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2828EFSS - Educazione Fisica e Sport nella Scuola - N. 250
studio & ricerca
The CoaCh-aThleTe relaTionship
in physiCal eduCaTion
A Qualitative Investigation of Female Studentsin the United Kingdom
MARtIN DIXON
Centre for Sport, Health and Exercise Research, Staffordshire University, UK
JACK bROWNett
Centre for Sport, Health and Exercise Research, Staffordshire University, UK
AbStRACt
this study investigated the importance of the coach-athlete relationship within a physical education environment.
the study aimed to explore the factors of the relationship between students and their teachers which might influ-
ence their engagement in the subject. Following semi-structured interviews with secondary school female students
(n = 6, age range 13-14 years) the data was thematically analysed. Results indicated that the relationship between
student and teacher had a strong influence on engagement within physical education. emergent themes revealed
the key factors to developing a positive relationship were approachability and trust, teacher effort and care, and
mutual respect. Findings are discussed in light of coach-athlete relationship literature, particularly Jowett’s (2007)
3 Cs model of closeness, commitment and complementarity. Practical implications to enhance the engagement of
female students in physical education are provided.
KEY WORDS: coach-athlete relationship, physical education.
This study investigated the importance of the coach-athlete relationship within a physical education environment. The study aimed to explore the
factors of the relationship between students and their teachers which might influence their engagement in the subject. Following semi-structured
= 6, age range 13-14 years) the data was thematically analysed. Results indicated that the
relationship between student and teacher had a strong influence on engagement within physical education. Emergent themes revealed the key fac-
tors to developing a positive relationship were approachability and trust, teacher effort and care, and mutual respect. Findings are discussed in
light of coach-athlete relationship literature, particularly Jowett’s (2007) 3 Cs model of closeness, commitment and complementarity. Practical impli-
Questo studio esamina l’importanza della relazione allenatore-atleta all’interno di un ambiente di educazione fisi-Lo studio intende esplorare i fattori della relazione tra gli studenti e i loro insegnanti che possono influenzare
In seguito a interviste semi-strutturate alle studentesse di scuola secondaria(n=6, età 13-14 anni) è stata fatta un’analisi tematica dei dati. I risultati indicano che la relazione tra studente einsegnante aveva una forte influenza sull’impegno nell’educazione fisica. I temi che sono emersi hanno mostratocome i fattori chiave per sviluppare una relazione positiva erano accessibilità e fiducia, impegno e attenzione del-l’insegnante e reciproco rispetto. I risultati sono discussi alla luce della letteratura allenatore-atleta, in particolare
closeness, commitment and com-Vengono fornite implicazioni pratiche per migliorare l’impegno delle studentesse in educazione fisi-
The lack of participation in sport amongst females is a growing concern in the United Kingdom (UK). By the ageof 14, only 12% of girls in the UK are achieving the recommended amount of physical activity, with 23% of womenstating that their experiences in physical education (PE) lessons deterred them from physical activity in later life(Women’s Sport and Fitness Foundation, 2013). Further research indicates that adolescent females are less like-ly to participate in physical activity than their male counterparts (Vescio, Wilde & Crosswhite, 2005), and there arehigher attrition rates among girls in school sports (Schofield, Mummery, Schofield & Walmsely). Indeed, children’smotivation, particularly girls’, to participate in sport diminishes as they progress through school (Garrett, 2004).Therefore, physical education is essential to improving and maintaining physical activity levels amongst females.
SOMMARIO
Questo studio esamina l’importanza della relazione allenatore-atleta all’interno di un ambiente di educazione fisica.
Lo studio intende esplorare i fattori della relazione tra gli studenti e i loro insegnanti che possono influenzare il loro
impegno in questo ambito. In seguito a interviste semi-strutturate alle studentesse di scuola secondaria (n=6, età
13-14 anni) è stata fatta un’analisi tematica dei dati. I risultati indicano che la relazione tra studente e insegnante
aveva una forte influenza sull’impegno nell’educazione fisica. I temi che sono emersi hanno mostrato come i fatto-
ri chiave per sviluppare una relazione positiva erano accessibilità e fiducia, impegno e attenzione dell’insegnante
e reciproco rispetto. I risultati sono discussi alla luce della letteratura allenatore-atleta, in particolare del modello
delle 3 C di Jowett (2007) vicinanza, impegno e complementarità (closeness, commitment and complementarity).
Vengono fornite implicazioni pratiche per migliorare l’impegno delle studentesse in educazione fisica.
PAROLe ChIAVe: relazione allenatore-atleta, educazione fisica.
In questo numero pubblichiamo un contributo proposto alla
Redazione di EFSS da due autori del Regno Unito. Il lavoro
viene pubblicato in lingua originale e solo il solo Sommario più le
Parole chiave vengono proposti nella traduzione in italiano.
