12th grade corporate social responsibility inquiry should ... · the costs, benefits, and realities...
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NEWYORKSTATE SOCIAL STUDIES RESOURCETOOLKIT
T H I S W O R K I S L I C E N S E D U N D E R A C R E A T I V E C OMMON S A T T R I B U T I O N - N O N C OMM E R C I A L - S H A R E A L I K E 4 . 0 I N T E R N A T I O N A L L I C E N S E . 1
12thGradeCorporateSocialResponsibilityInquiry
ShouldCorporationsHaveaConscience?
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SupportingQuestions
1. Whatiscorporatesocialresponsibility(CSR)?2. Whatarethebenefitsofcorporatesocialresponsibility?3. Whatareconcernsaboutcorporatesocialresponsibility?4. Issocialresponsibilityinthebestinterestofsociety?
NEWYORKSTATE SOCIAL STUDIES RESOURCETOOLKIT
T H I S W O R K I S L I C E N S E D U N D E R A C R E A T I V E C OMMON S A T T R I B U T I O N - N O N C OMM E R C I A L - S H A R E A L I K E 4 . 0 I N T E R N A T I O N A L L I C E N S E . 2
12thGradeCorporateSocialResponsibilityInquiry
ShouldCorporationsHaveaConscience?NewYorkStateSocialStudiesFrameworkKeyIdea&Practices
12.E3THEIMPACTOFAMERICANCAPITALISMINTHEGLOBALECONOMY:Therearevariouseconomicsystemsintheworld.TheUnitedStatesoperateswithinamixedfree-marketeconomycharacterizedbycompetitionandalimitedroleofgovernmentineconomicaffairs.Economic-policymakersfaceconsiderablechallengeswithinacapitalistsystem,includingunemployment,inflation,poverty,andenvironmentalimpact.GlobalizationincreasesthecomplexityofthesechallengessignificantlyandhasexertedstrongandtransformativeeffectsonworkersandentrepreneursintheUnitedStateseconomy.Gathering,Using,andInterpretingEvidence EconomicsandEconomicSystems
StagingtheCompellingQuestion
Researchcorporations’effortstobesociallyresponsible(e.g.,TysonFoods’“HungerRelief,”Häagen-Dazs’“HoneybeePreservation,”andthe“RonaldMcDonaldHouse”campaigns).Makealistofreasonswhycorporationswouldstartthesetypesofcampaignsandwhatissuesmightarisefromtheseefforts.
SupportingQuestion1 SupportingQuestion2 SupportingQuestion3 SupportingQuestion4
Understand Understand Understand Assess
Whatiscorporatesocialresponsibility(CSR)?
Whatarethebenefitsofcorporatesocialresponsibility?
Whatareconcernsaboutcorporatesocialresponsibility?
Issocialresponsibilityinthebestinterestofsociety?
FormativePerformanceTask FormativePerformanceTask FormativePerformanceTask FormativePerformanceTask
Createaclassroomdefinitionofcorporatesocialresponsibility(CSR).
Prepareforastructuredacademiccontroversy(SAC)bycreatingnotecardssummarizingthebenefitsofcorporatesocialresponsibility(CSR)andevidencetosupporteachbenefit.
Prepareforastructuredacademiccontroversy(SAC)bycreatingnotecardssummarizingtheconcernsaboutcorporatesocialresponsibility(CSR)andevidencetosupporteachcriticism.
Participateinastructuredacademiccontroversy(SAC)aboutwhethersocialresponsibilityisinthebestinterestofsociety.
FeaturedSources FeaturedSources FeaturedSources FeaturedSources
SourceA:“WhatisCorporateSocialResponsibility?”SourceB:ExcerptfromCorporateSocialResponsibility:MakingGoodBusinessSenseSourceC:ExcerptfromThePublicRoleofPrivateEnterprise:Risks,OpportunitiesandNewModelsofEngagement
SourceA:“TripleBottomLine”SourceB:“DoesSocialResponsibilityHelpProtectaCompany’sReputation?”
SourceA:“TheSocialResponsibilityofBusinessIstoIncreaseItsProfits”SourceB:“Hypevs.Hope:IsCorporateDo-GooderyforReal?”
SourceA:FeaturedsourcesfromFormativePerformanceTasks1,2,and3
SummativePerformanceTask
ARGUMENTShouldcorporationshaveaconscience?Constructanargument(e.g.,detailedoutline,poster,essay)thataddressesthecompellingquestionusingspecificclaimsandrelevantevidencefromcontemporarysourceswhileacknowledgingcompetingviews.
TakingInformedAction
ACTWritealetterreactingtotheeffortsofacompanythatisengagedinasocial-responsibilityproject.
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Overview
InquiryDescription
Therehasbeenmuchdebateabouttheroleofcorporationsandhowtheyfunctionintoday’sglobalsociety.Argumentsaboundastowhetherornottheseentitiespaytheirfairshareoftaxestothegovernmentsofthecountriesinwhichtheyoperateandwhetherornottheyhaveasocialresponsibilitytoactaccordingtobasicprinciplesofhumanrights.Althoughcorporationsaresaidtoprovidejobsanddirectinvestmentintheeconomy,somearguethatcorporationsshouldexpandtheirmissionstosolvelocalandglobalproblems.Afterconsideringthecosts,benefits,andrealitiesofcorporatesocialresponsibility(CSR),studentsshouldbeabletomakeclaimssupportedbyevidenceastowhethercorporationsshoulddevelopaconsciencebeyondtheirbottomline.ThisinquiryembedstheTakingInformedActionsequencethroughout.
InadditiontotheKeyIdealistedearlier,thisinquiryhighlightsthefollowingConceptualUnderstandings:
(12.E3c)ThefreedomoftheUnitedStateseconomyencouragesentrepreneurialism.Thisisanimportantfactorbehindeconomicgrowththatcanleadtointendedconsequences(e.g.,growth,competition,innovation,improvedstandardofliving,productivity,specialization,trade,outsourcing,classmobility,positiveexternalities)andunintendedconsequences(e.g.,recession,depression,trade,unemployment,outsourcing,generationalpoverty,incomeinequality,thechallengesofclassmobility,negativeexternalities).
(12.E3d)Adegreeofregulation,oversight,orgovernmentcontrolisnecessaryinsomemarketstoensurefreeandfaircompetitionandtolimitunintendedconsequencesofAmericancapitalism.Governmentattemptstoprotecttheworker,propertyrights,andthemarketplaceaswellastopromoteincomeequalityandsocialmobilityhavehadvariedresults.
NOTE:Thisinquiryisexpectedtotakefourtosix40-minuteclassperiods.Theinquirytimeframecouldexpandifteachersthinktheirstudentsneedadditionalinstructionalexperiences(i.e.,supportingquestions,formativeperformancetasks,andfeaturedsources).Teachersareencouragedtoadapttheinquiriesinordertomeettheneedsandinterestsoftheirparticularstudents.Resourcescanalsobemodifiedasnecessarytomeetindividualizededucationprograms(IEPs)orSection504Plansforstudentswithdisabilities.
StructureoftheInquiry
Inaddressingthecompellingquestion“Shouldcorporationshaveaconscience?”studentsworkthroughaseriesofsupportingquestions,formativeperformancetasks,andfeaturedsourcesinordertoconstructanargumentwithevidenceandcounterevidencefromavarietyofsources.
StagingtheCompellingQuestion
Thecompellingquestioncouldbestagedbyhavingstudentsresearchcorporations’effortstobesociallyresponsible(e.g.,TysonFoods’“HungerRelief,”Häagen-Dazs’“HoneybeePreservation,”andthe“RonaldMcDonald
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House”campaigns).Studentscouldmakealistofreasonswhycorporationswouldstartthesetypesofcampaigns,howtheymightidentifyanicheorcause,andwhatissuesmightarisefromtheseefforts.
SupportingQuestion1
Thefirstsupportingquestion—“Whatiscorporatesocialresponsibility(CSR)?”—initiatestheinquirybydirectingstudentstodefinethemajortenetsofCSR.TheformativeperformancetaskasksstudentstocreateaclassroomdefinitionofCSRthatincorporatesthemainideasfromthefeaturedsources.ThefeaturedsourcesincludethreedescriptionsofCSRfromtheUnitedNationsIndustrialDevelopmentOrganization,theWorldBusinessCouncilforSustainableDevelopment,andtheHarvardBusinessSchool’sSocialResponsibilityInitiative.
SupportingQuestion2
Thesecondsupportingquestion—“Whatarethebenefitsofcorporatesocialresponsibility(CSR)?”—hasstudentsconsiderthepositiveoutcomesfromcompaniesadoptingpoliciesorprogramsthataresociallyresponsible.TheformativeperformancetaskasksstudentstocreatenotecardssummarizingthebenefitsofCSRandevidencetosupporteachbenefit.Thesenotecardsshouldassiststudentsastheyparticipateinastructuredacademiccontroversy(FormativePerformanceTask4)inwhichtheyinitiallytakeonesideofanissueandlookattheevidencethatsupportsthatsidebeforeultimatelycomingtoagroupconsensusbyconsideringalltheevidence.MoreinformationonastructuredacademiccontroversycanbefoundinAppendixAandatthefollowingwebsite:http://teachinghistory.org/teaching-materials/teaching-guides/21731.ThefeaturedsourcesforthissupportingquestionincludeanarticlefromTheEconomistthatexplainsthetriplebottomlineof“people,planet,andprofit”andanarticlefromMIT’sSloanBusinessSchooldetailingastudythatreportedonCSRanditsimpactonacompany’sreputationandprofits.
