1 the case for using a three tiered model for reading intervention frank r. vellutino child research...
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The Case for Using a Three Tiered The Case for Using a Three Tiered Model for Reading InterventionModel for Reading Intervention
Frank R. VellutinoFrank R. Vellutino
Child Research and Study CenterChild Research and Study Center
University at Albany-SUNYUniversity at Albany-SUNY
22
AcknowledgementsAcknowledgements
The studies conducted by Vellutino, The studies conducted by Vellutino,
Scanlon, and their associates were Scanlon, and their associates were
supported by grants funded through the supported by grants funded through the
National Institute of Child Health and National Institute of Child Health and
Human Development, the U.S. Human Development, the U.S.
Department of Education, and the National Department of Education, and the National
Science Foundation. Science Foundation.
33
Definition of Responsiveness to Definition of Responsiveness to Intervention (RTI)Intervention (RTI)
RTI is a new approach to determining whether RTI is a new approach to determining whether students should be classified as learning disabled. It students should be classified as learning disabled. It involves: involves:
Identifying students who are not meeting grade Identifying students who are not meeting grade level expectations.level expectations.
Providing remedial services that are intensified Providing remedial services that are intensified over several tiers of intervention.over several tiers of intervention.
Assessing students’ gains in the targeted Assessing students’ gains in the targeted academic area to determine whether they have academic area to determine whether they have accelerated their progress sufficiently to meet accelerated their progress sufficiently to meet grade level expectations. grade level expectations.
The RTI approach to identification of learning The RTI approach to identification of learning disability status is being offered as an alternative to disability status is being offered as an alternative to traditional psychometric approaches to classification traditional psychometric approaches to classification having the IQ-achievement discrepancy as the having the IQ-achievement discrepancy as the central defining criterion.central defining criterion.
44
The Three Tiered Model of The Three Tiered Model of Intervention Intervention
Three sequentially ordered intervention strategies:Three sequentially ordered intervention strategies: Tier 1—modification of classroom language arts instruction to Tier 1—modification of classroom language arts instruction to
assist children having learning difficulties.assist children having learning difficulties.
Tier 2—secondary (small group) instruction for children whose Tier 2—secondary (small group) instruction for children whose
learning difficulties are not resolved by modification in the learning difficulties are not resolved by modification in the
classroom program.classroom program.
Tier 3—more intensive and more individualized intervention Tier 3—more intensive and more individualized intervention
(smaller groups, more sessions, one-to-one) for children at (smaller groups, more sessions, one-to-one) for children at
continued risk, despite Tier 1 and Tier 2 interventions.continued risk, despite Tier 1 and Tier 2 interventions.
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How did RTI Emerge as a How did RTI Emerge as a New Approach to LD New Approach to LD
Classification?Classification? Over two decades of research undermining the Over two decades of research undermining the
use of the IQ-achievement discrepancy to define use of the IQ-achievement discrepancy to define learning disabilities.learning disabilities.
Well over a decade of intervention research Well over a decade of intervention research documenting the utility of using an RTI approach documenting the utility of using an RTI approach to identifying learning disabilities in lieu of the to identifying learning disabilities in lieu of the IQ-achievement discrepancy.IQ-achievement discrepancy.
IDEIA-2004.IDEIA-2004.
66
Why do some children have difficulty Why do some children have difficulty learning to read ?learning to read ?
Two Broad PossibilitiesTwo Broad Possibilities
Basic deficits in reading related cognitive Basic deficits in reading related cognitive
abilities.abilities.
Experiential / Instructional deficitsExperiential / Instructional deficits..
The failure to make this distinction leads The failure to make this distinction leads
to a wide spread problem: Misdiagnosing to a wide spread problem: Misdiagnosing
Children as “Disabled Readers.”Children as “Disabled Readers.”
77
Psychometric ApproachPsychometric Approach
Definition by ExclusionDefinition by Exclusion IQ-Achievement discrepancy.IQ-Achievement discrepancy.
Sensory, physical, and emotional deficits, frequent Sensory, physical, and emotional deficits, frequent
absences from school, and socioeconomic disadvantage absences from school, and socioeconomic disadvantage
used as exclusionary criteria. used as exclusionary criteria.
““Neuropsychological” tests of reading-related cognitive Neuropsychological” tests of reading-related cognitive
abilities.abilities.
Estimates of incidence of reading disability range Estimates of incidence of reading disability range
from 10% to 20% using the above criteria.from 10% to 20% using the above criteria.
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The Psychometric Exclusionary The Psychometric Exclusionary Definition of Reading Disability: A Definition of Reading Disability: A
Brief HistoryBrief History
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Kirk and Bateman (1962, 1963): Kirk and Bateman (1962, 1963): Learning disabilities are caused by Learning disabilities are caused by
neurodevelopmental disorders affecting neurodevelopmental disorders affecting
academic learning in otherwise normal academic learning in otherwise normal
children.children. Specific learning disabilities are different Specific learning disabilities are different
from general learning difficulties caused from general learning difficulties caused
by low IQ, sensory, physical, or by low IQ, sensory, physical, or
emotional deficits, or socioeconomic emotional deficits, or socioeconomic
disadvantage. disadvantage.
