or
groups
– Generalized compliance• Helpful behaviors directed toward the broader
organization
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Types of Performance Measures
• Objective performance measures– Quantitative count of the results of work
• Judgmental measures– Evaluation of the effectiveness of an
individual’s work
• Personnel measures– Typically kept in personnel file (e.g., absences,
accidents, rate of advancement)
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Adaptive Performance
• Beneficial due to changing nature of work
– Changing technologies alter work tasks– Mergers, downsizing, & corporate restructuring– Globalization & working in different cultures
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Adaptive Performance:8 Dimensions
– Handling emergencies or crisis situations
– Handling work stress
– Solving problems creatively
– Dealing with uncertain work situations
– Learning work tasks, technologies, & procedures
– Demonstrating interpersonal adaptability
– Demonstrating cultural adaptability
– Demonstrating physically oriented adaptability
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Expert Performance
• Performance exhibited by those who have practiced for at least 10 years & have spent average of 4 hours/day in deliberate practice
• Deliberate practice– Individualized training
on tasks selected by a qualified teacher
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Constraints on Performance
• Counterproductive employee behaviors– Voluntary behavior violating significant
organizational norms & threatening organization, its members, or both
– Interpersonal deviance
– Organizational deviance
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Hierarchical Model of Deviance (Sackett & DeVore)
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Figure 5.5Sackett and DeVore’s Hierarchical Model of DevianceSource: Based on Sackett & Devore (2001).
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Common Counterproductive Behaviors
• Dishonesty– Employee theft or dishonest communications
• Absenteeism– Failure to report for or remain at work as
scheduled• Sabotage
– Acts that damage, disrupt, or subvert the organization’s operations
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Module 3: Job Analysis: Fundamental Properties & Practices
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• Job analysis– Process that determines “essence” of a
collection of tasks falling within scope of particular job title
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Uses of Job Analysis Information
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Job description
Criterion development
Workforce reduction
PromotionCompensation
Training
SelectionRecruiting
Performance assessment
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Brief History of Job Analysis
• 1922 – Viteles & job psychograph– Used in job analysis to display mental
requirements of a job
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Types of Job Analysis
Task-oriented job analysis– Begins with statement of actual tasks &
what is accomplished by those tasks
Worker-oriented job analysis– Focuses on attributes of the worker
necessary to accomplish tasks
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KSAOs
– Knowledge• Collection of discrete, related facts & information
about a particular domain
– Skill• Practiced act
– Ability• Stable capacity to engage in a specific behavior
– Other characteristics: interests, training, etc.
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Role of Job Analysis in Assessment
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Figure 5.8The Role of JobAnalysis in Assessment
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Potential distorting influences in JA
– Need of subject matter expert (SME) to conform to what others report
– Desire to make one’s job look more difficult
– Attempts to provide answers that SME thinks job analyst wants
– Carelessness
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How Job Analysis is Done
1. Observation
2. Interviews: Incumbent, Supervisor
3. Critical incidents & work diaries
4. Questionnaires/surveys
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Module 4: Job Analysis:Newer Developments
• Electronic performance monitoring– Can be cost effective
– Potential for providing detailed & accurate worklog
– e.g., “This call may be monitored for quality control purposes.”