SupportingQuestion3
Thethirdsupportingquestion—“Whatareconcernsaboutcorporatesocialresponsibility(CSR)?”—hasstudentsconsiderthenegativeimpactsofcompaniesadoptingpoliciesorprogramsthataresociallyresponsible.TheformativeperformancetaskasksstudentstocreatenotecardssummarizingtheconcernsaboutCSRandevidencetosupporteachconcern.Thesenotecardsshouldassiststudentsinparticipatinginastructuredacademiccontroversy(FormativePerformanceTask4).MoreinformationonastructuredacademiccontroversycanbefoundinAppendixAandatthefollowingwebsite:http://teachinghistory.org/teaching-materials/teaching-guides/21731.ThefeaturedsourcesincludeaNewYorkTimesarticlebyNobelPrize–winningeconomistMiltonFriedman,whoarguesthatmaximizingprofitsissociallyresponsiblebehaviorforcorporationsandaMotherJonesarticlebyBillMcKibbenquestioningthemotivesofcompanieswhoengagein“do-goodery.”
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SupportingQuestion4
Thefinalsupportingquestion—“Issocialresponsibilityinthebestinterestofsociety?”—anchorstheformativeperformancetask,whichisastructuredacademiccontroversythatasksstudentstodiscussthebenefitsandconcernsofcorporatesocialresponsibility.Ingroupsoffour,twostudentsshouldarguethatthatsocialresponsibilityisinthebestinterestofsocietyandtwoshouldarguethatitisnotinsociety’sbestinterest.MoreinformationonastructuredacademiccontroversycanbefoundinAppendixAandatthefollowingwebsite:http://teachinghistory.org/teaching-materials/teaching-guides/21731.
SummativePerformanceTask
Atthispointintheinquiry,studentshavecreatedaworkingdefinitionofCSRandexaminedboththebenefitsandconcernsaboutcorporatecampaignsthataregroundedinCSR.Studentsshouldbeexpectedtodemonstratethebreadthoftheirunderstandingsandabilitiestouseevidencefrommultiplesourcestosupporttheirdistinctclaims.Inthistask,studentsconstructanevidence-basedargumentrespondingtothecompellingquestion“Shouldcorporationshaveaconscience?”Itisimportanttonotethatstudents’argumentscouldtakeavarietyofforms,includingadetailedoutline,poster,oressay.
Students’argumentslikelywillvary,butcouldincludeanyofthefollowing:
• Corporationsneedtohaveaconscience.Consumersarestartingtocareaboutcorporatesocialresponsibilityinmakingpurchasingdecisions,andthisinfluencesthebottomline.
• Corporationsdon'tnecessarilyneedtohaveaconsciencebecausetheyshouldcarefirstandforemostaboutprofitsandstockholders.
• CorporationshaveaconsciencebecausetheygenerallypracticegoodcitizenshipintheUnitedStatesandabroadbycreatingbetterworkingconditions,protectingtheenvironment,andpositivelyinfluencinglocalandglobalcommunities.
• Corporationsdon'tnecessarilyneedtohaveaconscience;corporatesocialresponsibility(CSR)isoftenseenascodeformoregovernmentregulationandoversightofthecorporatemarketplace,which,inthelongrun,benefitsnoone.
StudentshavetheopportunitytoTakeInformedActionbyusingtheinformationfromtheinquirytoevaluateacorporationthatisactivelyengagedinasocialresponsibilityproject.StudentsdemonstratethattheyunderstandthroughtheirworkonSupportingQuestions1,2,and3,whiletheyassesssocialresponsibilityinSupportingQuestion4.Studentsactbywritingaletterexpressingareactiontoacorporation’seffortsatCSR.Thistaskcanbedoneinadditionto,orasasubstitutefor,theSummativePerformanceTask.Studentscouldwritealettertothecompanysharingtheresultsoftheevaluationandnotingwhethertheythinkthecompanyshouldcontinueitsefforts.
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SupportingQuestion1
FeaturedSource SourceA:NicoleFallon,explanationofCorporateSocialResponsibility,“WhatisCorporateSocialResponsibility?”BusinessNewsDaily,2015
NOTE:SMEisanacronymforSmallandMedium-SizedEnterprises
WhatIsCSR?
CorporateSocialResponsibilityisamanagementconceptwherebycompaniesintegratesocialandenvironmentalconcernsintheirbusinessoperationsandinteractionswiththeirstakeholders.CSRisgenerallyunderstoodasbeingthewaythroughwhichacompanyachievesabalanceofeconomic,environmentalandsocialimperatives(“Triple-Bottom-Line-Approach”),whileatthesametimeaddressingtheexpectationsofshareholdersandstakeholders.InthissenseitisimportanttodrawadistinctionbetweenCSR,whichcanbeastrategicbusinessmanagementconcept,andcharity,sponsorshipsorphilanthropy.Eventhoughthelattercanalsomakeavaluablecontributiontopovertyreduction,willdirectlyenhancethereputationofacompanyandstrengthenitsbrand,theconceptofCSRclearlygoesbeyondthat.
PromotingtheuptakeofCSRamongstSMEsrequiresapproachesthatfittherespectiveneedsandcapacitiesofthesebusinesses,anddonotadverselyaffecttheireconomicviability.UNIDObaseditsCSRprogrammeontheTripleBottomLine(TBL)Approach,whichhasproventobeasuccessfultoolforSMEsinthedevelopingcountriestoassisttheminmeetingsocialandenvironmentalstandardswithoutcompromisingtheircompetitiveness.TheTBLapproachisusedasaframeworkformeasuringandreportingcorporateperformanceagainsteconomic,socialandenvironmentalperformance.Itisanattempttoalignprivateenterprisestothegoalofsustainableglobaldevelopmentbyprovidingthemwithamorecomprehensivesetofworkingobjectivesthanjustprofitalone.Theperspectivetakenisthatforanorganizationtobesustainable,itmustbefinanciallysecure,minimize(orideallyeliminate)itsnegativeenvironmentalimpactsandactinconformitywithsocietalexpectations.
KeyCSRissues:environmentalmanagement,eco-efficiency,responsiblesourcing,stakeholderengagement,labourstandardsandworkingconditions,employeeandcommunityrelations,socialequity,genderbalance,humanrights,goodgovernance,andanti-corruptionmeasures.
AproperlyimplementedCSRconceptcanbringalongavarietyofcompetitiveadvantages,suchasenhancedaccesstocapitalandmarkets,increasedsalesandprofits,operationalcostsavings,improvedproductivityandquality,efficienthumanresourcebase,improvedbrandimageandreputation,enhancedcustomerloyalty,betterdecisionmakingandriskmanagementprocesses.ReprintedwithpermissionfromtheUnitedNationsIndustrialDevelopmentOrganization.http://www.unido.org/en/what-we-do/trade/csr/what-is-csr.html.
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SupportingQuestion1
FeaturedSourceSourceB:RichardHolmeandPhilWatts,studythatexamineswhatcorporatesocialresponsibilitymeansaswellaspracticesassociatedwiththatethic,“CorporateSocialResponsibility:MakingGoodBusinessSense”(excerpt),2000
HEADLINES
OuractivityoverthepastmonthshassignificantlybroadenedanddeepenedourunderstandingofthemanyfacetsofCSR.Herearesomeofthemostrelevantfindings:“theheadlines”.
Arecognitionthat:
• CSRisessentialtothelongtermprosperityofcompaniesasitprovidestheopportunitytodemonstratethehumanfaceofbusiness—avitallinktosocietyingeneraland,inparticular,tothecommunitiesinwhichbusinessesarelocated;
• thevalueofcreatingpracticalpartnershipsanddialoguebetweenbusiness,government,andorganizationscannotbeunderestimated;
• companiesshouldsaywhattheystandforanddemonstrateitinaction.
“Ourpositionastheworld’sleadingmediaandentertainmentcompanycouldnothavebeenreached—andcouldnothavebeensustained—solelyfrombusinesssuccess.Itrestsequallyonourtraditionofsocialresponsibilityandcommunityinvolvement.Atthecoreofthisenterpriseisthedeterminationtomakeadifferenceaswellasaprofit.”
GeraldLevin,ChairmanandCEO,TimeWarner,Inc.
Headline#1 CSRasthehumanfaceofbusiness
InourfirstReportweconcludedthatacoherentCSRstrategy,basedonintegrity,soundvaluesandalong-termapproachofferedclearbusinessbenefits.Thebenefitsthenperceivedareincreasinglyobvioustomanycorporateleaders:abetteralignmentofcorporategoalswiththoseofsociety,andindeedofthecompaniesownmanagersmaintainingthecompany’sreputation;securingitscontinuedlicensetooperate;andreducingriskanditsassociatedcosts.Inotherwords,takingthelongertermview.SincethatReport,thekeyconclusionsofwhicharesetoutin‘Settingthescene’,thedebateonglobalizationhasintensified,bringingfurthercompellingreasonsforcompaniestofocusonCSR.Today,therefore,ourbusiness-caseargumenthasexpandedtoincludethefollowingpoints.