1010
Rutter and Yule (1975)—Isle of Wight StudyRutter and Yule (1975)—Isle of Wight Study Large Scale epidemiological study of reading Large Scale epidemiological study of reading
difficulties in U.K.difficulties in U.K. Percentage of children whose reading scores were Percentage of children whose reading scores were
significantly below those predicted by their ages and IQs was significantly below those predicted by their ages and IQs was
greater than expected (more than the 2.3% anticipated by a greater than expected (more than the 2.3% anticipated by a
normal curve model).normal curve model).
Rutter & Yule distinguished between “Specific Reading Rutter & Yule distinguished between “Specific Reading
Retardation” and “General Reading Backwardness” Retardation” and “General Reading Backwardness”
due to low intelligence.due to low intelligence.
1111
Rutter and Yule’s (1975) Isle of Wight Rutter and Yule’s (1975) Isle of Wight
Study and Kirk and Bateman’s work Study and Kirk and Bateman’s work
became the basis for Public Law 94-142, became the basis for Public Law 94-142,
which mandated that learning disabilities which mandated that learning disabilities
be defined as achievement deficits in be defined as achievement deficits in
otherwise normal children who have at otherwise normal children who have at
least average intelligence.least average intelligence. P.L.- 94-142 led to the widespread use of P.L.- 94-142 led to the widespread use of
psychometric exclusionary definitions of psychometric exclusionary definitions of
LD having the IQ-achievement discrepancy LD having the IQ-achievement discrepancy
as its central defining criterion. as its central defining criterion.
1212
Contraindications to IQ-Achievement Contraindications to IQ-Achievement Discrepancy Definitions of Reading Discrepancy Definitions of Reading
DisabilityDisability
1313
Several large scale studies have shown that:Several large scale studies have shown that:
IQ does not predict reading achievement with a IQ does not predict reading achievement with a
high degree of accuracy (Malmquist, 1960).high degree of accuracy (Malmquist, 1960). Many IQ tests include items that depend on language Many IQ tests include items that depend on language
and/or reading ability (e.g. vocabulary, general and/or reading ability (e.g. vocabulary, general
knowledge; Bond & Fay, 1950; Durrell, 1933).knowledge; Bond & Fay, 1950; Durrell, 1933).
Non-verbal IQ tests predict reading achievement Non-verbal IQ tests predict reading achievement
with very low accuracy (Vellutino et al, 1994; 1996; with very low accuracy (Vellutino et al, 1994; 1996;
2000). 2000).
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Rutter and Yule’s findings were not replicated Rutter and Yule’s findings were not replicated
in later research; their results were found to be in later research; their results were found to be
due to measurement problems on the reading due to measurement problems on the reading
tests they used (Rodgers, 1983; Share et al., tests they used (Rodgers, 1983; Share et al.,
1987).1987).
Other studies found that:Other studies found that: IQ-achievement discrepant poor readers were no IQ-achievement discrepant poor readers were no
different than non-discrepant poor readers on different than non-discrepant poor readers on
measures of reading-related cognitive abilities measures of reading-related cognitive abilities
(Fletcher et al., 1994; Stanovich and Siegel, 1994). (Fletcher et al., 1994; Stanovich and Siegel, 1994).
Also, that some good readers have IQ-achievement Also, that some good readers have IQ-achievement
discrepancies.discrepancies.
Therefore the IQ-achievement discrepancy is Therefore the IQ-achievement discrepancy is
not a very precise measure of reading not a very precise measure of reading
disability.disability.
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Two important questions emerged from Two important questions emerged from
these findings:these findings: To what degree can IQ set upper limits on To what degree can IQ set upper limits on
and/or predict ability to learn to read? and/or predict ability to learn to read?
To what degree can IQ scores predict To what degree can IQ scores predict
response to remediation in struggling response to remediation in struggling
readers?readers?
1616
Can low IQ children learn to Can low IQ children learn to read? read?
Siegel (1988) compared reading disabled Siegel (1988) compared reading disabled
(n=250) and non-reading disabled children (n=250) and non-reading disabled children
(n=719) on language and literacy skills (ages 7 (n=719) on language and literacy skills (ages 7
to 16) and stratified these children into four IQ to 16) and stratified these children into four IQ
subgroups: IQ< 80; 80 to 90; 91 to 109; >110. subgroups: IQ< 80; 80 to 90; 91 to 109; >110.
the non-disabled readers fell into the same IQ the non-disabled readers fell into the same IQ
ranges as the disabled readers.ranges as the disabled readers.
within each of the IQ ranges, the disabled within each of the IQ ranges, the disabled
readers performed below the non-disabled readers performed below the non-disabled
readers on language-based measures (e.g. readers on language-based measures (e.g.
phoneme awareness, verbal memory, etc.).phoneme awareness, verbal memory, etc.).
1717
Share et al. (1989) stratified 3 year olds Share et al. (1989) stratified 3 year olds
into different IQ subgroups and tracked into different IQ subgroups and tracked
reading growth in these children until age reading growth in these children until age
13. 13. Siegel’s results were essentially replicated: Siegel’s results were essentially replicated:
disabled and non-disabled readers were found disabled and non-disabled readers were found
in each IQ subgroup.in each IQ subgroup.
IQ did not predict rate of growth in reading.IQ did not predict rate of growth in reading.
All of these studies provided evidence that All of these studies provided evidence that
measures of language and language-based measures of language and language-based
skills are better predictors of reading skills are better predictors of reading
ability than are IQ scores.ability than are IQ scores.
1818
Siegel (1989) and others have also pointed out Siegel (1989) and others have also pointed out
that:that: Most intelligence tests currently in use evaluate Most intelligence tests currently in use evaluate
acquired knowledge or cognitive abilities that can acquired knowledge or cognitive abilities that can
either be adversely affected by reading ability or either be adversely affected by reading ability or
adversely affect this ability. adversely affect this ability.
Children who suffer from long-standing reading Children who suffer from long-standing reading
difficulties eventually become below average difficulties eventually become below average
performers in areas such as vocabulary and syntactic performers in areas such as vocabulary and syntactic
knowledge, due to their limited ability to profit from knowledge, due to their limited ability to profit from
reading (Stanovich, 1986; Vellutino et al., 1995).reading (Stanovich, 1986; Vellutino et al., 1995).
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Problems with the Psychometric Problems with the Psychometric ApproachApproach
No control for pre-school experiences and instructionNo control for pre-school experiences and instruction Low diagnostic validity of most testsLow diagnostic validity of most tests Rely primarily on IQ-achievement discrepancyRely primarily on IQ-achievement discrepancy Too many children classified as “disabled readers” Too many children classified as “disabled readers”
(10%-20%)(10%-20%) Low expectations for achievementLow expectations for achievement No direction for instructionNo direction for instruction Little or no attention given to the quality and/or Little or no attention given to the quality and/or
characteristics of instructioncharacteristics of instruction
2020
Major ObjectivesMajor Objectives
To distinguish between biologically-based To distinguish between biologically-based
cognitive causes and experiential/instructional cognitive causes and experiential/instructional
causes of reading difficulties.causes of reading difficulties.
To compare responsiveness to intervention To compare responsiveness to intervention
(RTI) vs. psychometric approaches to (RTI) vs. psychometric approaches to
diagnosing reading disability.diagnosing reading disability.
To develop benchmarks for early identification To develop benchmarks for early identification
of children at-risk for reading difficulties.of children at-risk for reading difficulties.
First Grade Intervention StudyFirst Grade Intervention Study (Vellutino et al., 1996) (Vellutino et al., 1996)
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Major Components of the StudyMajor Components of the Study
Testing at the beginning of kindergarten to Testing at the beginning of kindergarten to
evaluate emergent literacy skills and reading-evaluate emergent literacy skills and reading-
related cognitive abilities (n = 1407).related cognitive abilities (n = 1407).
Periodic observation of language arts instruction Periodic observation of language arts instruction
in all kindergarten classrooms. in all kindergarten classrooms.
Selection of poor and normal readers in mid-first Selection of poor and normal readers in mid-first
grade, using psychometric and exclusionary grade, using psychometric and exclusionary
criteria like those used in public schools.criteria like those used in public schools.
2222
Major Components of the Study (Cont’)Major Components of the Study (Cont’)
Daily one-to-one tutoring for most of the poor readers Daily one-to-one tutoring for most of the poor readers
(n=76). school-based remediation provided for the rest of (n=76). school-based remediation provided for the rest of
them (n = 42).them (n = 42).
Tutoring was highly individualized and comprehensive.Tutoring was highly individualized and comprehensive.
Compared four groups of poor readers (VLG, LG. GG, VGG) Compared four groups of poor readers (VLG, LG. GG, VGG)
and two groups of normal readers (AvIQNorm, and two groups of normal readers (AvIQNorm,
AbAvIQNorm). AbAvIQNorm).
First and third grade cognitive testing for all target children. First and third grade cognitive testing for all target children.
Progress in acquiring major reading skills was systematically Progress in acquiring major reading skills was systematically
evaluated from kindergarten through the end of fourth evaluated from kindergarten through the end of fourth
grade.grade.
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Approach to Instruction: Interactive Approach to Instruction: Interactive
Strategies ( Vellutino & Scanlon, 2002)Strategies ( Vellutino & Scanlon, 2002)
Components of Daily Tutoring Components of Daily Tutoring
Re-reading texts for fluency Re-reading texts for fluency
Phonological skills Phonological skills
Reading new texts Reading new texts
Sight word practice Sight word practice
Writing Writing
Instruction designed to promote interactive use of text-Instruction designed to promote interactive use of text-
based and code-based strategies in text readingbased and code-based strategies in text reading
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Major FindingsMajor Findings
Struggling readers in first grade performed below Struggling readers in first grade performed below
average on kindergarten measures of emergent average on kindergarten measures of emergent
literacy skills.literacy skills.
The kindergarten language arts program was an The kindergarten language arts program was an
influential determinant of first grade reading influential determinant of first grade reading
achievement. achievement.
The majority of tutored children (67%) scored in The majority of tutored children (67%) scored in
the average range after 15 weeks of daily one-one the average range after 15 weeks of daily one-one
tutoring (50% for comparison group). tutoring (50% for comparison group).