29
Introduction
The lack of partici-
pation in sport
amongst females is
a growing concern
in the United King-
dom (UK). By the
age of 14, only 12%
of girls in the UK are
achieving the rec-
ommended amount
of physical activity,
with 23% of women
stating that their
experiences in
physical education
(PE) lessons
deterred them from
physical activity in
later life (Women’s
Sport and Fitness Foundation, 2013). Further research
indicates that adolescent females are less likely to par-
ticipate in physical activity than their male counterparts
(Vescio, Wilde & Crosswhite, 2005), and there are
higher attrition rates among girls in school sports
(Schofield, Mummery, Schofield & Walmsely). Indeed,
children’s motivation, particularly girls’, to participate in
sport diminishes as they progress through school
(Garrett, 2004). Therefore, physical education is
essential to improving and maintaining physical activi-
ty levels amongst females.
Participation levels of adolescent girls can be
enhanced in PE through the provision of active role
modelling within the school environment (Vescio et al.
2005). Moreover, PE teachers can positively impact
the female students’ future health status, self-worth
and emotional well-being (Warner, Dixon & Schumann,
2009). Woods, Tannehill and Walsh (2012) contend
that making physical activity in the curriculum enjoy-
able is fundamental to engaging girls in PE. Physical
education teachers then, have a central role in
enhancing the engagement of females, both within the
school environment and beyond.
Research from the sports coaching domain suggests
an enhanced relationship between coach and athlete
increases athletes’ enjoyment and motivation levels
(Mageau & Vallerand, 2003). The coach athlete rela-
tionship can be defined as a dynamic and complex
coaching process which enables coaches and athletes’
needs to be expressed and fulfilled (Jowett & Cockerill,
2002). The quality of this relationship influences per-
sonal traits such as, determination, leadership, confi-
dence and self-reliance (Norman & French, 2013). Fur-
ther research has demonstrated that the coach-athlete
relationship can impact team cohesion (Jowett &
Chaundy, 2004), passion (Lafrenière, Jowett,
Vallerand, Donahue & Lorimer, 2008) and satisfaction
(Lorimer & Jowett, 2009). Considering the notion that
female students who have positive experiences in PE
lessons often hold a positive perception of sport partic-
ipation later in life (Jones, 2013), a greater understand-
ing of the pedagogical relationship is warranted.
The aforementioned research has been situated in the
context of coaching rather than physical education.
Whilst the roles of coaching and teaching are strongly
linked through their objectives of teaching skills, tech-
nique and strategies (Drewe, 2000), they are also dis-
tinctly different as teaching often involves working with
larger groups to a rigid curriculum (Chelladurai &
Kuga, 1996). Furthermore, studies of this nature have
thus far focussed greatly on elite sport with limited
applicability to the physical education environment.
Moreover, the sporting environment is male dominated
and consequently coaching practices have ‘primarily
been developed by male practitioners and tailored
towards a male base’ (Mackinnon, 2011), again mak-
ing it difficult to generalise to a female population, a
group at high risk of physical inactivity. The current
study therefore, aims to investigate the characteristics
of the student-teacher relationship within physical edu-
cation, using coach-athlete relationship theory as a
theoretical framework.
29EFSS - Educazione Fisica e Sport nella Scuola - N. 250
studio & ricerca
30
Materials and Methods
A qualitative method was employed to get closer to the
participants’ perspective through detailed interviews
(Denzin & Lincoln, 2000). Semi-structured interviews
were conducted to gain special insight into subjectivity,
voice and lived experiences (Atkinson & Silverman,
1997). In accordance with Wengraf (2001), the interview
guide was formulated by linking theoretical concepts
with the aims of the research. Specifically questions
were derived from Jowett’s (2007) 3 Cs model, which
offers an explanation of the processes and outcomes of
the coach-athlete relationship. This is comprised of
three interconnected constructs: closeness (emotions),
commitment (thoughts), and complementarity (behav-
iours). The interpersonal construct of closeness repre-
sents coaches’ and athletes’ affective ties, such as lik-
ing, respecting, trusting, and appreciating each other.
Commitment describes a cognitive attachment and a
long-term orientation toward one another. Finally, com-
plementarity reflects behavioural transactions of coop-
eration, responsiveness, and affiliation (Jowett, 2009).
Participants were secondary school female students
(n=6; age range 13-14 years) from two different
schools. A purposeful sampling technique was utilised
as the individuals studied were able to purposefully
inform an understanding of the research problem and
central phenomenon in the study (Cresswell, 2007).
This method leads to data saturation being achieved
more quickly than alternative techniques (Hesse-Biber
& Leavy, 2006). Parental consent and institutional eth-
ical approval was obtained prior to data collection.
Interviews were transcribed verbatim and then themati-
cally analysed to provide rich and detailed data (Braun
& Clarke, 2006). In line with Auerbach and Silverstein,
(2003), several phases of analysis included familiarisa-
tion, generating initial codes, developing themes,
reviewing themes,
naming themes and
the production of a
final report. This
method is appropri-
ate when studying
subjective human
experiences and the
participant’s percep-
tions and feelings
are of paramount
importance (Guest,
Mcqueen & Namey,
2011).
Results
Thematic analysis of the transcribed interview data
elicited three key themes which characterised the
teacher-student relationship. These are presented
below with example quotations from students.
Approachability and trust
Approachability and trust emerged as key issues as stu-
dents outlined the importance of feeling comfortable in
the presence of their physical education teachers.
“Even though I don’t really like PE I do feel like I can
talk to the teachers honestly. Mrs **** is a good listen-
er… She talks to me more like she’s a student as well
which makes it a lot easier to ask or tell her things.”
“It’s important to be able to trust your PE teachers
because school is difficult sometimes and it would be
nice to be able to have a teacher who will listen.”
Participants highlighted why they felt trust was so
important with teachers and how it relates to their
experience in lessons. However, students felt the lack
of time in PE lessons restricted the development of
relationships.
“PE teachers don’t get to spend as much time with us
students so it’s quite difficult for them to build a good
relationship with them.”
Teacher effort and care
Interlinked with the development of a trusting rela-
tionship was students’ perceptions of teacher effort
and care.
“Teachers ask about how we’re getting on in other sub-
jects which is nice… because that shows how much
they care about us because they don’t just talk to us
about PE… When my teacher congratulated me about
getting an award in assembly it made me feel great and
gave me a bit of motivation to carry on trying hard.”30EFSS - Educazione Fisica e Sport nella Scuola - N. 250
studio & ricerca
31
“Mr **** gives us nicknames which is funny and the
lesson is just more relaxed. He tries to make bonds
with the girls around the school, not just in PE, like if
he sees us around he has a laugh with us.”
Students felt valued when teachers interacted with
them on a more holistic level, rather than restricting the
relationship to the physical education environment.
Mutual Respect
The development of mutual respect between students
and teachers was emphasised by participants to
establish and maintain a positive relationship.
“It’s really important that there is a respect between
students and the teachers in PE. …Mrs **** always
says that respect that is a two way thing and it is
important that you earn it.”
“It makes us feel more motivated in PE. He makes us
feel more comfortable, like he feels more like a friend
than a teacher. He’s like a really good friend, but
knows where the line is when it comes to getting
work done.”
Participants respected their teachers if a traditional
hierarchical relationship was relaxed, yet there was an
understanding of the relative roles of students and
teachers. As part of a mutually respectful relationship,
collaboration between teachers and students emerged
as a sub-theme in increasing engagement.
“It is definitely better when we work together. Some-
times lessons get boring and he asks us what we
could do to have more fun or make us work harder…
Recently they’ve given us the chance to choose a
new sport to practice in lessons like stuff that we’ve
never done before… It’s just nice to know we get a
say in what we do in some lessons.”
Discussion and Conclusions
The results indicate some salient features of the
teacher-student relationship within physical education.
Emergent themes revealed three key characteristics of
the teacher-student relationship which influence learn-
ers’ engagement within the subject: approachability
and trust, teacher effort and care, and mutual respect.
Here, these results are discussed in light of the coach-
athlete relationship literature with specific reference to
Jowett’s (2007) 3 Cs model. Limitations of the study
are addressed and implications for practice are given.
Participants emphasised the importance of the
approachability of teachers in physical education. In
particular, students valued opportunities to talk to their
teachers and the relationship was strengthened when
teachers empathised and listened to students.
Through approachability and trust, students implied
that they were more likely to engage in PE, even if they
previously disliked the subject. This resonates with
Jowett’s (2007) construct of ‘closeness’ which repre-
sents coaches’ and athletes’ affective ties, such as lik-
ing, trusting, and appreciating each other. Closeness
may improve the coach-athlete relationship and con-
sequently enhance team cohesion (Jowett & Chaundy,
2004), passion (Lafrenière et al. 2008) and satisfaction
(Lorimer & Jowett, 2009). In corroboration, Salminen
and Liukkonen (1996) emphasise the significance hav-
ing closeness and emotional connection with a coach
can have on satisfaction levels. Therefore teachers
should provide opportunities for dedicated ‘one to one’
time with students and ensure they create a safe, sup-
portive climate in which students feel comfortable to
discuss any issues.
Interlinked with the theme of approachability and trust,
participants revealed how relationships are developed
through teacher effort and care. In particular, students
perceived greater teacher effort and care when staff
showed an interest in them outside of the PE environ-
ment. Students suggested the relationship strength-
ened when PE teachers interacted with them outside
of lesson time, often informally, but also within lessons
when the topic of conversation was not necessarily
about PE. The application of effort to build a positive
relationship aligns with Jowett’s (2007) concept of
‘commitment’, a cognitive attachment and long term
orientation to one another. In support, Bloom, Durand-
Bush, Schinke, & Salmela (1998) asserted that coach-
es with a genuine commitment to athlete development
can help enhance the trust and respect between them
and ultimately improve their motivation levels, where-
as a lack of social support negatively impacts athlete
satisfaction levels (Gould & Bridges, 1997). This is
reflected in the current study as participants made spe-
cific references to the interest PE teachers showed
regarding their academic progress in general, showing
a holistic approach to student development. Physical
education teachers should ensure they connect with
students across a range of school activities. Through
greater perceptions of effort and care, teachers
demonstrate more commitment to students, which can
subsequently impact students’ commitment towards
and engagement within physical education.
Mutual respect emerged as another pertinent charac-
teristic of the pedagogical relationship between
teacher and student. Data suggests that whilst stu-
dents enjoyed a personal, jovial element to the rela-
tionship, they also valued the discipline instilled by
31EFSS - Educazione Fisica e Sport nella Scuola - N. 250
studio & ricerca
32
teachers. Respect was established with clear roles
and an understanding of learning objectives. This is
echoed in the coach-athlete relationship literature as
Poczwardowski, Barrot and Henschen (2002) empha-
sise the importance of respect, mutual needs, goals
and shared knowledge in building a positive relation-
ship. Students felt respect was mutual when they were
able to collaborate with their teachers. Specifically, stu-
dents provided input into learning activities and the
physical education curriculum, indicating a balance of
power incongruent to traditional hierarchical relation-
ships. This reflects the latest review of the national cur-
riculum, which emphasises the new freedom schools
have to create a ‘local curriculum’ that is most benefi-
cial to their students (Department of Education, 2013)
and is underpinned by further links to Jowett’s (2007)
3Cs model. The concept of ‘complementarity’ repre-
sents coaches’ and athletes’ behavioural transactions
of cooperation, responsiveness, and affiliation. In this
case behaviours indicate the relative roles of teachers
and students whilst cooperation is present when stu-
dents have input into the PE curriculum. It is recom-
mended therefore, that schools and teachers have a
degree of flexibility when planning lessons and the
wider curriculum to engage female students through
enhanced cooperation.
Whilst the key themes emphasise characteristics of a
positive relationship, participants also highlighted the
lack of time teachers spend with students, with inter-
actions restricted by the minimal hours of PE lessons
per week. As a result, the potential for developing a
good relationship is often compromised. This problem
is also evident in coaching as Jowett and Ntoumanis
(2004) suggest that due to competitive environments,
coaches spend less time with their athletes and the
relationship suffers. This demonstrates the difficulties
PE teachers encounter when building relationships
with students, further emphasising the need for a flex-
ible curriculum and greater interaction across wider
school activities.
The findings of this study provide useful insight into the
student-teacher relationship within a physical education
environment, however, the limitations of this study must
be addressed. The unrepresentative nature of the sam-
ple may limit the extent to which findings can be gener-
alised. However, the purpose of qualitative research is
to generate ‘rich’ data from a small sample (Gratton &
Jones, 2004) and therefore provide a platform for further
research. Another limitation is the comparison between
teaching and coaching, which have some important dif-
ferences. Indeed, they are distinctly different as teach-
ing often involves working with larger groups to a rigid
curriculum (Chelladurai & Kuga, 1996). Although coach-
athlete relationship theory provides a framework for bet-
ter understanding the teacher-student relationship,
practitioners should be aware of these key differences
when applying the findings.
In conclusion, this study has revealed three key charac-
teristics of the teacher-student relationship within physi-
cal education: approachability and trust, teacher effort
and care, and mutual respect. Practical implications for
teachers and schools include opportunities for ‘one on
one’ time to promote trust and a comfortable environ-
ment for students to interact with their teachers. Staff
should also show a holistic interest in student develop-
ment and interact with learners through a range of
cross-school activities not limited to the PE setting. Fur-
thermore, schools should encourage cooperation and
collaboration by enabling students input into their own
learning activities and curriculum. The concepts of
approachability and trust,
teacher effort and care, and
mutual respect reflect those
of Jowett’s (2007) 3Cs
model of closeness, com-
mitment and complemen-
tarity, and the wider body of
coach-athlete relationship
literature. Whilst there are
some important differences
between coaching and
teaching roles, this
research extends the body
of knowledge into pedagog-
ical relationships, which
can lead to greater engage-
ment within physical educa-
tion and sport. 32EFSS - Educazione Fisica e Sport nella Scuola - N. 250
studio & ricerca
33
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