Concernsassociatedwithglobalization,freetradeandforeigndirectinvestmentcontinuetoberaisedandcouldthreateninvestmentandeconomicgrowth.Theseconcernsoftencenteronthebeliefthatsocialandenvironmentalstandardsarebeingcompromised,orthatinvestmentdecisionsareinsensitivetolocalneedsandcircumstances.CSRprovidesbusinesswithanopportunitytodemonstratethatthisdoesnothavetobethecase.GoodCSRpoliciesbasedonpartnershipswithhostcountriesandcommunitiesandonimplementingtheprinciplesofsustainabledevelopmentcandemonstratealocalcommitmentonthepartofeventhelargestglobalcompany.
CSRrepresentsthehumanfaceofthehighlycompetitiveworldofcommerce.Perceptionofthishumanfaceisavitalandnecessarypartofsociety’swillingnesstoacceptthesignificantandsometimes(atleastintheshort-term)difficultchargesbroughtaboutbyelementsofglobalization.
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Ifinternationalcompaniessetpolicies,howeverwellintentioned,fromremotecorporateheadquarterswithoutfosteringpartnershipsandlocalinvolvementinthecommunitiesinwhichtheydobusiness,theyarelikelytofuelfeelingsofalienationandsuspicion.Businesstodaysimplycannotaffordsuchalienationsincethoseverycommunitiesarevitaltoacompany’scontinuedcommercialsuccess.Businessneedsastablesocialenvironmentthatprovidesapredictableclimateforinvestmentandtrade.
CSRisthemeansbywhichbusinesscontributestothatstabilityratherthandetractingfromit.Byestablishingandmaintainacorporateagendawhichrecognizessocialprioritiesandistailoredtomeetthem,businessdisplaysitshumanfacetoconsumers,communitiesandopinionleaders.Training,thetransferofskillsandexpertise,newtechnologicalsolutions,contractingofservices,helpfulinfrastructuredevelopment,aswellascommunitysocialandhealthprogramsandaclearcommitmenttohumanrightscanalldemonstratethewilltobeagoodlocalcitizenandtohelpcreatesustainablelivelihoods.Bytheirsocialcontribution,companiesshowthehumanfaceofglobalizationandreducefearsaboutthenegativeimpactsofinternationalbusinessonlocallife.
Foranycompany,givingahighprioritytoCSRisnolongerseentorepresentanunproductivecostorresourceburden,but,increasingly,asameansofenhancingreputationandcredibilityamongstakeholders–somethingonwhichsuccessorevensurvivalmaydepend.Understandingandtakingaccountingofsociety’sexpectationsisquitesimplyenlightenedself-interestforbusinessintoday’sindependentworld.
Headline#2 Globalprinciples—localpartnershipsareintegral
DifferentbusinessesindifferentsectorsinevitablyputemphasisondifferentaspectsofCSR.Forexample,anaturalresourcebusinessmayemphasizecommunityengagement,whereas,aretailermayfocusonsupplychainmanagement.Asourdialoguesdemonstrate,differentsocietiesaroundtheworldhavevaryingexpectationsandcultures.Thismeansthatuniversalcodes—the“one-size-fits-all”—approachmaynotprovidetheanswer.
Webelievethatcompaniesshoulddeclaretheirownvaluesandtalkthemthroughinopenandtransparentdialoguewiththosewhohaveastakein,orareaffectedby,theiroperations—whethertheybecentralandlocalgovernments,IGOs,NGOsorlocalcommunities.Externalcodes,guidelinesorprinciplescanprovideahelpfulbackdroporalignment,butthereisnosubstituteforinternaljudgmentastowhatconstitutesaconstructiveandpracticalpartnership.Dialogueandunderstandingcanleadtousefulpartnerships,baseduponaclearappreciationofeachother’sexpectations.
Headline#3 Saywhatyoustandfor.Demonstrateitinaction.Makeadifference.
Toomanydiscussionsaboutthemeaningofcorporatesocialresponsibilityareplaguedwithcarefulqualifications.Thelanguageistentative,theobjectivesobscure.Participantsinthedebatecannolongeraffordtheluxuryofambiguity.Meaningfulchangeisnecessary.Companiesmustmovefrombeing“observerandvictim”tobeing“shaperandadvocate.”(SeeMultinationalCorporations&HumanRights,DepartmentofPublicInternationalLaw,ErasmusUniversity,Rotterdam,AveryChris.)
Webelievethatcompaniesneedtobeclearaboutwhattheystandforandthattheyshouldspeakopenlyanddirectlyabouttheirsocialvaluesandconduct.Inshort,ourmessageis:determineapositionandstateyourthinking.Ifyoudecide,asacorporation,thathumanrightsorsocialinvestmentareapriorityinyouroperations,makeacommitment.Putsomemusclebehindwhatyoustandforandbackitupwithaction.
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Weseethispro-activestanceasanimportantextensiontoourearlierthinkingontheimportanceofbeingresponsivetolocalandculturaldifferenceswhenimplementingglobalpolicies.Ourglobalconsultationsreinforceourconvictionthatbeingresponsivemeansdemonstratingresponsibilityandlocalsensitivityinaction.
Inconclusion,ourmessageis:Determineyourvalues,thendemonstratethemthroughspecificinitiatives.Whatmattersiswhatyoudoandthedifferenceyoumake.
SOUNDINGS
Aregionalperspective
AnimportantelementoftheWBCSD’sworkoncorporatesocialresponsibilityhasbeentoexplorewhattheissuemeans,bothtobusinessitselfandtoawidespectrumofnon-businessstakeholders.WefeltwealreadyhadareasonablygoodgraspofthegeneralEuropeanandNorthAmericanperspectivesonCSRbasedonourfirstdialogueinTheNetherlands.Butwhatwerepeoplesayingabouttheissueinotherpartsoftheworld?Weneededperspectiveswhichreflectedmorelocalorcommunity-basedpriorities.
Subsequently,wehavediscussedtheseissueswithbusinessandnon-businessstakeholdersinanothersevencountriesaroundtheworld.Ouraimwastounderstandlocalperspectivesbetterandgaugewhetherbusinessisontherighttrack.Inthefollowingpages,wecapturehighlightsfromtheseencounters.(Pleasenotethatcarewastakentoaccuratelyreflectpeople’scomments.However,suchanactivityissubjecttonumerousinterpretationsandgeneralizations.)
Itissignificantthatpeoplearetalkingabouttheroleoftheprivatesectorinrelationtoasocialagendaandtheyseethatroleasincreasinglylinkedtotheoverallwell-beingofsociety.
Therewaswidespreadunderstandingandsupportfortheconceptofresponsiblecompaniesengagedwiththewell-beingofsocietiesinwhichtheyoperate.Predictable,theprioritiesforactiondiffered,accordingtotheperceptionoflocalneeds.What,then,didpeopleseeaslocalpriorities?Basedonregionaldialogues,itcanbesummarizedashelpingtomeettheneedsoflocalsociety.
DoesthedefinitionofCSRpassmuster?
“Corporatesocialresponsibilityisthecontinuingcommitmentbybusinesstobehaveethicallyandcontributetoeconomicdevelopmentwhileimprovingthequalityoflifeoftheworkforceandtheirfamiliesaswellasofthelocalcommunityandsocietyatlarge.”
Theabovedefinitionwasdevelopedin1998forourfirstCSRdialogueinTheNetherlands.Duringtheroundofglobaldialogues,weinvitedparticipantstodiscussthisdefinition.Thefollowingemerged:
InTaiwan,itwasfeltthatthedefinitionshouldaddress:
• benefitsforfuturegenerations• environmentalconcerns(damagepreventionandremediation).
“CSRisthecontributiontothedevelopmentofnaturalandhumancapital,inadditiontojustmakingaprofit.”--WBCSDstakeholderdialogues,TaipeiTaiwan,March1999.
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IntheUSA,peoplesaid:
• includemoreemphasisontheroleoftheindividual• reflecttheneedforgreatertransparency• theterm“economicdevelopment”doesnotadequatelycapturethebreadthfortheeconomicroleof
businessinsociety.
“CSRisabouttakingpersonalresponsibilityforyouractionsandtheimpactsthatyouhaveonsociety.Companiesandemployeesmustundergoapersonaltransformation,re-examinetheirroles,theirresponsibilitiesandincreasetheirlevelofaccountability.”--WBCSDstakeholderdialogues,DetroitUSA,May1999.
InGhana,itwassaidthatthedefinitionshouldmentionthenotionof:
• aglobalperspectivewhichrepresentslocalculture• buildinglocalcapacityleavingapositivelegacy• empowermentandownership• teachingemployeesskillsandenablingcommunitiestobeself-sufficient• filling-inwhengovernmentfallsshort• givingaccesstoinformation• partnerships,becauseCSRdoesnotdevelopinavacuum.