Only 15.8% scored below 15th percentile (1.5% of the Only 15.8% scored below 15th percentile (1.5% of the
population) population)
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Figure 1. Growth Curves for Mean Raw Scores on the WRMT-R Word Identification Subtest for Normal and
Tutored Poor Readers0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55
VLG (n = 19)
LG (n = 15)
GG (n = 17)
VGG (n = 18)
AvIQNorm (n = 21)
AbAvIQNorm (n = 30)
Kindergarten Grade 1Winter
Grade 1Spring
Grade 2Fall
Grade 2Winter
Grade 2Spring
Grade 3Spring
Grade 4Spring
Time Intervals Between Tests in Months
Wo
rd Id
en
tifi
ca
tio
n R
aw
Sc
ore
s o
n W
RM
T-R
VLG = Very Limited Grow thLG = Limited Grow thGG = Good Grow thVGG = Very Good Grow thWRMT = Woodcock Reading Mastery Test Revised
2626
Figure 2. Growth Curves for Mean Raw Scores on the WRMT-R Word Attack
Subtest for Normal and Tutored Poor Readers
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55
Time Intervals Between Tests (Months)
Wo
rd A
tta
ck
Ra
w S
co
re o
n W
MR
T-R
VLG (n=19)
LG (n=15)
GG (n=17)
VGG (n=18)
AvIQNorm(n=21)
AbAVIQNorm (n=30)
Grade 1 Grade 1 Grade 2 Grade 2 Grade 2 Winter Spring Fall Winter Spring
Kindergarten Grade 3 Grade 4 Spring Spring
VLG = Very Limited Grow thLG = Limited Grow thGG = Good Grow thVGG = Very Good Grow thWRMT = Woodcock Reading Mastery Test Revised
2727
Major Findings (cont’)Major Findings (cont’)
IQ scores did not:IQ scores did not: reliably differentiate struggling and normal reliably differentiate struggling and normal
readers. readers.
predict response to intervention. predict response to intervention.
predict reading growth in normal readers.predict reading growth in normal readers.
Language-based measures, especially Language-based measures, especially phonological measures did:phonological measures did:
reliably differentiate struggling and normal reliably differentiate struggling and normal readers.readers.
reliably differentiate difficult to remediate reliably differentiate difficult to remediate and readily remediated tutored children.and readily remediated tutored children.
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Kindergarten and First Grade Kindergarten and First Grade Intervention Study Intervention Study
(Spring 1997-Spring 2002)(Spring 1997-Spring 2002)
Major ObjectivesMajor Objectives
Evaluate the utility of remedial intervention for Evaluate the utility of remedial intervention for
“at risk” kindergarteners.“at risk” kindergarteners.
Further evaluate the RTI approach to identifying Further evaluate the RTI approach to identifying
children at-risk for early and long-term reading children at-risk for early and long-term reading
difficulties. difficulties.
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At-Risk Children
Continued Risk
Intervention
(n=232)
Comparison
(n=230)
Kin
der
gar
ten
Fir
st g
rad
e
No-Longer
at-Risk
Normal
Readers
Not-at-Risk
Children
(n=898)
Th
ird
g
rad
e
Difficult to
Remediate
Less Difficult
to Remediate
No-Longer
at-Risk
First Grade
Intervention
Above
Average IQ
K-intervention
Average
IQ
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Kindergarten ScreeningN=1373Letter identification (initial screening)Letter identification (initial screening)Phonological awareness (rhyme and alliteration)Phonological awareness (rhyme and alliteration)RAN object namingRAN object namingNumber identificationNumber identificationCounting by 1’sCounting by 1’s
Kindergarten InterventionN= 462Intervention n= 232Intervention n= 232Small groups, 2-3 days, weekly, 30min sessionsSmall groups, 2-3 days, weekly, 30min sessions
Comparison n=230Comparison n=230Small group instruction in some but not all schoolsSmall group instruction in some but not all schools
Intervention and comparison groups were equivalent on all screening measures
30%
Phoneme Awareness
Letter ID
Letter-Sound Association
Alphabetic Principle
Print Awareness
Print Conventions
Whole Word Identification
Text Reading
Ran
do
miz
ed D
esig
n
3131
Third grade Cognitive MeasuresThird grade Cognitive Measures
Rapid Naming (letter and objects)Rapid Naming (letter and objects)
Confrontational Naming Confrontational Naming
Verbal MemoryVerbal Memory
VocabularyVocabulary
Language ComprehensionLanguage Comprehension
Verbal and Non-verbal IntelligenceVerbal and Non-verbal Intelligence
First Grade InterventionFirst Grade Intervention
One-to-one Daily TutoringOne-to-one Daily Tutoring
Interactive Strategies ApproachInteractive Strategies Approach
3333
Kindergarten InterventionKindergarten Intervention
Project Treatment group performed Project Treatment group performed
significantly better than School-Based significantly better than School-Based
Comparison group on almost all emergent Comparison group on almost all emergent
literacy measures at the end of literacy measures at the end of
kindergarten.kindergarten.
Effect sizes consistently larger in schools Effect sizes consistently larger in schools
that provided no supplemental remedial that provided no supplemental remedial
services in kindergarten.services in kindergarten.