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Cognitive Task Analysis
• Methods for decomposing job & task performance into discrete, measurable units with special emphasis on eliciting mental processes & knowledge content
• Think-aloud protocol– Approach that investigates thought processes of
experts who achieve high levels of performance
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Cognitive Task Analysis (cont'd)
• Time consuming & requires a good deal of expertise to do well
• Consider the following to determine whether cognitive task analysis may be worthwhile:– Persistent performance problems
– Costly errors or accidents
– Training difficult to transfer to job behavior
– Takes a long time to achieve high levels of performance
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Context of Work
• Conditions or characteristics of work that can change demands on the incumbent– Aspects of context
• Interpersonal relationships
• Physical work conditions
• Structural job characteristics
• Realistic job preview (RJP)
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New Addition to Job Analysis Instruments
• Personality-Related Position Requirements Form (PPRF)
– Devoted to identifying personality predictors of job performance
– Intended to supplement job analysis
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Summary of Job Analysis Process
1. The more information gathered from the greatest number of sources, the better the job analyst can understand the job
2. Most job analyses should include considerations of personality demands & work context
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Work Profiling System (WPS)
• PC-based job analysis instrument used to streamline job analysis process
– Reduce costs– Minimizes distractions to SMEs– Increases speed & accuracy of process
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Structure of WPS Questionnaires
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Figure 5.10Structure of the WPS QuestionnairesSource: Saville & HoldsworthLimited (2001).
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Occupational Information Network or O*NET
• Introduced by federal government to replace the Dictionary of Occupational Titles (D.O.T.)
• Electronic medium, so it can be updated instantaneously as changes occur
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O*NET Data Bases
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Figure 5.12Data Bases Forming the Foundation for O*NETSource: Mumford & Peterson (1999).
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Competency Modeling
• Identifies characteristics desired across all individuals & jobs within an organization
• Connects individuals with organizational viability & profitability
• Natural extension of job analysis logic, rather than a replacement
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Module 5: Job Evaluation, Comparable Worth, & the Law
• Job evaluation: Method for making internal pay decisions by comparing job titles to one another & determining their relative merit
– Compensable factors• Skills, responsibility, effort, & working conditions
• Equal Pay Act of 1963: requires “equal pay for equal work.”
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Comparable Worth
• Notion that people who are performing jobs of comparable worth to an organization should receive comparable pay
• In the end, comparable worth is concerned with the social value of fairness
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Job Analysis & Employment Litigation
• Competent job analysis does not guarantee validity, but absence of credible job analysis could be very damaging
• Growing gap between evolution of I-O psychology & Uniform Guidelines on Employee Selection Procedures (1978)
• SIOP Principles (2003) are more updated and consistent with current research
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Permissions
Slide 10: McGraw-Hill Education Digital Image Library, Royalty-Free/CORBIS, Source Image ID: CB017601, Filename: TAW2067.JPG
Slide 18: McGraw-Hill Education Digital Image Library, PhotoLink/Getty Images, Source Image ID: SP000868, Filename: 10036.JPG
Slide 22: McGraw-Hill Education Digital Image Library, Filename: 7055.JPG Slide 24: Figure 5.7 from Viteles, M. S. (1932). Industrial psychology, p. 153. New York: W. W. Norton. Copyright 1932
by W. W. Norton & Company, Inc. Used by permission of W. W. Norton & Company Inc.Slide 30: McGraw-Hill Education Digital Image Library, Siede Preis/Getty Images, Source Image ID: AA023088,
Filename: OS48036.JPG Slide 35: Figure 5.9 from Guion, R. M. (1998). Assessment, measurement, and prediction, pp. 81-82, 83. Mahwah, NJ:
Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Reprinted by permission of Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.Slide 38: Figure 10 from Saville Holdsworth Limited (2001). The Work Profiling System (WPS) technical manual, pp. 29,
23. Boulder, CO: SHL. © 2001 SHL Group PLC. Used by permission of Saville Holdsworth Limited: www.shlgroup.com/home.asp
Slide 40: Figure 5.12 from Mumford, M. D., & Peterson, N. G. (1999). The O*NET content model: Structural considerations in describing jobs. In N. G. Peterson, M. D. Mumford, W. C. Borman, P. R. Jeanneret, & E. A. Fleishman (Eds.) (1999). An occupational information system for the 21st century, p. 25. Washington, D.C.: American Psychological Association. Copyright © 1999 by the American Psychological Association. Reprinted with permission.
Slide 44: McGraw-Hill Education Digital Image Library, C. Sherburne/PhotoLink/Getty Images, Source Image ID: SO000477, Filename: 25057.JPG
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