“CSRisaboutcapacitybuildingforsustainablelivelihoods.Itrespectsculturaldifferencesandfindsthebusinessopportunitiesinbuildingtheskillsofemployees,thecommunityandgovernment.”--WBCSDstakeholderdialogues,AccraGhana,May1999.
InThailand,peoplesaiditshouldtrytocapture:
• theconceptthatthebiggerthecompany,thegreatertheobligation• theimportanceofenvironmentalmitigationandprevention• theneedfortransparency• theimportanceofconsumerprotection• awarenessofandchangeinpeople’sattitudestowardstheenvironment• therelevanceofyouthandgenderissues.
“CSRmustbelocallyrelevantandmeaningfulonlyifbackupaction.”--WBCSDstakeholderdialogues,BangkokThailand,May1999.
InthePhilippines,itwasproposedthatitshouldfocuson:
• determiningtherealneedsofstakeholders• definingethicalbehavior• partnerships• avisionaryandleadingrole
“CSRisaboutbusinessgivingbacktosociety”--WBCSDstakeholderdialogues,ManilaThePhilippinesJune1999.
InBrazil,itwasstressedthat:
• allbusinesses,communitiesandstakeholdersareresponsibleforsustainabledevelopment• businessshouldpursuehighethicalstandardsbothwithintheiroperationsandwithinthebroader
community.
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“CSRisaboutcommitmenttostriveforthebesteconomicdevelopmentforthecommunity,torespectworkersandbuildtheircapacities,toprotecttheenvironmentandtohelpcreateframeworkswhereethicalbusinesscanprosper.”--WBCSDstakeholderdialogues,RiodeJaniero,BrazilSeptember1999.
InArgentina,participantsfeltthat:
• CSRshouldstressbusinesscommitmentandsustainableeconomicdevelopment• Stakeholderparticipationwasessential.
“CSRisaboutacorporation’sabilitytorespondtosocialchallenges.Itstartswithdevelopinggoodrelationswithneighbors.Companiesshouldmakeastrongcommitmenttoeducation,workerrights,capacitybuilding,andjobsecurity.CSRisstimulatingtheeconomicdevelopmentofacommunity.“--WBCSDstakeholderdialogues,BuenosAiresArgentina,September1999.
Asso,whatcanweconclude?Ouroriginaldefinitionwasreasonablyconsistentwiththeregionalinputsbutcanbeimprovedsothatitnowreads:
“Corporatesocialresponsibilityisthecommitmentofbusinesstocontributetosustainableeconomicdevelopment,workingwithemployees,theirfamilies,thelocalcommunityandsocietyatlargetoimprovetheirqualityoflife.”
WhatkeyissuesdoesCSRinclude?
Inourfirstreport,thefollowingfivetopicsemergedaspriorityareas:
• Humanrights• Employeerights• Environmentprotection• Communityinvolvement• Supplierrelations.
What,then,wasthereactiontothislistofissuesduringthelatestroundofdialogues?Didparticipantsintheregionaleventsalsojudgetheseissuestobepriorityconcerns?Wesummarizebelowthekeymessagesandregionalthemes.
Humanrights
Discussionsabouttherolewhichcompaniesplaydealingwithhumanrightselicitedmixedreactionsfromdialogueparticipants.Thisisprimarilybecausedifferentregionsinterpretthetermhumanrightsdifferently.Inseveralareasthetermwasnarrowlyinterpretedtomeanchildandslavelabor.Inotherareashumanrightswereseenasanumbrellatocoveralmostallsocialandenvironmentalissuesstartingwiththerighttobreathecleanairanddrinkcleanwater.TheWBCSDdidnotattempttodefinehumanrights,sincetheideawastoobtainreactionstowhatthetermmeanttoparticipants,andascertaintheirideasontheroleofbusiness.
Manyfeltthatcompanieshadnotbusinessmeddlinginpoliticstopressuregovernmentonhumanrightsissues.Othersfeltitimperativethatcompaniesshouldexerttheirinfluenceinordertobringaboutchangetoensurehumanrightswereobserved.Nearlyalloftheparticipantstoldusthatupholdinghumanrightswithincompanies,andinareasdirectlyinfluenceorcontrolledbycompanies,wasveryimportant.Moststressedtheimportanceofrespectinglocalculturaldifferencesandeconomicsituations,whichshapetheperceptionofwhathumanrightsareandwhatconstitutesaviolationofhumanrights.Westernconceptsshouldnotbeimposedonothers,theysaid.Furthermore,itwasclearlyfeltthatcompaniesshouldcontributetoimprovinghumanrightsbybuildinglocalcapacityandincreasinguseoflocalgoodsandservicesintheiroperations.
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Employeerights
Allthedialoguesstressedthatthewell-beingofemployeeswasparamountinanydiscussionofcorporatesocialresponsibility.Ourinterlocutorstoldusthatemployeerightsshouldincludetherightstoenhanceskillsandcapacityandthatcompanieshadanobligationtoprovidetrainingtohelpensurefutureemploymentbeitwiththatcompanyorwithanother.Theimportanceofrespectingculturaldifferenceswasalsostressedduringmanyofthedialogues,particularlywithregardtoculturalissuesintheworkplace.Manyparticipantsemphasizedthatthechoiceofhowtoberepresented,includingrepresentationthroughunionswascritical,aswereissuesofpayequityandfaircompensation.
Environmentalprotection
Howdidtheenvironmentfareasapriorityissueofcorporatesocialresponsibility?MostfeltthatenvironmentalstewardshipwasanimportantcomponentofCSRandthatcompliancewithenvironmentallegislationandregulationswasfundamental.However,itwasemphasizedthatwhileinmanypartsoftheworldsuchcomplianceisagiven,insomeareasthisisstillnotthecase.Poorenforcementcapacityofsomegovernmentsandtheheavyeconomicburdensofupgradingoldplantsandcleanertechnologyarebarrierstobetterenvironmentalperformance.Dialogueparticipantsencouragedlowcosttechnologytransferschemesandfurtherexplorationofself-monitoringasameansofimprovingenvironmentalperformance,particularlyinpartsoftheworldwheregovernmentinfrastructureandenforcementwaslax.
Communityinvolvement
Dialogueparticipantstalkedabouttheimportanceofcompanyinvolvementandinvestmentinthelocalcommunity.Thisinvolvementwasfurtherdefinedtoincludesuchthingsasresponsibilityforskillstrainingandensuringthatproperhealthandsafetysystemswereinplacetoprotectthecommunity.Partnershipsareseenasanimportantpartofcorporatesocialresponsibility.Philanthropyandcharitywerementionedfrequently,butmanyparticipantsemphasizedpreferenceforcollaborativeprojectsandplacedgreaterstressonmutualitythanonsimplygiving.Theover-archingmessagewasclear.Regularcontactwiththelocalcommunityandampleopportunityfordialogueareextremelyimportant.Companiesmayfeelasiftheyarepartofthecommunitybutuntiltherestofthecommunityacceptsthem,thereismuchworktobedone.
Supplierrelations
Companyrelationswithsuppliersandcontractorswasnotalwaysdeemedapriorityamongthedialogueparticipants.InAsiaandAfrica,althoughmanyrecognizedtheissueasbeingimportanttheyfeltthatotherissuesshouldtakeprecedence.Severalspokeoftheimportanceofincreasingopportunitiesfornationalsuppliers.InArgentinaandBrazil,oneofthekeyCSRissueswasimprovingtheexchangeofknowledge,technologyandideasbetweensuppliersandcompanies.
Capturingadditionalthinking
Weweretoldthatthereweresomeimportantissuesmissingfromourinitiallist.Theyincluded:
• Reporting/disclosure/transparency.IntheAsiandialogues,weweretoldthatdemandforreportingwascurrentlylowbutthatthiswouldgrowinimportanceinthefuture.IntheUS,thediscussionsemphasizedtheneedforgreatertransparencyinreportingandauditingsystems.InbothArgentinaandBrazilthedemandforgreatertransparencyhadrisenwiththeprivatizationofmanyindustries.
• Principles/codes.InThailand,weweretoldthatcodeswerearelativelynewtoolbutfeltthatinordertobeuseful,anycodeorsetofprinciplesneededtobeadaptedtolocalculturalsituations.Codeswerealsoregardedasapotentiallygoodmeanstoeliminatecorruption.InTaiwan,weweretoldthatcorporations
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sufferfromanimageproblemandwouldbenefitfromsomeimprovementtotheiroverallreputation.IntheUS,participantsstressedtheneedforbettercommunicationofethics/principlesintunewithsocietiesexpectations.Theseprinciples,iftheyweretohaverealvalue,wouldhavetobecommunicatedtointernalandexternalaudiencesthroughgoodperformancewhichhasbeenindependentlyverified.InArgentinaandBrazil,thevalueofcodeswasthoughttobelimited.
• Consumereducation/productusage/stewardship.OurSouthEastAsianandNorthAmericandialoguesemphasizedtheroleofbusinessineducatingconsumersaboutwhatproductscontain,abouttheirproperuseanddisposalabouttheenvironmentalimpactsofthecompleteproductlifecycle.InTaiwanitwassuggestedthatbusinessfundsNGOstodevelopgeneralenvironmentaleducationprogramsforthecommunity.Thiswascoupledwiththeirstronggovernmentcommitmenttoenvironmentaleducationprogramsinschoolsstartingataveryearlyage.InLatinAmerica,consumereducationwasalsoseenasacriticalelementinpromotingsustainableconsumption.