3434
Figure 3. Effect sizes for intervention/comparison groups (end Figure 3. Effect sizes for intervention/comparison groups (end of Kindergarten, no school-based remediation)of Kindergarten, no school-based remediation)
3535
First Grade InterventionFirst Grade Intervention
First Grade RTI GroupsFirst Grade RTI Groups Children who received both kindergarten and first grade Children who received both kindergarten and first grade
intervention. intervention. Difficult to Remediate (DR): < SS 90 on WRMT-R Basic Skills Difficult to Remediate (DR): < SS 90 on WRMT-R Basic Skills
Cluster (BSC) at the end of third gradeCluster (BSC) at the end of third grade Less Difficult to Remediate (LDR): Less Difficult to Remediate (LDR): SS 90 on WRMT-R BSC at the SS 90 on WRMT-R BSC at the
end of third gradeend of third grade
Comparison GroupsComparison Groups Children who received only kindergarten intervention Children who received only kindergarten intervention
and were no longer at risk (NLAR).and were no longer at risk (NLAR). Normal reader controls (AvIQNorm, AbAvIQNorm).Normal reader controls (AvIQNorm, AbAvIQNorm).
3636
Performance on Achievement Performance on Achievement MeasuresMeasures
NLAR and LDR groups performed within the average range NLAR and LDR groups performed within the average range
and above the DR group on all literacy measures at the and above the DR group on all literacy measures at the
end of first, second and third grade (see handouts).end of first, second and third grade (see handouts).
LDR group performed at levels comparable to NLAR group LDR group performed at levels comparable to NLAR group
on all literacy measures at the end of first, second, and on all literacy measures at the end of first, second, and
third grade. third grade.
DR group performed within the average or low average DR group performed within the average or low average
ranges on all literacy measures at the end of first grade, ranges on all literacy measures at the end of first grade,
but fell below average on all measures over second and but fell below average on all measures over second and
third grade. third grade.
3838
84% of the at risk children became at least average level readers after 84% of the at risk children became at least average level readers after receiving only kindergarten intervention or both kindergarten and first grade receiving only kindergarten intervention or both kindergarten and first grade intervention. intervention.
Of those who became average level readers, 73% (72/98) received only Of those who became average level readers, 73% (72/98) received only kindergarten intervention.kindergarten intervention.
Growth in kindergarten literacy skills predicted continued risk status at the Growth in kindergarten literacy skills predicted continued risk status at the beginning of first grade with 90% accuracy and no-longer-at risk status with beginning of first grade with 90% accuracy and no-longer-at risk status with 87% accuracy.87% accuracy.
Adding a measure of change over the summer increased predictive accuracy Adding a measure of change over the summer increased predictive accuracy to 95% for continued risk status and 96% for no-longer-at-risk status. to 95% for continued risk status and 96% for no-longer-at-risk status.
3939
Results (contd’)Results (contd’)
IQ tests did not predict end of second and third IQ tests did not predict end of second and third
grade reading achievement following first grade grade reading achievement following first grade
intervention, but measures of growth in reading intervention, but measures of growth in reading
did do so.did do so.
IQ tests did not reliably differentiate continued risk, IQ tests did not reliably differentiate continued risk,
no-longer-at risk, and typical readers in first grade; no-longer-at risk, and typical readers in first grade;
verbal IQ did differentiate these groups in third verbal IQ did differentiate these groups in third
grade, but non-verbal IQ did not reliably do so.grade, but non-verbal IQ did not reliably do so.
The continued risk children generally performed The continued risk children generally performed
below the no-longer-at-risk and typical readers on below the no-longer-at-risk and typical readers on
measures of language-based skills. measures of language-based skills.
4040
A Comparison of Classroom (Tier 1) A Comparison of Classroom (Tier 1) Intervention Versus Small Group (Tier Intervention Versus Small Group (Tier
2) Intervention in Reducing the 2) Intervention in Reducing the Number of Children at Risk for Early Number of Children at Risk for Early
Reading DifficultiesReading Difficulties
Scanlon, Vellutino, Gelzheiser, Dunsmore, Scanlon, Vellutino, Gelzheiser, Dunsmore, Schatschneider, and others (study yet ongoing)Schatschneider, and others (study yet ongoing)
4141
Research QuestionsResearch Questions
Can Classroom (Tier 1) Intervention be Can Classroom (Tier 1) Intervention be
Effective in Preventing Early Reading Effective in Preventing Early Reading
Difficulties?Difficulties?
Can Professional Development Training Can Professional Development Training
Influence Teacher Effectiveness in Influence Teacher Effectiveness in
Preventing Early Reading Difficulties? Preventing Early Reading Difficulties?
4242
DesignDesign Participating schools (n = 14) were divided into three Participating schools (n = 14) were divided into three
matched groups on the basis of SES of the population matched groups on the basis of SES of the population served, risk status of entering kindergartners, and served, risk status of entering kindergartners, and performance on 4th grade measures of literacy skills in performance on 4th grade measures of literacy skills in participating schools.participating schools.
Each group of schools was randomly assigned to one of Each group of schools was randomly assigned to one of three treatment conditions:three treatment conditions: Intervention OnlyIntervention Only: At risk kindergartners and first graders received : At risk kindergartners and first graders received
remedial services provided by project teachers.remedial services provided by project teachers.
