11 chapter 7 techniques of integration. 7.1 integration by parts

11

Chapter 7

Techniques of Integration

7.1 Integration by Parts

33

Integration by Parts

44

Example 1

Find x sin x dx.

Solution Using Formula 1:

Suppose we choose f (x) = x and g (x) = sin x. Then f (x) = 1 and g(x) = –cos x. (For g we can choose any antiderivative of g .) Thus, using Formula 1, we have

x sin x dx = f (x)g(x) – g(x)f (x) dx

= x(–cos x) – (–cos x) dx

= –x cos x + cos x dx

= –x cos x + sin x + C

55

Example 1 – Solution

It’s wise to check the answer by differentiating it. If we do so, we get x sin x, as expected.

Solution Using Formula 2:

Let

u = x dv = sin x dx

Then du = dx v = –cos x

and so

x sin x dx = x sin x dx

u dv

cont’d

66

Example 1 – Solution

= x (–cos x) – (–cos x) dx

= –x cos x + cos x dx

= –x cos x + sin x + C

u v u du

cont’d

77

88

99

Application: Find the volume of the object:

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Integrate by parts: Practice!

.

http://www.math.ucdavis.edu/~kouba/CalcTwoDIRECTORY/intbypartsdirectory/IntByParts.html

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7.2 Trigonometric Integrals

1212

Powers of Sine and Cosine:

1313

Example 1

Find ∫ sin5x cos2x dx.

Solution:

We could convert cos2x to 1 – sin2x, but we would be left with an expression in terms of sin x with no extra cos x factor.

Instead, we separate a single sine factor and rewrite the remaining sin4x factor in terms of cos x:

sin5 x cos2x = (sin2x)2 cos2x sin x

= (1 – cos2x)2 cos2x sin x

1414

Example – Solution

Substituting u = cos x, we have du = –sin x dx and so

∫ sin5x cos2x dx = ∫ (sin2x)2 cos2x sin x dx

= ∫ (1 – cos2x)2 cos2x sin x dx

= ∫ (1 – u2)2 u2 (–du) = –∫ (u2 – 2u4 + u6)du

=

= – cos3x + cos5x – cos7x + C

cont’d

1515

Example 2

Evaluate

Solution:

If we write sin2x = 1 – cos2x, the integral is no simpler to evaluate. Using the half-angle formula for sin2x, however, we have

1616

Example – Solution

Notice that we make the substitution u = 2x when integrating cos 2x.

cont’d

1717

Trigonometric Integrals

We can use a similar strategy to evaluate integrals of the form ∫ tanmx secnx dx.

Since (ddx) tan x = sec2x, we can separate a sec2x factor and convert the remaining (even) power of secant to an expression involving tangent using the identity sec2x = 1 + tan2x.

Or, since (ddx) sec x = sec x tan x, we can separate a sec x tan x factor and convert the remaining (even) power of tangent to secant.

1818

Example 4

Evaluate ∫ tan6x sec4x dx.

Solution:

If we separate one sec2x factor, we can express the remaining sec2x factor in terms of tangent using the identity sec2x = 1 + tan2x.

We can then evaluate the integral by substituting u = tan x so that du = sec2x dx:

∫ tan6x sec4x dx = ∫ tan6x sec2x sec2x dx

1919

Example 4 – Solution

= ∫ tan6x (1 + tan2x) sec2x dx

= ∫ u6(1 + u2)du = ∫ (u6 + u8)du

=

= tan7x + tan9x + C

cont’d

2020

Trigonometric Integrals

strategies for evaluating integrals of the form ∫ tanmx secnx dx

2121

For other cases, the guidelines are not as clear-cut. We may need to use identities, integration by parts, and occasionally a little ingenuity. The following formulas also help!

2222

Example 6

Find ∫ tan3x dx.