• Communication.Deemedimportant,butactionsspeaklouderthanwords.InGhana,concernsarosearoundthosecompaniesthatoverpublicizerelativelymodestcontributions.Overall,itwasfeltthatcompaniesdonotdoagoodenoughjobofcommunicatingthegoodthingstheydoandthatcommunitytrustcouldbeincreasedifcompanieswouldsimplytelltheirstory.Thestory,ofcourse,neededtobetransmittedinanimaginativeformbyrespectedlocalpeopleinafashionappropriatetothelocalcommunity.
• Corruptionisdetrimentaltoinvestmentandhencetothewell-beingofsociety.Corruptionwithingovernmentdistortsthemarketplaceandrepresentsaseriousproblemforbusiness,particularlysmallercompanieswhomaynotfinditaseasytoresisttheirlargercounterparts.
©2000TheWorldBusinessCouncilforSustainableDevelopment.Reprintedwithpermission.http://www.wbcsd.org/pages/edocument/edocumentdetails.aspx?id=83&nosearchcontextkey=true.
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SupportingQuestion1
FeaturedSourceSourceC:JaneNelson,articleprovidinganoverviewofcorporatesocialresponsibilityincludingrisks,opportunities,andquestionsaboutthisethic,“ThePublicRoleofPrivateEnterprise:Risks,OpportunitiesandNewModelsofEngagement”(excerpts),2004
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CorporateSocialResponsibilityInitiativeWorkingPaperNo.1,ReprintedwithpermissionfromtheJohnF.KennedySchoolofGovernment,HarvardUniversity.http://www.hks.harvard.edu/content/download/67667/1243478/version/1/file/workingpaper_1_nelson.pdf.
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SupportingQuestion2
FeaturedSource SourceA:TimHindle,articledefininganddescribingtheTripleBottomLine,“TripleBottomLine,”TheEconomist,November19,2009
Toaccessthissource,pleaseclickonthefollowinglink:http://www.economist.com/node/14301663
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SupportingQuestion2
FeaturedSourceSourceB:AndreasB.EisingerichandGunjanBhardwaj,articleexaminingtheeffectivenessofcorporatesocialresponsibility,“DoesSocialResponsibilityHelpProtectaCompany’sReputation?”MITSloneReview,2011
DoesSocialResponsibilityHelpProtectaCompany’sReputation?
Whenconsumersencounternegativeinformationaboutacompany,itsreputationforcorporatesocialresponsibilitycanhelp—butonlysometimes.
AndreasB.EisingerichandGunjanBhardwaj
March23,2011
Negativeinformationaboutbusinessesisomnipresent.Evenmuch-admiredbusinesses,suchasAppleInc.,mustdealwithnegativeinformation,asApplediscoveredwhenconsumercomplaintssurfacedin2010abouttheantennadesignofitsiPhone4.Negativeinformationtendstospreadfasterthanpositiveand,becauseofincreasedusageofsocialmediaandtheInternet,businessesarelikelytobeconfrontedwithmore—notless—negativeinformationabouttheircompaniesinthefuture.Whilethespreadofnegativeinformationmaynotalwaysbeunderthecontrolofabusiness,itcantrytomitigatethepotentialdamagefromnegativeinformationindifferentways.
Anincreasingnumberofcompaniesinvestmoneyincorporatesocialresponsibilityinitiatives,inparttobuildgeneralgoodwillfortheirorganizations.However,wehavenotknownhoweffectivecorporatesocialresponsibilityinitiativesareinstrengtheningcustomerresistancetonegativeinformation,comparedtoothertacticsthatcanenhanceacompany’sreputation—suchasinvestinginproductorservicequalityorcustomercare.Doesdoinggoodhelpprotectabusiness’sreputationagainstnegativeinformationitmaybeconfrontedwithinthefuture?
Notcompletely,somerecentresearchofourssuggests.WeconductedastudywithGaiaRubera,anassistantprofessorofmarketingatEliBroadCollegeofBusinessatMichiganStateUniversity,andMatthiasSeifert,anassistantprofessorofoperationsandtechnologyatIEBusinessSchoolinMadrid,tolookathowcustomersreactedtonegativeinformationaboutacompany.DetailedresultsfromthestudywerepublishedintheFebruary2011issueoftheJournalofServiceResearch.
©MassachusettsInstituteofTechnology2011.Reprintedwithpermission.http://sloanreview.mit.edu/article/does-social-responsibility-help-protect-a-companys-reputation/.
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SupportingQuestion3
FeaturedSource SourceA:MiltonFriedman,articlearguingthatmaximizingprofitsissociallyresponsible,“TheSocialResponsibilityofBusinessIstoIncreaseItsProfits,”NewYorkTimes,September13,1970
WhenIhearbusinessmenspeakeloquentlyaboutthe"socialresponsibilitiesofbusinessinafree-enterprisesystem,"IamremindedofthewonderfullineabouttheFrenchmanwhodiscoveredattheageof70thathehadbeenspeakingproseallhislife.Thebusinessmenbelievethattheyaredefendingfreeenterprisewhentheydeclaimthatbusinessisnotconcerned"merely"withprofitbutalsowithpromotingdesirable"social"ends;thatbusinesshasa"socialconscience"andtakesseriouslyitsresponsibilitiesforprovidingemployment,eliminatingdiscrimination,avoidingpollutionandwhateverelsemaybethecatchwordsofthecontemporarycropofreformers.Infacttheyare–orwouldbeiftheyoranyoneelsetookthemseriously–preachingpureandunadulteratedsocialism.Businessmenwhotalkthiswayareunwittingpuppetsoftheintellectualforcesthathavebeenunderminingthebasisofafreesocietythesepastdecades.
Thediscussionsofthe"socialresponsibilitiesofbusiness"arenotablefortheiranalyticalloosenessandlackofrigor.Whatdoesitmeantosaythat"business"hasresponsibilities?Onlypeoplecanhaveresponsibilities.Acorporationisanartificialpersonandinthissensemayhaveartificialresponsibilities,but"business"asawholecannotbesaidtohaveresponsibilities,eveninthisvaguesense.Thefirststeptowardclarityinexaminingthedoctrineofthesocialresponsibilityofbusinessistoaskpreciselywhatitimpliesforwhom.
Presumably,theindividualswhoaretoberesponsiblearebusinessmen,whichmeansindividualproprietorsorcorporateexecutives.Mostofthediscussionofsocialresponsibilityisdirectedatcorporations,soinwhatfollowsIshallmostlyneglecttheindividualproprietorsandspeakofcorporateexecutives.
Inafree-enterprise,private-propertysystem,acorporateexecutiveisanemployeeoftheownersofthebusiness.Hehasdirectresponsibilitytohisemployers.Thatresponsibilityistoconductthebusinessinaccordancewiththeirdesires,whichgenerallywillbetomakeasmuchmoneyaspossiblewhileconformingtothebasicrulesofthesociety,boththoseembodiedinlawandthoseembodiedinethicalcustom.Ofcourse,insomecaseshisemployersmayhaveadifferentobjective.Agroupofpersonsmightestablishacorporationforaneleemosynarypurpose–forexample,ahospitaloraschool.Themanagerofsuchacorporationwillnothavemoneyprofitashisobjectivebuttherenderingofcertainservices.
Ineithercase,thekeypointisthat,inhiscapacityasacorporateexecutive,themanageristheagentoftheindividualswhoownthecorporationorestablishtheeleemosynaryinstitution,andhisprimaryresponsibilityistothem.
Needlesstosay,thisdoesnotmeanthatitiseasytojudgehowwellheisperforminghistask.Butatleastthecriterionofperformanceisstraightforward,andthepersonsamongwhomavoluntarycontractualarrangementexistsareclearlydefined.
Ofcourse,thecorporateexecutiveisalsoapersoninhisownright.Asaperson,hemayhavemanyotherresponsibilitiesthatherecognizesorassumesvoluntarily–tohisfamily,hisconscience,hisfeelingsofcharity,hischurch,hisclubs,hiscity,hiscountry.Hemayfeelimpelledbytheseresponsibilitiestodevotepartofhisincometocausesheregardsasworthy,torefusetoworkforparticularcorporations,eventoleavehisjob,forexample,tojoinhiscountry'sarmedforces.Ifwewish,wemayrefertosomeoftheseresponsibilitiesas"socialresponsibilities."Butintheserespectsheisactingasaprincipal,notanagent;heisspendinghisownmoneyor
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timeorenergy,notthemoneyofhisemployersorthetimeorenergyhehascontractedtodevotetotheirpurposes.Iftheseare"socialresponsibilities,"theyarethesocialresponsibilitiesofin-dividuals,notofbusiness.
Whatdoesitmeantosaythatthecorporateexecutivehasa"socialresponsibility"inhiscapacityasbusinessman?Ifthisstatementisnotpurerhetoric,itmustmeanthatheistoactinsomewaythatisnotintheinterestofhisemployers.Forexample,thatheistorefrainfromincreasingthepriceoftheproductinordertocontributetothesocialobjectiveofpreventinginflation,eventhoughapriceincreasewouldbeinthebestinterestsofthecorporation.Orthatheistomakeexpendituresonreducingpollutionbeyondtheamountthatisinthebestinterestsofthecor-porationorthatisrequiredbylawinordertocontributetothesocialobjectiveofimprovingtheenvironment.Orthat,attheexpenseofcorporateprofits,heistohire"hardcore"unemployedinsteadofbetterqualifiedavailableworkmentocontributetothesocialobjectiveofreducingpoverty.
Ineachofthesecases,thecorporateexecutivewouldbespendingsomeoneelse'smoneyforageneralsocialinterest.Insofarashisactionsinaccordwithhis"socialresponsibility"reducereturnstostockholders,heisspendingtheirmoney.Insofarashisactionsraisethepricetocustomers,heisspendingthecustomers'money.Insofarashisactionslowerthewagesofsomeemployees,heisspendingtheirmoney.
Thestockholdersorthecustomersortheemployeescouldseparatelyspendtheirownmoneyontheparticularactioniftheywishedtodoso.Theexecutiveisexercisingadistinct"socialresponsibility,"ratherthanservingasanagentofthestockholdersorthecustomersortheemployees,onlyifhespendsthemoneyinadifferentwaythantheywouldhavespentit.
Butifhedoesthis,heisineffectimposingtaxes,ontheonehand,anddecidinghowthetaxproceedsshallbespent,ontheother.
Thisprocessraisespoliticalquestionsontwolevels:principleandconsequences.Onthelevelofpoliticalprinciple,theimpositionoftaxesandtheexpenditureoftaxproceedsaregov-ernmentalfunctions.Wehaveestablishedelab-orateconstitutional,parliamentaryandjudicialprovisionstocontrolthesefunctions,toassurethattaxesareimposedsofaraspossibleinac-cordancewiththepreferencesanddesiresofthepublic–afterall,"taxationwithoutrepresentation"wasoneofthebattlecriesoftheAmericanRevolution.Wehaveasystemofchecksandbalancestoseparatethelegisla-tivefunctionofimposingtaxesandenactingexpendituresfromtheexecutivefunctionofcollectingtaxesandadministeringexpendi-tureprogramsandfromthejudicialfunctionofmediatingdisputesandinterpretingthelaw.
Herethebusinessman–self-selectedorappointeddirectlyorindirectlybystockholders–istobesimultaneouslylegislator,executiveand,jurist.Heistodecidewhomtotaxbyhowmuchandforwhatpurpose,andheistospendtheproceeds–allthisguidedonlybygeneralexhortationsfromonhightorestraininflation,improvetheenvironment,fightpovertyandsoonandon.
Thewholejustificationforpermittingthecorporateexecutivetobeselectedbythestockholdersisthattheexecutiveisanagentservingtheinterestsofhisprincipal.Thisjustificationdisappearswhenthecorporateex-ecutiveimposestaxesandspendsthepro-ceedsfor"social"purposes.Hebecomesineffectapublicemployee,acivilservant,eventhoughheremainsinnameanemployeeofaprivateenterprise.Ongroundsofpoliticalprinciple,itisintolerablethatsuchcivilservants–insofarastheiractionsinthenameofsocialresponsibilityarerealandnotjustwindow-dressing–shouldbeselectedastheyarenow.Iftheyaretobecivilservants,thentheymustbeelectedthroughapoliticalprocess.Iftheyaretoimposetaxesandmakeexpenditurestofoster"social"objectives,thenpoliticalmachinerymustbesetuptomaketheassessmentoftaxesandtodeterminethroughapoliticalprocesstheobjectivestobeserved.
Thisisthebasicreasonwhythedoctrineof"socialresponsibility"involvestheacceptanceofthesocialistviewthat
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politicalmechanisms,notmarketmechanisms,aretheappropriatewaytodeterminetheallocationofscarceresourcestoalternativeuses.
Onthegroundsofconsequences,canthecorporateexecutiveinfactdischargehisalleged"socialresponsibilities?"Ontheotherhand,supposehecouldgetawaywithspendingthestockholders'orcustomers'oremployees'money.Howishetoknowhowtospendit?Heistoldthathemustcontributetofightinginflation.Howishetoknowwhatactionofhiswillcontributetothatend?Heispresumablyanexpertinrunninghiscompany–inproducingaproductorsellingitorfinancingit.Butnothingabouthisselectionmakeshimanexpertoninflation.Willhisholdingdownthepriceofhisproductreduceinflationarypressure?Or,byleavingmorespendingpowerinthehandsofhiscustomers,simplydivertitelsewhere?Or,byforcinghimtoproducelessbecauseofthelowerprice,willitsimplycontributetoshortages?Evenifhecouldan-swerthesequestions,howmuchcostishejustifiedinimposingonhisstockholders,customersandemployeesforthissocialpurpose?Whatishisappropriateshareandwhatistheappropri-ateshareofothers?
And,whetherhewantstoornot,canhegetawaywithspendinghisstockholders',cus-tomers'oremployees'money?Willnotthestockholdersfirehim?(Eitherthepresentonesorthosewhotakeoverwhenhisactionsinthenameofsocialresponsibilityhavere-ducedthecorporation'sprofitsandthepriceofitsstock.)Hiscustomersandhisemployeescandeserthimforotherproducersandemployerslessscrupulousinexercisingtheirsocialresponsibilities.
Thisfacetof"socialresponsibility"doctrineisbroughtintosharpreliefwhenthedoctrineisusedtojustifywagerestraintbytradeunions.Theconflictofinterestisnakedandclearwhenunionofficialsareaskedtosubordinatetheinterestoftheirmemberstosomemoregeneralpurpose.Iftheunionofficialstrytoenforcewagerestraint,theconsequenceislikelytobewildcatstrikes,rank--and-filerevoltsandtheemergenceofstrongcompetitorsfortheirjobs.Wethushavetheironicphenomenonthatunionleaders–atleastintheU.S.–haveobjectedtoGovernmentinterferencewiththemarketfarmoreconsistentlyandcourageouslythanhavebusinessleaders.
Thedifficultyofexercising"socialresponsibility"illustrates,ofcourse,thegreatvirtueofprivatecompetitiveenterprise–itforcespeopletoberesponsiblefortheirownactionsandmakesitdifficultforthemto"exploit"otherpeopleforeitherselfishorunselfishpurposes.Theycandogood—butonlyattheirownexpense.
Manyareaderwhohasfollowedtheargu-mentthisfarmaybetemptedtoremonstratethatitisallwellandgoodtospeakofGovernment'shavingtheresponsibilitytoimposetaxesanddetermineexpendituresforsuch"social"purposesascontrollingpollu-tionortrainingthehard-coreunemployed,butthattheproblemsaretoourgenttowaitontheslowcourseofpoliticalprocesses,thattheexerciseofsocialresponsibilitybybusinessmenisaquickerandsurerwaytosolvepressingcurrentproblems.
Asidefromthequestionoffact–IshareAdamSmith'sskepticismaboutthebenefitsthatcanbeexpectedfrom"thosewhoaffectedtotradeforthepublicgood"–thisargumentmustberejectedongroundsofprinciple.Whatitamountstoisanassertionthatthosewhofavorthetaxesandexpendituresinquestionhavefailedtopersuadeamajorityoftheirfellowcitizenstobeoflikemindandthattheyareseekingtoattainbyundemocraticprocedureswhattheycannotattainbydemocraticprocedures.Inafreesociety,itishardfor"evil"peopletodo"evil,"especiallysinceoneman'sgoodisanother'sevil.
Ihave,forsimplicity,concentratedonthespecialcaseofthecorporateexecutive,ex-ceptonlyforthebriefdigressionontradeunions.Butpreciselythesameargumentap-pliestothenewerphenomenonofcallinguponstockholderstorequirecorporationstoexercisesocialresponsibility(therecentG.Mcrusadeforexample).Inmostofthesecases,whatisineffectinvolvedissomestockholderstryingtogetotherstockholders(orcustomersoremployees)tocontributeagainsttheirwillto"social"causesfavoredbytheactivists.Insofarastheysucceed,theyareagainimposingtaxesandspendingtheproceeds.
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Thesituationoftheindividualproprietorissomewhatdifferent.Ifheactstoreducethereturnsofhisenterpriseinordertoexercisehis"socialresponsibility,"heisspendinghisownmoney,notsomeoneelse's.Ifhewishestospendhismoneyonsuchpurposes,thatishisright,andIcannotseethatthereisanyobjectiontohisdoingso.Intheprocess,he,too,mayimposecostsonemployeesandcus-tomers.However,becauseheisfarlesslikelythanalargecorporationoruniontohavemo-nopolisticpower,anysuchsideeffectswilltendtobeminor.
Ofcourse,inpracticethedoctrineofsocialresponsibilityisfrequentlyacloakforactionsthatarejustifiedonothergroundsratherthanareasonforthoseactions.
Toillustrate,itmaywellbeinthelongruninterestofacorporationthatisamajoremployerinasmallcommunitytodevoteresourcestoprovidingamenitiestothatcommunityortoimprovingitsgovernment.Thatmaymakeiteasiertoattractdesirableemployees,itmayreducethewagebillorlessenlossesfrompilferageandsabotageorhaveotherworthwhileeffects.Oritmaybethat,giventhelawsaboutthedeductibilityofcorporatecharitablecontributions,thestockholderscancontributemoretochari-tiestheyfavorbyhavingthecorporationmakethegiftthanbydoingitthemselves,sincetheycaninthatwaycontributeanamountthatwouldotherwisehavebeenpaidascorporatetaxes.
Ineachofthese–andmanysimilar–cases,thereisastrongtemptationtorationalizetheseactionsasanexerciseof"socialresponsibility."Inthepresentclimateofopinion,withitswidespreadaversionto"capitalism,""profits,"the"soullesscorporation"andsoon,thisisonewayforacorporationtogenerategoodwillasaby-productofexpendituresthatareentirelyjustifiedinitsownself-interest.
Itwouldbeinconsistentofmetocalloncorporateexecutivestorefrainfromthishypocriticalwindow-dressingbecauseitharmsthefoundationsofafreesociety.Thatwouldbetocallonthemtoexercisea"socialresponsibility"!Ifourinstitutions,andtheatti-tudesofthepublicmakeitintheirself-interesttocloaktheiractionsinthisway,Icannotsummonmuchindignationtodenouncethem.Atthesametime,Icanexpressadmirationforthoseindividualproprietorsorownersofcloselyheldcorporationsorstockholdersofmorebroadlyheldcorporationswhodisdainsuchtacticsasapproachingfraud.
Whetherblameworthyornot,theuseofthecloakofsocialresponsibility,andthenonsensespokeninitsnamebyinfluentialandpresti-giousbusinessmen,doesclearlyharmthefoun-dationsofafreesociety.Ihavebeenimpressedtimeandagainbytheschizophreniccharacterofmanybusinessmen.Theyarecapableofbeingextremelyfarsightedandclearheadedinmattersthatareinternaltotheirbusinesses.Theyareincrediblyshortsightedandmuddle-headedinmattersthatareoutsidetheirbusinessesbutaffectthepossiblesurvivalofbusi-nessingeneral.Thisshortsightednessisstrikinglyexemplifiedinthecallsfrommanybusinessmenforwageandpriceguidelinesorcontrolsorincomepolicies.Thereisnothingthatcoulddomoreinabriefperiodtodestroyamarketsystemandreplaceitbyacentrallycon-trolledsystemthaneffectivegovernmentalcontrolofpricesandwages.
Theshortsightednessisalsoexemplifiedinspeechesbybusinessmenonsocialresponsibility.Thismaygainthemkudosintheshortrun.Butithelpstostrengthenthealreadytooprevalentviewthatthepursuitofprofitsiswickedandimmoralandmustbecurbedandcontrolledbyexternalforces.Oncethisviewisadopted,theexternalforcesthatcurbthemarketwillnotbethesocialconsciences,howeverhighlydeveloped,ofthepontificatingexecutives;itwillbetheironfistofGovernmentbureaucrats.Here,aswithpriceandwagecontrols,businessmenseemtometorevealasuicidalimpulse.
Thepoliticalprinciplethatunderliesthemarketmechanismisunanimity.Inanidealfreemarketrestingonprivateproperty,noindividualcancoerceanyother,allcoopera-tionisvoluntary,allpartiestosuchcoopera-tionbenefitortheyneednotparticipate.Therearenovalues,no"social"responsibilitiesinanysenseotherthanthesharedvaluesandresponsibilitiesofindividuals.Societyisacollectionofindividualsandofthevariousgroupsthey
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voluntarilyform.
Thepoliticalprinciplethatunderliesthepoliticalmechanismisconformity.Theindi-vidualmustserveamoregeneralsocialinterest–whetherthatbedeterminedbyachurchoradictatororamajority.Theindividualmayhaveavoteandsayinwhatistobedone,butifheisoverruled,hemustconform.Itisappropriateforsometorequireotherstocontributetoageneralsocialpurposewhethertheywishtoornot.
Unfortunately,unanimityisnotalwaysfeasible.Therearesomerespectsinwhichconformityappearsunavoidable,soIdonotseehowonecanavoidtheuseofthepoliticalmecha-nismaltogether.
Butthedoctrineof"socialresponsibility"takenseriouslywouldextendthescopeofthepoliticalmechanismtoeveryhumanactivity.Itdoesnotdifferinphilosophyfromthemostexplicitlycollectivistdoctrine.Itdiffersonlybyprofessingtobelievethatcollectivistendscanbeattainedwithoutcollectivistmeans.Thatiswhy,inmybookCapitalismandFreedom,Ihavecalledita"fundamentallysubversivedoctrine"inafreesociety,andhavesaidthatinsuchasociety,"thereisoneandonlyonesocialresponsibilityofbusiness–touseitresourcesandengageinactivitiesdesignedtoincreaseitsprofitssolongasitstayswithintherulesofthegame,whichistosay,engagesinopenandfreecompetitionwithoutdeceptionorfraud."
©TheNewYorkTimes.Allrightsreserved.UsedbypermissionandprotectedbytheCopyrightLawsoftheUnitedStates.Theprinting,copying,redistribution,orretransmissionofthisContentwithoutexpresswrittenpermissionisprohibited.“TheSocialResponsibilityofBusinessistoIncreaseitsProfits”byMiltonFriedman.TheNewYorkTimesMagazine,September13,1970.
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SupportingQuestion3
FeaturedSourceSourceB:BillMcKibben,articlequestioningthemotivesofcorporationspromotingcorporatesocialresponsibility,“Hypevs.Hope:IsCorporateDo-GooderyforReal?”MotherJones,November/December,2006
Tenpercentofatwo-year-old’snounsarebrandnames;bythetimeanAmericanchildheadstoschool,heorshecanrecognizehundredsoflogos.Disneyisnowputtingitscartooncharactersonfreshfruit,arguing(perhapscorrectly)thatit’stheonlywaytogetkidstoeatit.Ifthat’stheworldwe’reborninto,isitanywonderwewantcorporationstosolveourbiggestproblemsaswell?Isn’titaparent’sjobtoprotectus?Andbesides,whoelsehasthecapitalandthepowertodowhatneedstobedoneinthefaceofacrisislikeglobalwarming?Anysignthatcorporationsmightbewillingtotakeonthejobisgreetedwithanenthusiasmthatbordersondelusion.WhenJohnBrowne,theheadofBritishPetroleum[1],gaveaspeechin1997admittingthatglobalwarmingexists,andannouncingthatbusinessmustrespond“totherealityandtheconcernsoftheworldinwhichyouoperate,”peoplebegancallinghimthe“SunKing.”TheheadofCalifornia’sEnvironmentalProtectionAgencyventuredthat“thisboldmovewillsettheworldstageforothercompaniestoemulate.”BP[1]commissionedgreenroofsforitsfillingstations,alongwithawholeslewofadstoutingitsvisionforaworld“beyondpetroleum[1].”AndthereiseveryreasontothinkLordBrownewassincere—he’dstudiedtheproblem,knewitwasbig,andwaswillingtobucktherestoftheindustryinsayingso.Brownewasnottheonlyexecutivethinkingaloudabouthowcorporationsrelatetotherestoftheworld.Hiscommentscameasthedebateover“corporatesocialresponsibility,”longapreoccupationforpeopleinfuzzysweaters,wasabouttoexplodeintomainstreambusinessculture.Themovementhasnowspawnedaboomingindustryinconsultantsandconferences;justthissummertheWorldBusinessCouncilonSustainableDevelopmentissuedamanifestotitled“FromChallengetoOpportunity,”filledwithpicturesofbakingdesertsanddisease-strickenpeasants,butalsowithpromisesto“seekgreatersynergybetweenourgoalsandthoseofthesocietyweserve.”BPsignedon,andsodideveryonefromAdidastoProcter&Gamble.Whichisnice.Thequestionis,whatdoesitamountto?TakeBP.In2004,itsrevenuesfromsolarpowerwerealmost$400million;itstotalrevenues,almostentirelyfromhydrocarbons,were$285billion.Inotherwords,thecompanyhasgonebeyondpetroleumtothetuneofaboutone-sixthof1percentofsales(see“It’sNotEasyBeingGreen,”oppositepage).Andthenewsgetsworsefromthere.Theleakdisasterthatledtothissummer’ssuddenshutdownofBP’sAlaskapipelineturnsoutnottohavebeensuddenatall.Backin1992,whenawhistleblowerraisedconcernsaboutcorrosioninthepipeline,BPrespondedwithacorporatecrackdownthatafederaljudgesaidwas“reminiscentofNaziGermany.”Elsewhere,theWallStreetJournalreportsthatfederalregulatorsareinvestigatingwhetherBPtriedtoinfluencecrude-oilpricesusinginformationaboutitsOklahomapipelinesandstoragetanks;inaseparateprobe,investigatorsaretryingtofigureoutifBPgamedgasolinepricesontheNewYorkMercantileExchange.Meanwhile,thecompany’stopAmericanexecutivewascochairmanoftheBushreelectioncampaigninAlaska.Notveryfarbeyondpetroleum,that.Thereisnoquestionthatentrepreneurswithasocialbentcandoenormousgood—especiallyuntiltheydecidetogopublicorsellouttoalargercorporation.Andtheycandowellatthesametime,connectingwithareasonablylargeblockofmotivatedconsumers.IfIneedpapertowels,they’redamnwellgoingtocomefromSeventhGeneration.IwouldprobablywearPatagoniajacketseveniftheyweren’tsoincrediblywarm.Butthesetendtobeone-offdeals.BenandJerrydidn’tseemtochangethewayHäagenandDazsviewedtheworld.Somehow,BountyhasbeenwillingtoleavethethoughtfulpapertowelmarkettoSeventhGeneration.
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Forseveraldecadesnow,environmentalistshavebeencitingtheworkofRayAndersonandInterface(see“TheCarpetCleaner,”Page56),andit’sagreatexample—butwhyistherestillonlyoneRayAnderson?Oftenthedifficultyisbuiltrightintoacompany’sbusinessmodel.ItmakesscantdifferencewhetherWal-Martstartsstockingorganicfoodornot,becausetherealproblemistheimperativetoshipproductsallovertheworld,selltheminvast,downtown-destroyingcomplexes,andpushpricessolowthatneitherworkersnorresponsiblesupplierscanprosper.(Infact,Wal-Mart’sdecisiontosellorganicfoodwillalmostcertainlymeanthefinalconsolidationoftheindustryintothehandsofafewhugegrowersthatshiptheirproduceacrossthousandsofmiles—nottomentionthatthepeopleringinguptheorganicgrocerieswillstillmakebelow-povertywagesandtaxpayerswillstillbefootingthebillfortheirhealthcare.There’ssomethinggrossaboutbuyingahealthycarrotfromasickcompany.)Bythesametoken,though,businessmodelscanpropelcompaniesforwardeveniftheCEOscouldn’tcarelessabouttheplanet:DowandDuPonthavecuttheircarbonemissionsbyupwardof50percentthisdecade,simplybecausetheirmanagersstartedtopayattentiontoenergycostsandfiguredoutthatefficiencywentstraighttothebottomline.“Willbusinesssavetheworld?”turnsouttobethewrongquestion.Therightquestionis“Howcanwestructuretheworldsothatbusinessesplaytheirpartinsavingit?”Andtheanswertothat,inevitably,ispolitics.Someofitisthepoliticsofpublicawareness.It’snoaccidentthatVermontandOregonarehotbedsofdo-goodcapitalism;intheseplacesattitudeshaveshiftedsothatconsciencepays.Manyofushaveworkedlikecrazytogetpeopleexcitedabout,say,hybridcars—and,aidedbyrisingoilprices,thepropagandahasbeguntosucceed.Butmostlyweneedpoliticsofamorestraightforward,andentirelyunglamorous,variety.Ifyouwantenergycompaniestorearrangetheirportfoliossothatwaymoremoneygoestorenewablesandwaylesstohydrocarbons,thebestwayforwardisnottoappealtotheCEO’sconscience—it’stopasslawstopushhimintherightdirection.ThisiswhathashappenedinEurope,whereregulatorstoldcarmanufacturerslastAugusttocutvehicles’greenhouseemissionsby25percent—orelse(seealso“TheMusclesFromBrussels,”Page62).“Thecarindustryshouldbeawarethatwearewatchingthesituationveryclosely,”oneofficialtoldreporters,addingthattheEU“willnothesitatetoreplacethecarrotwiththestick.”There’snothingparticularlyEuropeanaboutthatlogic—witnesstheeffortsintheUnitedStatesofafewboldstateattorneysgeneral,whointhefaceoffederalinactionhavebeguntosuemajorcarbonemittersontheirown.Theymaynotwin—butthethreatofliabilityhasalreadygottenbigpolluterstotalkaboutofferingvoluntarycarboncutsinexchangeforlegalimmunity.InanAugustreport,theinvestoractivistgroupCeresquotedaGoldmanSachsanalysisthatputpossibleglobalwarmingliabilityonthesamescaleasthefalloutfromasbestos.ThatkindofinformationwillgrabaCEO’sattentioninahurry.Helpingcorporationsdotherightthingthroughregulation—which,itshouldbenoted,alsolevelstheplayingfieldsothatagreenishBPdoesn’thavetoworryaboutadirtyExxon-Mobil—isnotexactlyanewidea.It’smoreorlesswhatweusedtodo,inthelongperiodfromTeddyRooseveltandthetrustbustersontoaboutthe1980s.Onereasonfortheshiftistheenormouspoliticalpowerofcorporations,whichtheyusealmostexclusivelytoboosttheirownprofits.Butinaway,youcan’tblamethemforthat.Thestrangepartishowlittleoppositionthecorporateagendameetsanymore—howmanyofushaveacceptedtheideologicalargumentthataslongasweleavecommercealone,itwillsomehow,magically,solveallourproblems.WecouldcompelBigOiltotakeitswindfallprofitsandbuildwindmills;insteadwestandquietlyby,asifunfetteredplunderweretheobviousandnecessarycourse.
Explainingthismysterymaybringusbacktowherewestarted.Inthechildlikeenchantmentwe’velivedundersincetheReaganera,we’vewantedverymuchtobelievethatsomeoneelse,somewavy-hairedCEO,woulddothehard,adultworkofproblem-solving.Infact,corporationsaretheinfantsofoursociety—theyknowverylittle
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excepthowtogrow(thoughthey’reverygoodatthat),andtheyhowlwhenyousetlimits.Socializingthemistheworkofpolitics.It’sabouttimewetookitupagain.
©2006MotherJonesandTheFoundationforNationalProgress.Allrightsreserved.Usedwithpermission.
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AppendixA
StructuredAcademicControversy(SAC)Guidelines
Whatisit?Adiscussionthatmovesstudentsbeyondeither/ordebatestoamorenuancedsynthesisofadebatedissue.RationaleBythetimestudentsreachadolescence,manybelievethateveryissuecomesneatlypackagedinapro/conformat,andthatthegoalofclassroomdiscussion,ratherthantounderstandyouropponent,istodefeathim.TheSACmethodprovidesanalternativetothe“debatemindset”byshiftingthegoalfromwinningclassroomdiscussionstounderstandingalternativepositionsandformulatinghistoricalsyntheses.TheSAC’sstructuredemandsstudentslistentoeachotherinnewwaysandguidesthemintoaworldofcomplexandcontroversialideas.DescriptionTheSACwasdevelopedbycooperativelearningresearchersDavidandRogerJohnsonoftheUniversityofMinnesotaasawaytoprovidestructureandfocustoclassroomdiscussions.Workinginpairsandthencomingtogetherinfour-personteams,studentsexploreaquestionbyreadingaboutandthenpresentingcontrastingpositions.Afterwards,theyengageindiscussiontoreachconsensus.TeacherPreparation1. Chooseahistoricalquestionthatlendsitselftocontrastingviewpoints.2. Findandselecttwoorthreedocuments(primaryorsecondarysources)thatembodyeachside.3. Considertiming,makecopiesofhandouts,andplangroupingstrategies.ThetimeyouwillneedforaSACthat
usesaboutfourdocumentswilldependontheamountofexperienceyourstudentshavewiththeactivitystructureandthedifficultyandfamiliarityofthedocuments.PlanonusingabouttwoclassperiodsforyourinitialSAC.
IntheClassroomModifiedandadaptedcountlesstimesbyresearchersandteachers,thetechniquehasfivebasicstepswithprocedurestodisplayforstudents.
1. Organizestudentsintofour-personteamscomprisedoftwodyads.2. Eachdyadreviewsmaterialsthatrepresentdifferentpositionsonachargedissue.3. Dyadsthencometogetherasafour-personteamandpresenttheirviewstooneanother,onedyadactingas
thepresenters,theothersasthelisteners.4. Ratherthanrefutingtheotherposition,thelisteningdyadrepeatsbacktothepresenterswhatthey
understood.Listenersdonotbecomepresentersuntiltheoriginalpresentersarefullysatisfiedthattheyhavebeenheardandunderstood.
5. Afterthesidesswitch,thedyadsabandontheiroriginalassignmentsandworktowardreachingconsensus.Ifconsensusprovesunattainable,theteamclarifieswheretheirdifferenceslie.
CommonPitfallsStudents’debateframeworkstartsearlyandrunsdeep.Evenwhentoldthattheyneedtounderstand–notundermine–anopposingposition,studentswilltrytofindholesintheiropponent’spositionsandaimtorefutethem.Werecommend
• Introducingtheideaof“activelistening”toyourstudentsandhavingthempracticeitindyadsforafewminutes.
• Establishingtherule:Jotdownnoteswhenconfused,donotinterruptthepresenters.• Makingsurestudentscanrefertotheproceduresthroughouttheactivitybypostingthemormaking
handouts.
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Asstudentsstarttoseeotherperspectivesandnuanceinthematerial,theabsenceofacertainanswermayconfusethem.Werecommendreassuringstudentsthatuncertaintyandcomplexityareexpectedduringthisactivity.Encouragethemtomakenotesthatspecifytheirconfusion,newideas,orquestions. ReprintedfromtheTeachingHistorywebsite.http://teachinghistory.org/teaching-materials/teaching-guides/21731.
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