Professional Development OnlyProfessional Development Only: Summer workshop and in-school : Summer workshop and in-school coaching along with ongoing discussion groups were provided for coaching along with ongoing discussion groups were provided for kindergarten and first grade teachers. kindergarten and first grade teachers.
Both Intervention and Professional Development.Both Intervention and Professional Development.
4343
In each school, three cohorts of entering In each school, three cohorts of entering kindergartners (K-2002, K-2003, & K-2004) were kindergartners (K-2002, K-2003, & K-2004) were followed until they reached second or third grade. followed until they reached second or third grade. Each cohort of children was treated differently:Each cohort of children was treated differently: Baseline Cohort – (K-2002-2003; n=718) - Baseline Cohort – (K-2002-2003; n=718) - DData collection ata collection
onlyonly
Implementation Cohort (K-2003-2004; n=728) - Implementation Cohort (K-2003-2004; n=728) - During During Kindergarten and First Grade: Kindergarten and First Grade:
Professional Development Training (PD-Tier 1).Professional Development Training (PD-Tier 1).
Project Interventions (K-Tier 2; Grade 1-Tier 3). Project Interventions (K-Tier 2; Grade 1-Tier 3).
Both PD-Tier 1 and Project Interventions (K-Tier 2; Grade Both PD-Tier 1 and Project Interventions (K-Tier 2; Grade 1- Tier 3). 1- Tier 3).
Maintenance Cohort (K-2004-2005; n=743).Maintenance Cohort (K-2004-2005; n=743). Project-based support discontinued for all kindergarten Project-based support discontinued for all kindergarten
and first grade classroom teachers who received and first grade classroom teachers who received professional development training (PD and PD+ PI). professional development training (PD and PD+ PI).
Tier 2 and Tier 3 interventions continued for children in Tier 2 and Tier 3 interventions continued for children in both PI only and PD + PI conditions.both PI only and PD + PI conditions.
4444
TreatmentsTreatments Kindergarten Small Group InterventionKindergarten Small Group Intervention – as in previous – as in previous Small Small
Group-Tier 2 study discussed. Group-Tier 2 study discussed. First Grade One-to-One InterventionFirst Grade One-to-One Intervention – as in previous – as in previous Tier 3 study Tier 3 study
discussed.discussed. Professional Development for Teachers: Professional Development for Teachers:
Summer workshops provided by project staff-(Kindergarten-3 days; First grade-4 Summer workshops provided by project staff-(Kindergarten-3 days; First grade-4 days).days).
Interactive Strategies Approach was presented and discussed; heavy emphasis Interactive Strategies Approach was presented and discussed; heavy emphasis was also placed on the development of: was also placed on the development of:
Oral language skillsOral language skills Comprehension strategiesComprehension strategies
Ongoing support from project staff for implementation: Ongoing support from project staff for implementation: Monthly after school meetings focusing on the instructional foundations and goals Monthly after school meetings focusing on the instructional foundations and goals
discussed during the summer workshops and implementation in a variety of discussed during the summer workshops and implementation in a variety of instructional settings.instructional settings.
In-class observation and feedback provided by master teachers (project staff) – five In-class observation and feedback provided by master teachers (project staff) – five times during the implementation year.times during the implementation year.
4545
Data Data Collected (All Cohorts)Collected (All Cohorts)
Phonological Awareness Literacy Screening (PALS): Phonological Awareness Literacy Screening (PALS): beginning and end of kindergarten; beginning of first beginning and end of kindergarten; beginning of first grade, and end of first, second, and third grade. grade, and end of first, second, and third grade.
Word Identification and Word Attack-(Woodcock-Johnson Word Identification and Word Attack-(Woodcock-Johnson Test of Achievement III): beginning and end of first Test of Achievement III): beginning and end of first grade; end of second and third grade.grade; end of second and third grade.
Reading and Listening Comprehension (Wechsler Reading and Listening Comprehension (Wechsler Individual Achievement Test): end of first, second, and Individual Achievement Test): end of first, second, and third grade.third grade.
Receptive Vocabulary-(Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test): Receptive Vocabulary-(Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test): kindergarten and end of first, second, and third grade.kindergarten and end of first, second, and third grade.
Verbal Intelligence-Information and Vocabulary subtests: Verbal Intelligence-Information and Vocabulary subtests: kindergarten and first grade (WPPSI) and end of second kindergarten and first grade (WPPSI) and end of second and third grade (WISC-III).and third grade (WISC-III).
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Data Data Collected (Continued)Collected (Continued)
Observations of classroom language arts instruction: five Observations of classroom language arts instruction: five times a year for kindergarten and first grade.times a year for kindergarten and first grade.
Teacher questionnaires and interviews: once a year for Teacher questionnaires and interviews: once a year for kindergarten and first grade.kindergarten and first grade.
Assessment of teacher effectiveness in terms of reductions Assessment of teacher effectiveness in terms of reductions in the proportion of children who qualified as at risk for in the proportion of children who qualified as at risk for reading difficulties as determined by literacy tests reading difficulties as determined by literacy tests administered at the beginning and end of the school year.administered at the beginning and end of the school year.
Teachers dichotomized into “Most Effective” and “Least Teachers dichotomized into “Most Effective” and “Least Effective” groups were compared on classroom program Effective” groups were compared on classroom program and practices.and practices.
Note: All data used to compare most and least effective Note: All data used to compare most and least effective teachers were collected prior to determination of teacher teachers were collected prior to determination of teacher effectiveness.effectiveness.
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Preliminary Results: Kindergarten Preliminary Results: Kindergarten Teacher Effectiveness (Baseline Teacher Effectiveness (Baseline
Cohort) Cohort) Results suggest that the most effective Results suggest that the most effective
kindergarten teachers, by themselves, can kindergarten teachers, by themselves, can significantly reduce the number of at risk significantly reduce the number of at risk children who continue to be at risk from the children who continue to be at risk from the beginning to the end of kindergarten.beginning to the end of kindergarten.
The most effective kindergarten teachers The most effective kindergarten teachers differed from the least effective teachers differed from the least effective teachers primarily in their success at moving children primarily in their success at moving children from the at-risk group to the no-longer-at-risk from the at-risk group to the no-longer-at-risk group.group.
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Percent of Children At-Risk for Reading Problems for Classrooms with Most or Least Effective Teachers
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
Pretest Posttest
Per
cen
t At-
Ris
k
Most Effective
Least Effective
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Pretest and Postest PALS Means for Classrooms with Most or Least Effective Teachers By Child's Risk Status
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
Pretest Posttest
Raw
Sco
re
At-Risk - Most Effective
Not At-Risk - Most Effective
At-Risk - Least Effective
Not At-Risk - Least Effective
Note: The most effective K teachers differ primarily in their success at
moving the at-risk kids.
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Classroom Practices of Most Classroom Practices of Most Effective TeachersEffective Teachers
Ability GroupingAbility Grouping Most Effective Teachers were more likely to Most Effective Teachers were more likely to
group students by ability for reading group students by ability for reading instruction.instruction.
They They also also spent more time teaching small spent more time teaching small ability based groups.ability based groups.
Skills OrientationSkills Orientation Most Effective Teachers were more likely to Most Effective Teachers were more likely to
explicitly teach decoding/encoding skills.explicitly teach decoding/encoding skills. They also spent more time teaching reading They also spent more time teaching reading
subskills such as phonological awareness, subskills such as phonological awareness, letter identification, letter sound decoding, letter identification, letter sound decoding, and sight word identification. and sight word identification.
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ContinuedContinued
Emphasis on Decoding as a Word Emphasis on Decoding as a Word Identification StrategyIdentification Strategy Most Effective Teachers were more likely to Most Effective Teachers were more likely to
encourage children to decode unfamiliar encourage children to decode unfamiliar words while reading text.words while reading text.
They They also also allocated more instructional time to allocated more instructional time to providing the children with the opportunity to providing the children with the opportunity to apply encoding/decoding strategies.apply encoding/decoding strategies.
They more often indicated that they had the They more often indicated that they had the materials to facilitate these reading materials to facilitate these reading opportunities.opportunities.
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ContinuedContinued
Developing Strategic Readers Developing Strategic Readers Most Effective Teachers were more likely toMost Effective Teachers were more likely to::
Encourage the use of a variety of strategies Encourage the use of a variety of strategies for word identification. for word identification.
They more often reported that They more often reported that comprehension strategy instruction is comprehension strategy instruction is appropriate in the primary grades.appropriate in the primary grades.
Most Effective teachers tended to spend more Most Effective teachers tended to spend more time on: time on:
Modeling and scaffolding. Modeling and scaffolding. Engaging the children in the Engaging the children in the
Question/Response/Feedback cycle.Question/Response/Feedback cycle. Encouraging the children to think and Encouraging the children to think and
respond.respond.
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To Summarize: TTo Summarize: The Most Effective he Most Effective Kindergarten Teachers Reported and Kindergarten Teachers Reported and
Demonstrated that they:Demonstrated that they: Group children by ability for at least a Group children by ability for at least a
portion of language arts instruction.portion of language arts instruction. Emphasize the development of facility with Emphasize the development of facility with
the alphabetic code and sight word the alphabetic code and sight word identificationidentification
Value strategy instruction.Value strategy instruction. Instruct through modeling and scaffolding.Instruct through modeling and scaffolding. Teach responsively – modify Teach responsively – modify classroom classroom
reading program (basals)reading program (basals) to best meet the to best meet the needs of the students.needs of the students.
Keep kids thinking Keep kids thinking andand actively engaged. actively engaged.
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Preliminary Results: Effects of Preliminary Results: Effects of Professional Development Professional Development
Training (Tier 1 Intervention) Training (Tier 1 Intervention) Compared with Small Group Compared with Small Group
Intervention (Tier 2) in Intervention (Tier 2) in KindergartenKindergarten
5555
Beginning of Kindergarten
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
Intervention Only Professional Development Only PI + PD
Percentages of Students Qualifying as At Risk in Three Cohorts Under Three Experimental Conditions
* Risk is defined as falling below the Benchmark on the PALS.
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In all three conditions, a significantly In all three conditions, a significantly smaller percentage of students qualified smaller percentage of students qualified as at-risk at the end of kindergarten in as at-risk at the end of kindergarten in both the implementation and both the implementation and maintenance cohorts than in the baseline maintenance cohorts than in the baseline cohort, as measured by PALS cohort, as measured by PALS benchmarks.benchmarks.
The long term effects of Tier 1 The long term effects of Tier 1 intervention (PD only) and Tier 2 intervention (PD only) and Tier 2 intervention (PI only) were evident when intervention (PI only) were evident when the program was withdrawn.the program was withdrawn.
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Results from PD vs. PI vs. PD+PIResults from PD vs. PI vs. PD+PI
The PD (Tier 1) intervention was as effective as The PD (Tier 1) intervention was as effective as the PI (Tier 2) intervention in reducing the the PI (Tier 2) intervention in reducing the number of children who were at risk for early number of children who were at risk for early and long-term reading difficulties.and long-term reading difficulties.
The PD (Tier 1) and PI (Tier 2) interventions The PD (Tier 1) and PI (Tier 2) interventions combined were no more effective than either the combined were no more effective than either the PD (Tier 1) or PI (Tier 2) only interventions, quite PD (Tier 1) or PI (Tier 2) only interventions, quite likely because of ceiling effects on the PALS.likely because of ceiling effects on the PALS.
Thus, Tier 1 classroom intervention would Thus, Tier 1 classroom intervention would appear to be sufficient for addressing the needs appear to be sufficient for addressing the needs of most children who enter kindergarten at risk of most children who enter kindergarten at risk for early reading difficulties and in reducing the for early reading difficulties and in reducing the number of children who continue to be a risk at number of children who continue to be a risk at the end of kindergarten. the end of kindergarten.
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Provide Small Group Classroom (Tier 1) Instruction for lowest 30%
Accelerated Growth
Slow Growth or No Growth
Provide Very Small Group (Tier 2) Specialized Instruction
Slow Growth or No Growth
Accelerated Growth
Regular Classroom Instruction
Provide One-to-One (Tier 3) Specialized Instruction
Accelerated Growth
Slow Growth or No Growth
Continued-Risk—provide continued instruction
Possible Three Tiered Model of Intervention
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Implications and ConclusionsImplications and Conclusions
Early and long-term literacy difficulties can be prevented in Early and long-term literacy difficulties can be prevented in
most at risk children if they are:most at risk children if they are:
identified early in kindergarten. identified early in kindergarten.
provided with appropriate intervention to institute provided with appropriate intervention to institute
foundational literacy skills at the outset. foundational literacy skills at the outset.
Most at-risk children can profit from either supplementary Most at-risk children can profit from either supplementary
Tier 1 classroom intervention or small group (Tier 2) Tier 1 classroom intervention or small group (Tier 2)
intervention in kindergarten and become at least average intervention in kindergarten and become at least average
level readers in first grade and beyond.level readers in first grade and beyond.
Some will need intensive remedial intervention beyond Some will need intensive remedial intervention beyond
kindergarten or first grade in order to close the gap. A very kindergarten or first grade in order to close the gap. A very
small number will continue to need support; at least some small number will continue to need support; at least some
of these children may be classified as “reading disabled”. of these children may be classified as “reading disabled”.
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Continued use of the IQ-achievement discrepancy to Continued use of the IQ-achievement discrepancy to diagnose reading disability is unwarranted; in two separate diagnose reading disability is unwarranted; in two separate intervention studies we conducted, IQ tests: intervention studies we conducted, IQ tests:
did not reliably differentiate continued risk, no-longer-at did not reliably differentiate continued risk, no-longer-at risk, and typically achieving readers.risk, and typically achieving readers.
did not differentiate difficult to remediate and less did not differentiate difficult to remediate and less difficult to remediate readers.difficult to remediate readers.
did not predict long term reading achievement following did not predict long term reading achievement following intensive intervention, whereas initial response to such intensive intervention, whereas initial response to such intervention did do so. intervention did do so.
therefore, response to tiered intervention may be a more therefore, response to tiered intervention may be a more effective approach to identifying children at risk for effective approach to identifying children at risk for reading difficulties and possible reading disability status reading difficulties and possible reading disability status than is the IQ-achievement discrepancy. than is the IQ-achievement discrepancy.
Finally, three tiered intervention may also be an effective Finally, three tiered intervention may also be an effective model for addressing the individual needs of children model for addressing the individual needs of children representing a wide range of reading abilities, especially representing a wide range of reading abilities, especially those at risk for early and long term reading difficulties.those at risk for early and long term reading difficulties.
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A Lingering QuestionA Lingering Question
Identification of at-risk children, how Identification of at-risk children, how early? early?
First grade screening battery in K-1 study: First grade screening battery in K-1 study: at-risk children who had no supplementary at-risk children who had no supplementary intervention in kindergarten: intervention in kindergarten: 91% below average (true positives).91% below average (true positives). 9% at least average (false positives).9% at least average (false positives).
False positive rate more tolerable than False positive rate more tolerable than false negative rate.false negative rate.
Thus, identification at the beginning of Thus, identification at the beginning of kindergarten warranted.kindergarten warranted.
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