Solution:

Here only tan x occurs, so we use tan2x = sec2x – 1 to rewrite a tan2x factor in terms of sec2x:

∫ tan3x dx = ∫ tan x tan2x dx

= ∫ tan x (sec2x – 1) dx

= ∫ tan x sec2x dx – ∫ tan x dx

2323

Example – Solution

= – ln | sec x | + C

In the first integral we mentally substituted u = tan x so that

du = sec2x dx.

cont’d

2424

Trigonometric Integrals

Finally, we can make use of another set of trigonometric identities:

2525

Example 7

Evaluate ∫ sin 4x cos 5x dx.

Solution:

This integral could be evaluated using integration by parts, but it’s easier to use the identity in Equation 2(a) as follows:

∫ sin 4x cos 5x dx = ∫ [sin(–x) + sin 9x] dx

= ∫ (–sin x + sin 9x) dx

= (cos x – cos 9x) + C

2626

7.3 Trigonometric Substitution

2727

2828

Trigonometric Substitution

In finding the area of a circle or an ellipse, an integral of the form dx arises, where a > 0.

If it were the substitution

u = a2 – x2 would be effective but, as it stands,

dx is more difficult.

2929

Trigonometric Substitution

If we change the variable from x to by the substitutionx = a sin , then the identity 1 – sin2 = cos2 allows us to get rid of the root sign because

3030

Trigonometric Substitution

In the following table we list trigonometric substitutions that are effective for the given radical expressions because of the specified trigonometric identities.

3131

3232

Example 1

Evaluate

Solution:Let x = 3 sin , where – /2 /2. Then dx = 3 cos d and

(Note that cos 0 because – /2 /2.)

3333

Example 1 – Solution

Thus the Inverse Substitution Rule gives

cont’d

3434

Example 1 – Solution

We must return to the original variable x. This can be done either by using trigonometric identities to express cot in terms of sin = x/3 or by drawing a diagram, as in Figure 1,

where is interpreted as an angle of a right triangle.

cont’d

sin =

Figure 1

3535

Example 1 – Solution

Since sin = x/3, we label the opposite side and the hypotenuse as having lengths x and 3.

Then the Pythagorean Theorem gives the length of the adjacent side as so we can simply read the value of cot from the figure:

(Although > 0 in the diagram, this expression for cot is valid even when 0.)

cont’d

3636

Example 1 – Solution

Since sin = x/3, we have = sin–1(x/3) and so

cont’d

3737

Example 2

Find

Solution:Let x = 2 tan , – /2 < < /2. Then dx = 2 sec2 d and

=

= 2| sec |

= 2 sec

3838

Example 2 – Solution

Thus we have

To evaluate this trigonometric integral we put everything in terms of sin and cos :

cont’d

3939

Example 2 – Solution

=

Therefore, making the substitution u = sin , we have

cont’d

4040

Example 2 – Solution cont’d

4141

Example 2 – Solution

We use Figure 3 to determine that csc = and so

cont’d

Figure 3

4242

Example 3

Find

Solution:First we note that (4x2 + 9)3/2 = so trigonometric substitution is appropriate.

Although is not quite one of the expressions in the table of trigonometric substitutions, it becomes one of them if we make the preliminary substitution u = 2x.

4343

Example 3 – Solution

When we combine this with the tangent substitution, we have x = which gives and

When x = 0, tan = 0, so = 0; when x = tan = so = /3.

cont’d

4444

Example 3 – Solution

Now we substitute u = cos so that du = –sin d.When = 0, u = 1; when = /3, u =

cont’d

4545

Example 3 – Solution

Therefore

cont’d

4646

7.4 Integration of Rational Functions by Partial Fractions

4747

4848

Integration of Rational Functions by Partial Fractions

To see how the method of partial fractions works in general, let’s consider a rational function

where P and Q are polynomials.

It’s possible to express f as a sum of simpler fractions provided that the degree of P is less than the degree of Q. Such a rational function is called proper.

4949

Integration of Rational Functions by Partial Fractions

If f is improper, that is, deg(P) deg(Q), then we must take the preliminary step of dividing Q into P (by long division) until a remainder R (x) is obtained such that deg(R) < deg(Q).

where S and R are also polynomials.

5050

Example 1

Find

Solution:

Since the degree of the numerator is greater than the degree of the denominator, we first perform the long division. This enables us to write:

5151

Integration of Rational Functions by Partial Fractions

If f(x) = R (x)/Q (x) is a proper rational function:

factor the denominator Q (x) as far as possible.

Ex: if Q (x) = x4 – 16, we could factor it as

Q (x) = (x2 – 4)(x2 + 4) = (x – 2)(x + 2)(x2 + 4)

5252

Integration of Rational Functions by Partial Fractions

Next: express the proper rational function as a sum of partial fractions of the form

or

A theorem in algebra guarantees that it is always possible to do this.

Four cases can occur.

5353

Integration of Rational Functions by Partial Fractions

Case I The denominator Q (x) is a product of distinct linear factors.

This means that we can write

Q (x) = (a1x + b1)(a2x + b2) . . . (akx + bk)

where no factor is repeated (and no factor is a constant multiple of another).

5454

Integration of Rational Functions by Partial Fractions

In this case the partial fraction theorem states that there exist constants A1, A2, . . . , Ak such that

These constants can be determined as in the next example.

5555

Example 2

Evaluate

Solution:

Since the degree of the numerator is less than the degree of the denominator, we don’t need to divide.

We factor the denominator as

2x3 + 3x2 – 2x = x(2x2 + 3x – 2)

= x(2x – 1)(x + 2)

5656

Example 2 – Solution

Since the denominator has three distinct linear factors, the partial fraction decomposition of the integrand has the form

To determine the values of A, B, and C, we multiply both sides of this equation by the product of the denominators, x(2x – 1)(x + 2), obtaining

x2 + 2x – 1 = A(2x – 1)(x + 2) + Bx(x + 2) + Cx(2x – 1)

5757

To find the coefficients A, B and C. We can choose values of x that simplify the equation:

x2 + 2x – 1 = A(2x – 1)(x + 2) + Bx(x + 2) + Cx(2x – 1)

If we put x = 0, then the second and third terms on the right side vanish and the equation then becomes –2A = –1, or A = .

Likewise, x = gives 5B/4 = and x = –2 gives 10C = –1, so B = and C =

Example 2 – Solution cont’d

5858

Example 2 – Solution

A = B = and C = and so

cont’d

5959

Integration of Rational Functions by Partial Fractions

Case II: Q (x) is a product of linear factors, some of which are repeated.

Suppose the first linear factor (a1x + b1) is repeated r times; that is, (a1x + b1)r occurs in the factorization of Q (x). Then instead of the single term A1/(a1x + b1) in the equation:

we use

6060

Integration of Rational Functions by Partial Fractions

Example, we could write

6161

Example 3

Find

Solution:

The first step is to divide. The result of long division is

6262

Example 3 – Solution

The second step is to factor the denominator Q (x) = x3 – x2 – x + 1.

Since Q (1) = 0, we know that x – 1 is a factor and we obtain

x3 – x2 – x + 1 = (x – 1)(x2 – 1)

= (x – 1)(x – 1)(x + 1)

= (x – 1)2(x + 1)

cont’d

6363

Example 3 – Solution

Since the linear factor x – 1 occurs twice, the partial fraction decomposition is

Multiplying by the least common denominator, (x – 1)2(x + 1), we get

4x = A (x – 1)(x + 1) + B (x + 1) + C (x – 1)2

cont’d

6464

Example 3 – Solution

= (A + C)x2 + (B – 2C)x + (–A + B + C)

Now we equate coefficients:

A + C = 0

B – 2C = 4

–A + B + C = 0

cont’d

6565

Example 3 – Solution

Solving, we obtain A = 1, B = 2, and C = –1, so

cont’d

6666

Integration of Rational Functions by Partial Fractions

Case III: Q (x) contains irreducible quadratic factors, none of which is repeated.

If Q (x) has the factor ax2 + bx + c, where b2 – 4ac < 0, then, in addition to the partial fractions, the expression for R (x)/Q (x) will have a term of the form

where A and B are constants to be determined.

6767

Integration of Rational Functions by Partial Fractions

Example:f (x) = x/[(x – 2)(x2 + 1)(x2 + 4)] has the partial fraction decomposition:

Any term of the form: can be integrated by completing the square (if necessary) and using the formula

6868

Example 4

Evaluate

Solution:

Since the degree of the numerator is not less than the degree of the denominator, we first divide and obtain

6969

Example 4 – Solution

Notice that the quadratic 4x2 – 4x + 3 is irreducible because its discriminant is b2 – 4ac = –32 < 0. This means it can’t be factored, so we don’t need to use the partial fraction technique.

To integrate the given function we complete the square in the denominator:

4x2 – 4x + 3 = (2x – 1)2 + 2

This suggests that we make the substitution u = 2x – 1.

cont’d

7070

Example 4 – Solution

Then du = 2 dx and x = (u + 1), so

cont’d

7171

Example 4 – Solutioncont’d

7272

Note:Example 6 illustrates the general procedure for integrating a partial fraction of the form

We complete the square in the denominator and then make a substitution that brings the integral into the form

Then the first integral is a logarithm and the second is expressed in terms of

where b2 – 4ac < 0

7373

Integration of Rational Functions by Partial Fractions

Case IV: Q (x) contains a repeated irreducible quadratic factor.

If Q (x) has the factor (ax2 + bx + c)r, where b2 – 4ac < 0, then instead of the single partial fraction , the sum:

occurs in the partial fraction decomposition of R (x)/Q (x).

Each of the terms can be integrated by using a substitution or by first completing the square if necessary.

7474

Example 5

Evaluate

Solution:

The form of the partial fraction decomposition is

Multiplying by x(x2 + 1)2, we have

–x3 + 2x2 – x + 1 = A(x2 +1)2 + (Bx + C)x(x2 + 1) + (Dx + E)x

7575

Example 5 – Solution

= A(x4 + 2x2 +1) + B(x4 + x2) + C(x3 + x) + Dx2 + Ex

= (A + B)x4 + Cx3 + (2A + B + D)x2 + (C + E)x + A

If we equate coefficients, we get the system

A + B = 0 C = –1 2A + B + D = 2 C + E = –1 A = 1

which has the solution A = 1, B = –1, C = –1, D = 1 and E = 0.

cont’d

7676

Example 5 – Solution

Thus

cont’d

7777

7878

Rationalizing Substitutions

Some nonrational functions can be changed into rational functions by means of appropriate substitutions.

In particular, when an integrand contains an expression of the form then the substitution may be effective. Other instances appear in the exercises.

7979

Example 6

Evaluate

Solution:

Let u = Then u2 = x + 4, so x = u2 – 4 and dx = 2u du. Therefore

8080

Example 6 – Solution

We can evaluate this integral by factoring u2 – 4 as (u – 2)(u + 2) and using partial fractions:

cont’d

8181

7.8

Improper Integrals

8282

Type 1: Infinite Intervals

8383

8484

Examples:

8585

Practice Example:

Determine whether the integral is convergent or divergent.

Solution:

According to part (a) of Definition 1, we have

The limit does not exist as a finite number and so the

Improper integral is divergent.

8686

8787

Type 2: Discontinuous Integrands

Suppose that f is a positive continuous function defined on a finite interval [a, b) but has a vertical asymptote at b.

Let S be the unbounded region under the graph of f and above the x-axis between a and b. (For Type 1 integrals, the regions extended indefinitely in a horizontal direction. Here the region is infinite in a vertical direction.)

The area of the part of S between a and t is

Figure 7

8888

Type 2: Discontinuous Integrands

8989

Examples:

9090

Practice Example:Find

Solution:

We note first that the given integral is improper because has the vertical asymptote x = 2.

Since the infinite discontinuity occurs at the left endpoint of [2, 5], we use part (b) of Definition 3:

9191

Example – Solution

Thus the given improper integral is convergent and, since the integrand is positive, we can interpret the value of the integral as the area of the shaded region.

Figure 10

cont’d

9292

Gabriel’s Horn: