amateur radio foundation licence presentation neil husk vk6bdo ham college produced by

Amateur RadioAmateur RadioFoundation LicenceFoundation Licence

PresentationPresentation

Neil Husk

VK6BDO

HAM COLLEGE

Produced by

There are nine sections in the syllabus:There are nine sections in the syllabus:

Nature of Amateur Radio.Nature of Amateur Radio.

Licence ConditionsLicence Conditions

Technical basicsTechnical basics

Transmitters and ReceiversTransmitters and Receivers

Transmission lines and AntennasTransmission lines and Antennas

PropagationPropagation

InterferenceInterference

SafetySafety

Operating practices and ProceduresOperating practices and Proceduresp87-92

ExaminationExaminationThe written exam consists of 25 multi choice type The written exam consists of 25 multi choice type questions which are to be completed in 30 minutes.questions which are to be completed in 30 minutes.

With the exam paper is an information sheet which will With the exam paper is an information sheet which will contain formula, graphs, charts and diagrams to assist you contain formula, graphs, charts and diagrams to assist you in answering the questions.in answering the questions.

The practical exam includes several oral questions and The practical exam includes several oral questions and will require you to do several demonstrations.will require you to do several demonstrations.

You must obtain 70% (18 correct) to pass the theory and You must obtain 70% (18 correct) to pass the theory and progress to the practicalprogress to the practical

Nature of Amateur RadioNature of Amateur Radio

Amateur radio is intended to facilitate the hobby of radio communications.

Amateur radio as a hobby has many aspects:Amateur radio as a hobby has many aspects:

Technical InnovationTechnical Innovation

Emergency communicationsEmergency communications

ContestingContesting

Satellite CommunicationsSatellite Communications

Digital ModesDigital Modes

Fox HuntingFox Hunting

And many moreAnd many more p 55

Types of LicencesTypes of Licences

Other forms of licences authorise other types of radio Other forms of licences authorise other types of radio communication such ascommunication such asCitizens Band (CB);Citizens Band (CB);Land Mobile;Land Mobile;Point to Point links;Point to Point links;Broadcasting.Broadcasting.

Amateur radio activities are authorised under an Amateur radio activities are authorised under an amateur licence.amateur licence.

Licence ConditionsLicence ConditionsOperation of an amateur station is subject to the conditions Operation of an amateur station is subject to the conditions in the:in the:

Radiocommunications Act 1992Radiocommunications Act 1992

Radiocommunications Regulations 1993Radiocommunications Regulations 1993

Radiocommunications Licence Conditions (Amateur Radiocommunications Licence Conditions (Amateur Licence) Determination No1 of 1997Licence) Determination No1 of 1997

Radiocommunications Licence Conditions (Apparatus Radiocommunications Licence Conditions (Apparatus Licence) Determination 2003 (as amended)Licence) Determination 2003 (as amended)

The latest amendment was released in 2005.The latest amendment was released in 2005.

Allocation of Frequency BandsAllocation of Frequency Bands

The Amateur Service operates on frequency bands The Amateur Service operates on frequency bands allocated for Amateur use.allocated for Amateur use.

The amateur service shares some frequency bands with The amateur service shares some frequency bands with other servicesother services

Other services such as broadcasting, aeronautical and Other services such as broadcasting, aeronautical and maritime are allocated their own frequency bands.maritime are allocated their own frequency bands.

The allocated bands are laid down in the LCDThe allocated bands are laid down in the LCD

Purpose of the Amateur ServicePurpose of the Amateur Service

An Amateur Licence primarily authorises the operation of an An Amateur Licence primarily authorises the operation of an amateur station for: amateur station for:

Self training in radio communications;Self training in radio communications;

Intercommunications between amateursIntercommunications between amateurs

Technical investigations into radio communicationsTechnical investigations into radio communications

Communications by Amateur StationsCommunications by Amateur Stations

Except in a distress or emergency situation the Except in a distress or emergency situation the amateur licence amateur licence only authorisesonly authorises amateur to amateur amateur to amateur communications.communications.

A Radio Inspector may authorise out of band A Radio Inspector may authorise out of band operations for a specific reason.operations for a specific reason.

Amateurs may transmit messages on behalf of a third party Amateurs may transmit messages on behalf of a third party with in Australia provided it is not for gain, commercial with in Australia provided it is not for gain, commercial purposes, an advertisement or entertainment.purposes, an advertisement or entertainment.

Third party messages to other countries depends on Third party messages to other countries depends on that countries (the other country) laws.that countries (the other country) laws.

Distress SignalsDistress Signals

Distress communications are indicated by the use of the word Distress communications are indicated by the use of the word ‘Mayday’.‘Mayday’.

Distress communications have priority over Distress communications have priority over allall other other communications.communications.

Any person hearing a ‘Mayday’ communication are responsible Any person hearing a ‘Mayday’ communication are responsible for passing the information to an appropriate authority.for passing the information to an appropriate authority.

Distress signals are used where Distress signals are used where “imminent danger exists to “imminent danger exists to human life”human life”

Urgency SignalsUrgency Signals

Urgency signals are used where Urgency signals are used where human life is not in human life is not in imminent danger but assistance is urgently requiredimminent danger but assistance is urgently required..

Urgency signals are indicated by the use of Urgency signals are indicated by the use of ‘Pan Pan’‘Pan Pan’

Urgency signals receive priority of all communications Urgency signals receive priority of all communications except distress signals.except distress signals.

Urgency signals should be reported to an appropriate Urgency signals should be reported to an appropriate authority.authority.

Question 1Question 1

An amateur licence allows the holder to transmit on:An amateur licence allows the holder to transmit on:

A. Marine BandsA. Marine Bands

B. Aeronautical BandsB. Aeronautical Bands

C. Amateur BandsC. Amateur Bands

D. Any HF BandD. Any HF Band

ANSWER: C - Amateur BandsANSWER: C - Amateur Bands

Amateur radio is intended to facilitate:Amateur radio is intended to facilitate:

A. Commercial gain in radio communicationsA. Commercial gain in radio communications

B. A way of saving on phone billsB. A way of saving on phone bills

C. A way of using unwanted commercial radio equipmentC. A way of using unwanted commercial radio equipment

D. A hobby in radio communicationsD. A hobby in radio communications

ANSWER: D - A hobby in radio communicationsANSWER: D - A hobby in radio communications

You hear an urgency message, you should:You hear an urgency message, you should:

A. Switch off your radioA. Switch off your radio

B. Tell everyone on the frequency B. Tell everyone on the frequency

C. Ring emergency servicesC. Ring emergency services

D. Give the message priorityD. Give the message priority

ANSWER: D - Give the message priorityANSWER: D - Give the message priority

Amateur Call SignsAmateur Call Signs

Australian amateur call signs consist of two letters, followed by Australian amateur call signs consist of two letters, followed by one numeral and two, three or four letters. one numeral and two, three or four letters.

Australian call signs normally commence with the letters Australian call signs normally commence with the letters ‘VK’.‘VK’.

This is an international allocation to Australia.This is an international allocation to Australia.

Other allocations which may be issued to Aust amateurs are Other allocations which may be issued to Aust amateurs are ‘VI and ‘AX’.‘VI and ‘AX’.

These are only issued for special events on a temporary basis.These are only issued for special events on a temporary basis.

VK6NT VK6KTS VK6FNBXVK6NT VK6KTS VK6FNBX

p 58, 69-70

The numeral identifies the State or Territory in which the The numeral identifies the State or Territory in which the amateur is licensed to operate.amateur is licensed to operate.

1 Australian Capital Territory1 Australian Capital Territory

2 New south Wales2 New south Wales

3 Victoria3 Victoria

4 Queensland4 Queensland

5 South Australia5 South Australia

6 Western Australia6 Western Australia

7 Tasmania7 Tasmania

8 Northern Territory8 Northern Territory

9 External Territories9 External Territories

0 Antarctica0 Antarcticap 69

The remaining two, three or four letters identify the type of The remaining two, three or four letters identify the type of licence held by the operator.licence held by the operator.

Any two letter suffix, or three letter suffix that begin withAny two letter suffix, or three letter suffix that begin with A, B, C, D, E, F, G, J, K, T, U, W, X, Y & Z A, B, C, D, E, F, G, J, K, T, U, W, X, Y & Z indicate an advanced licence.indicate an advanced licence.

A three letter suffix beginning with H, L, M, N, P & V A three letter suffix beginning with H, L, M, N, P & V indicate a Standard licence.indicate a Standard licence.

Four letter suffix’s are Foundation licences.Four letter suffix’s are Foundation licences.

Three letter suffix beginning with R are repeaters or beacons.Three letter suffix beginning with R are repeaters or beacons.p 70

Station IdentificationStation Identification

Station identification must be transmitted at the beginning of a Station identification must be transmitted at the beginning of a transmission or series of transmissions, at least every ten transmission or series of transmissions, at least every ten minutes during the series of transmissions and at the end of the minutes during the series of transmissions and at the end of the series.series.

The correct identification for an amateur station is the call sign The correct identification for an amateur station is the call sign allocated to that station.allocated to that station.

A series of transmissions is a continual conversation between A series of transmissions is a continual conversation between two or more stations.two or more stations.

Any transmission must be contain station identification.Any transmission must be contain station identification.

Q CodesQ Codes

Three letter groups commencing with Q were originally Three letter groups commencing with Q were originally introduced to shorten commonly used phrases particularly when introduced to shorten commonly used phrases particularly when using morse code.using morse code.

They can be used to clarify common messages when They can be used to clarify common messages when conditions are not good or there is a language difficulty.conditions are not good or there is a language difficulty.

As foundation licensees you are not required to know any of As foundation licensees you are not required to know any of the Q code but do need a knowledge of what it is for.the Q code but do need a knowledge of what it is for.

When using voice communications under good conditions it When using voice communications under good conditions it is not necessary to use Q codes.is not necessary to use Q codes.

Secret MessagesSecret Messages

The transmission of The transmission of secret coded or encryptedsecret coded or encrypted messages is messages is generally generally not permitted.not permitted.

The only allowable use of coded or encrypted signals is for The only allowable use of coded or encrypted signals is for the control of satellites, repeaters, beacons etc.the control of satellites, repeaters, beacons etc.

p 55, 58

Transmission of EntertainmentTransmission of Entertainment

The transmission of any form of The transmission of any form of entertainment is not entertainment is not permitted.permitted.

General Do Not’sGeneral Do Not’s

An amateur station may An amateur station may notnot be be used for commercial gainused for commercial gain..

An amateur station may not be An amateur station may not be used to advertiseused to advertise any any item or service.item or service.

Subjects on which many people have very strong opinions Subjects on which many people have very strong opinions can easily cause heated arguments or can cause individual can easily cause heated arguments or can cause individual offence, such as Religion, Politics or Sex should be avoided. offence, such as Religion, Politics or Sex should be avoided.

An amateur call sign VK2BH would belong to:An amateur call sign VK2BH would belong to:

A. An American licensed technician in BostonA. An American licensed technician in Boston

B. An Australian licensed amateur in NSWB. An Australian licensed amateur in NSW

C. A foreign amateur operating in AustraliaC. A foreign amateur operating in Australia

D. An Amateur licensed in VenezuelaD. An Amateur licensed in Venezuela

ANSWER: B - An Australian amateur in NSWANSWER: B - An Australian amateur in NSW

All amateur transmissions must include:All amateur transmissions must include:

A. Your nameA. Your name

B. Your locationB. Your location

C. The power being usedC. The power being used

D. Your call signD. Your call sign

ANSWER: D - Your Call signANSWER: D - Your Call sign

An amateur must produce their licence for:An amateur must produce their licence for:

A. Anyone who asks for itA. Anyone who asks for it

B. Local government inspectorsB. Local government inspectors

C. ACMA inspectorsC. ACMA inspectors

D. A person claiming interference from your stationD. A person claiming interference from your station

ANSWER: C - ACMA inspectorsANSWER: C - ACMA inspectors

Radiotelephony ProceduresRadiotelephony Procedures

Radio Radio telephony is voicetelephony is voice and and radioradio telegraphy is morsetelegraphy is morse code. code.

Before looking at the actual procedures,

Before transmitting always listen to ensure you will not interfere with another transmission already in progress.

Remember that you may not be able to hear both sides of another conversation.

If in doubt – ask “is the frequency in use”.

Avoid using Slang or big words.

Remember you never know who listening.

p 60, 61

Radiotelephony ProceduresRadiotelephony Procedures

Radio telephony is voice and radio telegraphy is morse code.Radio telephony is voice and radio telegraphy is morse code.

The callcall in telephony consists of: telephony consists of:

The call sign of the called station not more than three times;The call sign of the called station not more than three times;

The words “This is”;The words “This is”;

The call sign of the calling station not more than three timesThe call sign of the calling station not more than three times

The word “Over”The word “Over”

VK6KTS VK6KTS VK6KTS THIS IS VK6KTS VK6KTS VK6KTS THIS IS VK6BDO VK6BDO VK6BDO OVERVK6BDO VK6BDO VK6BDO OVER

Radio Telephony ProceduresRadio Telephony Procedures

A general call to any station may be made by substituting the A general call to any station may be made by substituting the signal ‘CQ’ for the called station.signal ‘CQ’ for the called station.

CQ CQ CQ THIS IS VK6BDO VK6BDO VK6BDO OVERCQ CQ CQ THIS IS VK6BDO VK6BDO VK6BDO OVER

On certain occasions a station may modify a CQ call with an On certain occasions a station may modify a CQ call with an additional designation.additional designation.

CQ DX - calling CQ but wants a distant station.CQ DX - calling CQ but wants a distant station.

CQ JOTA - Any JOTA station.CQ JOTA - Any JOTA station.

CQ Contest - Any contest stationCQ Contest - Any contest stationp 62

Radio Telephony ProceduresRadio Telephony Procedures

A reply to a call should consist of:A reply to a call should consist of:

The call sign of the calling station not more than three times;The call sign of the calling station not more than three times;

The words “This is”The words “This is”

The call sign of the replying station not more than three timesThe call sign of the replying station not more than three times

The word “Over”The word “Over”

VK6BDO VK6BDO VK6BDO THIS IS VK6BDO VK6BDO VK6BDO THIS IS VK6KTS VK6KTS VK6KTS OVERVK6KTS VK6KTS VK6KTS OVER

Authorised Frequency Bands Authorised Frequency Bands and Emission Modesand Emission Modes

Each grade of amateur licence allows the use of different Each grade of amateur licence allows the use of different frequency bands and emission modes that may be used on frequency bands and emission modes that may be used on each band.each band.

The permitted frequency bands and the modes The permitted frequency bands and the modes permitted on that band, for each grade of licence are permitted on that band, for each grade of licence are shown in the LCD.shown in the LCD.

p 59 & LCD

Authorised Frequency Bands Authorised Frequency Bands and Emission Modesand Emission Modes

Permitted Output PowerPermitted Output Power

The Amateur Foundation Licence allows a maximum The Amateur Foundation Licence allows a maximum power output of 10 Watts when using Single Side Band power output of 10 Watts when using Single Side Band (SSB), Amplitude Modulation (AM), Frequency (SSB), Amplitude Modulation (AM), Frequency Modulation (FM) or Carrier Wave (CW) emissions. Modulation (FM) or Carrier Wave (CW) emissions.

Type of Equipment AllowedType of Equipment Allowed

The Foundation Licence only authorises the use of The Foundation Licence only authorises the use of unmodified, commercially manufacturedunmodified, commercially manufactured transmitting transmitting equipment.equipment.

Equipment Must Not Be ModifiedEquipment Must Not Be Modified

The Foundation licensee The Foundation licensee must not make any modificationsmust not make any modifications to to any amateur radio transmitting equipment.any amateur radio transmitting equipment.

Harmful InterferenceHarmful Interference

A licensee must not operate a Amateur station if A licensee must not operate a Amateur station if operation causes harmful interference to other radio operation causes harmful interference to other radio services.services.

Restriction of OperationRestriction of Operation

The ACMA has the right to restricted the operation of an The ACMA has the right to restricted the operation of an amateur station to avoid interference.amateur station to avoid interference.

Inspection of Amateur LicencesInspection of Amateur Licences

ACMA inspectors have the right to require an amateur to ACMA inspectors have the right to require an amateur to produce his/her licence.produce his/her licence.

ACMA inspectors have the right to inspect stations.ACMA inspectors have the right to inspect stations.

Inspectors also have the right to confiscate any unlawful Inspectors also have the right to confiscate any unlawful equipment or equipment that is capable of being used in equipment or equipment that is capable of being used in an unlawful manner.an unlawful manner.

p 58 & Radio Regs

Notification of Change of AddressNotification of Change of Address

An amateur licence is issued to operate from a specific An amateur licence is issued to operate from a specific address.address.

The The ACMAACMA must be notified of any must be notified of any permanent changepermanent change of of address address within 7 dayswithin 7 days of the change. of the change.

Operation from a Operation from a temporary addresstemporary address may be continued for up may be continued for up to to four monthsfour months..

Authorised use of Amateur StationsAuthorised use of Amateur Stations

A Foundation licensee may authorise a suitably A Foundation licensee may authorise a suitably Qualified Qualified personperson to operate the licensee’s Amateur Station. to operate the licensee’s Amateur Station.

A qualified person is a person who has a certificate of A qualified person is a person who has a certificate of proficiency – not necessarily a licence.proficiency – not necessarily a licence.

To operate a station is to control the transmitting To operate a station is to control the transmitting equipment.equipment.

You can only authorised a person to your licence level.You can only authorised a person to your licence level.

Third Party TrafficThird Party TrafficDo Not Confuse this with Authorised Station UseDo Not Confuse this with Authorised Station Use

If the licensee is in control of the station anyone may use If the licensee is in control of the station anyone may use the microphone and talk.the microphone and talk.

To operate a station is to control the transmitting equipment.To operate a station is to control the transmitting equipment.

You may also pass messages, within Australia, for a person You may also pass messages, within Australia, for a person other than the amateur you are talking to.other than the amateur you are talking to.

This is termed “Third Party Traffic”

Other countries may not allow this and it is subject to the other countries laws.

Question 7Question 7Foundation licence holders must use equipment that Foundation licence holders must use equipment that is:is:

A. A specified brand.A. A specified brand.

B. Unmodified transmitting equipmentB. Unmodified transmitting equipment

C. Modified transmitting equipmentC. Modified transmitting equipment

D. Second hand equipmentD. Second hand equipment

ANSWER: B. Unmodified transmitting equipmentANSWER: B. Unmodified transmitting equipment

A message on behalf of a third party is subject to:A message on behalf of a third party is subject to:

A. The number of wordsA. The number of words

B. Where the third party is locatedB. Where the third party is located

C. OK on some frequenciesC. OK on some frequencies

D. Regulatory ConditionsD. Regulatory Conditions

ANSWER: D. Regulatory ConditionsANSWER: D. Regulatory Conditions

Specified bands and emissions for amateur operators are Specified bands and emissions for amateur operators are contained in:contained in:

A. Transceiver user manualsA. Transceiver user manuals

B. Amateur radio journalsB. Amateur radio journals

C. Foundation manualC. Foundation manual

D. Licence conditions determinationD. Licence conditions determination

ANSWER: D Licence Conditions DeterminationANSWER: D Licence Conditions Determination

Technical BasicsTechnical Basics

All matter is made up of atomsAll matter is made up of atoms

The universe is made up of matter.The universe is made up of matter.

Atoms consist of charged particles called protons, neutrons Atoms consist of charged particles called protons, neutrons and electrons.and electrons.

It is these charged particles that give rise to electricity as It is these charged particles that give rise to electricity as we understand and apply it in todays electronic we understand and apply it in todays electronic applications.applications.

Protons have a positive charge; electrons have a negative Protons have a positive charge; electrons have a negative charge while neutrons are not chargedcharge while neutrons are not charged

ElectricityElectricity

When two charged bodies are placed close together or When two charged bodies are placed close together or connected, like charges will repel and unlike charges will connected, like charges will repel and unlike charges will attract each other.attract each other.

RepelRepel

AttractAttract

If unlike charges are connected by a material that will allow If unlike charges are connected by a material that will allow the charges to move through it the charges will attempt to equal the charges to move through it the charges will attempt to equal the number of protons (+) and electrons(-) in each body.the number of protons (+) and electrons(-) in each body.

ElectricityElectricity

If a substance If a substance allows electronsallows electrons to move through it easily to move through it easily it is known as a it is known as a conductorconductor..

If it does If it does not allownot allow the passage of electrons it is an the passage of electrons it is an insulatorinsulator..

The flow of electrons along a conductor, to equal the The flow of electrons along a conductor, to equal the charges, is an electric current.charges, is an electric current.

p 7, 8

Electric CurrentElectric Current

An An electric currentelectric current is the is the ordered flow of electronsordered flow of electrons along a along a conductor.conductor.

Because the electrons are the particles that can move the Because the electrons are the particles that can move the flow will be from negative to positive.flow will be from negative to positive.

Electric Electric currentcurrent is represented in formula and circuit is represented in formula and circuit diagrams by the diagrams by the symbol symbol ‘‘II’.’.

Current is Current is measuredmeasured in in Amperes (A).Amperes (A).

Electrical PressureElectrical Pressure

For a current to flow there must be a difference in charge For a current to flow there must be a difference in charge between two points.between two points.

The difference in charge is known as a Voltage, The difference in charge is known as a Voltage, Potential Difference or Electromotive Force.Potential Difference or Electromotive Force.

VoltageVoltage uses the symbol uses the symbol ‘V’ or ‘E’‘V’ or ‘E’ for formula. for formula.

Voltage is Voltage is measured measured in in Volts (V).Volts (V).

ResistanceResistance

For a current to flow there must be a conductor connecting For a current to flow there must be a conductor connecting two points of different voltage.two points of different voltage.

Where ever we have movement we have an opposing Where ever we have movement we have an opposing force.force.

The opposition to current flow is Resistance.The opposition to current flow is Resistance.

ResistanceResistance uses the symbol ‘ uses the symbol ‘RR’ for formula. ’ for formula.

Resistance is Resistance is measured measured in in Ohms (Ohms (ΩΩ).).

Ohms LawOhms Law

In a circuit the Voltage (forward pressure), Current (Electron In a circuit the Voltage (forward pressure), Current (Electron Flow) and Resistance (opposition to flow) are related.Flow) and Resistance (opposition to flow) are related.

Ohms law states “The current in a circuit is directly Ohms law states “The current in a circuit is directly proportional to the Voltage and inversely proportional to the proportional to the Voltage and inversely proportional to the resistance”.resistance”.

As a formula - I = V/RAs a formula - I = V/R VV

II RROr V = IROr V = IR

Or R = V/IOr R = V/I

NOTE: These formula are on the exam information paper.NOTE: These formula are on the exam information paper. p 11

PowerPower

Power is the ability of a force to do work.Power is the ability of a force to do work.

In electrics, this can be turning a motor, causing a light bulb In electrics, this can be turning a motor, causing a light bulb to glow or causing an electromagnetic wave to form around to glow or causing an electromagnetic wave to form around an antenna.an antenna.

Electrical Electrical powerpower uses the abbreviation ‘ uses the abbreviation ‘PP’ for formula.’ for formula.

Electrical power is Electrical power is measured in Watts (W).measured in Watts (W).

PowerPower

Electrical Power depends upon the Voltage and Current Electrical Power depends upon the Voltage and Current in the circuit.in the circuit.

As a formula: P = VIAs a formula: P = VI

PPOr V = P/IOr V = P/I

Or I = P/VOr I = P/V

NOTE: These formula are on the exam information sheet.NOTE: These formula are on the exam information sheet.

Direct CurrentDirect Current

Direct Current (DC): Flows in one direction only.Direct Current (DC): Flows in one direction only.

A battery provides a source of DC.A battery provides a source of DC.

Provided there is a circuit current will flow from Provided there is a circuit current will flow from negative to positive.negative to positive.

Incorrect Polarity Incorrect Polarity

Many simple devices, such as light bulbs, will operate on DC Many simple devices, such as light bulbs, will operate on DC regardless of which way the current is flowing.regardless of which way the current is flowing.

More complex electronic devices and/or circuits can be damaged More complex electronic devices and/or circuits can be damaged if connected with incorrect polarity.if connected with incorrect polarity.

The direction of current flow is known as the polarity of the The direction of current flow is known as the polarity of the circuit.circuit.

Excessive voltage can also damage electronic components.Excessive voltage can also damage electronic components.

Alternating CurrentAlternating Current

Alternating Current (AC): The direction of current flow Alternating Current (AC): The direction of current flow changes with time.changes with time.

VoltageVoltage

TimeTime

An alternator produces an AC current.An alternator produces an AC current.

AC is easy to generate. AC is easy to generate.

AC can be easily transformed to a different voltage.AC can be easily transformed to a different voltage.

Alternating CurrentAlternating Current

AC is easier to produce and transform than DC.AC is easier to produce and transform than DC.

The AC wave shape is a sine wave. The AC wave shape is a sine wave.

OneOne complete complete wavewave is is one cycleone cycle..

Alternators and oscillators create sine waves (AC).Alternators and oscillators create sine waves (AC).

1 cycle1 cycle

FrequencyFrequency1 Second1 Second

FrequencyFrequency is the number of is the number of complete cycles per secondcomplete cycles per second..

The frequency shown above is 4 Hertz. The frequency shown above is 4 Hertz. Mains is 50Hz.Mains is 50Hz.

Frequency is measured in Frequency is measured in Hertz (Hz).Hertz (Hz).

An electric current is:An electric current is:

A. The voltage applied to a conductor.A. The voltage applied to a conductor.

B. The opposition offered to electrons in a circuit.B. The opposition offered to electrons in a circuit.

C. The ordered movement of electrons in a circuit.C. The ordered movement of electrons in a circuit.

D The heat generated by moving electrons.D The heat generated by moving electrons.

ANSWER: C The ordered movement of electrons in a ANSWER: C The ordered movement of electrons in a circuit. circuit.

Electrical Power in measured in:Electrical Power in measured in:

A. WattsA. Watts

B. OhmsB. Ohms

C. VoltsC. Volts

D. HertzD. Hertz

ANSWER: A. WattsANSWER: A. Watts

If 10 Volts is applied to a circuit containing 5 Ohms If 10 Volts is applied to a circuit containing 5 Ohms resistance a current of _______ will result.resistance a current of _______ will result.

A. 0.2 AmpsA. 0.2 Amps

B. 2 AmpsB. 2 Amps

C. 0.5 AmpsC. 0.5 Amps I = V/RI = V/R

D. 5 AmpsD. 5 Amps

ANSWER: 2 Amps ANSWER: 2 Amps

WavelengthWavelength

In air, the velocity (v) of radio waves, is 300, 000,000 metres In air, the velocity (v) of radio waves, is 300, 000,000 metres per second.per second.

The wave length is the distance the front of the wave has The wave length is the distance the front of the wave has travelled in the time taken for the wave to complete a cycle.travelled in the time taken for the wave to complete a cycle.

Distance travelled at 300,000,000 metres/secDistance travelled at 300,000,000 metres/sec

Electrical UnitsElectrical Units

QuantityQuantity IndicatorIndicator Unit Unit Symbol Symbol

VoltageVoltage

CurrentCurrent

ResistanceResistance

PowerPower

FrequencyFrequency

WavelengthWavelength

VoltVolt

AmpAmp

OhmOhm

WattWatt

HertzHertz

MetreMetre

NOTE: NOTE: VoltageVoltage is sometimes referred to as is sometimes referred to as Potential Difference Potential Difference or Electromotive Force (EMFor Electromotive Force (EMF), the ), the symbol E may be usedsymbol E may be used..

Unit PrefixesUnit Prefixes

Often the units we have to use are very small or very large.Often the units we have to use are very small or very large.

Frequency is usually in thousands or millions of Hertz but Frequency is usually in thousands or millions of Hertz but current is often in thousandths or millionths of an Amp.current is often in thousandths or millionths of an Amp.

To avoid writing f = 3562000Hz or A=0.00125A, scientific To avoid writing f = 3562000Hz or A=0.00125A, scientific prefixes are used.prefixes are used.

Some of these are used every day. Some of these are used every day.

1 Kilometre is a 1000 metres.1 Kilometre is a 1000 metres.

1 millimetre is 0.001 metres.1 millimetre is 0.001 metres. p 13

SI UnitsSI Units

FactorFactor PrefixPrefix SymbolSymbol

MillionthMillionth micromicro µ or uµ or u

ThousandthThousandth millimilli mm

ThousandsThousands kilokilo kk

MillionsMillions MegaMega MM

The prefix can be applied to any Unit. The prefix can be applied to any Unit.

2MV = 2 Mega volts (2,000,000V)2MV = 2 Mega volts (2,000,000V) 2mV = 2 milli volts (0.002V)2mV = 2 milli volts (0.002V)

Examples of PrefixesExamples of Prefixes5000V = 5kV5000V = 5kV Kilo is 1000. So 5000 divided by 1000 = 5Kilo is 1000. So 5000 divided by 1000 = 5

4.7k4.7kΩΩ = 4700 = 4700ΩΩ Big unit to smaller unit - multiplyBig unit to smaller unit - multiply

1500mA = 1.5 A1500mA = 1.5 A Little unit to bigger unit - divideLittle unit to bigger unit - divide

0.6MHz = kHz0.6MHz = kHz600600 Big to little - multiplyBig to little - multiply

1A = mA1A = mA10001000 Big to little - multiplyBig to little - multiply

50mV = V 50mV = V 0.050.05 Little to big - divideLittle to big - divide

5M5MΩΩ = = ΩΩ5,000,0005,000,000 Big to little - multiplyBig to little - multiply

Frequency and WavelengthFrequency and Wavelength

If wavelength is the distance travelled while one wave If wavelength is the distance travelled while one wave completes then the frequency must affect the wavelength.completes then the frequency must affect the wavelength.

1 Second1 Second

f = 1 Hz

f = 3Hzf = 3Hz

With a frequency of 1Hz the With a frequency of 1Hz the wavelength will be 300,000kmswavelength will be 300,000kms

With a frequency of 3Hz the With a frequency of 3Hz the wavelength will be 100,000kmswavelength will be 100,000kms

Frequency and WavelengthFrequency and Wavelength

TheThe higher higher the the frequencyfrequency the the shortershorter the the wave length.wave length.

The The lowerlower the f the frequencyrequency the the longerlonger the the wave lengthwave length..

The conversion chart will The conversion chart will be available in the exam.be available in the exam.

NOTE:NOTE: The frequency is The frequency is in Megahertzin Megahertz

1000 Volts is often represented as1000 Volts is often represented as

A. 1mVA. 1mV

B. 1MVB. 1MV

C. 1kVC. 1kV

D. 0.1kVD. 0.1kV

ANSWER: C 1kV (kilovolt)ANSWER: C 1kV (kilovolt)

Question 14Question 14Wavelength has the symbol ____ and is measured in______.Wavelength has the symbol ____ and is measured in______.

A. A. ΩΩ and metres and metres

B. B. µ and ohmsµ and ohms

C. C. λλ and metres and metres

D. D. λλ and Hertz and Hertz

ANSWER: C. ANSWER: C. λλ (lamda) and metres (lamda) and metres

AC stands for:AC stands for:

A. Ascending CurrentA. Ascending Current

B. Analysis CurrentB. Analysis Current

C. Analogue CurrentC. Analogue Current

D. Alternating CurrentD. Alternating Current

ANSWER: D Alternating CurrentANSWER: D Alternating Current

Electro-magnetic SpectrumElectro-magnetic SpectrumElectromagnetic frequencies range from 0Hz to millions Electromagnetic frequencies range from 0Hz to millions of Exa hertz. (Exa = 1,000,000,000,000,000,000)of Exa hertz. (Exa = 1,000,000,000,000,000,000)

The area of interest to us is the audio and radio section of The area of interest to us is the audio and radio section of the spectrum.the spectrum.

The The normal hearingnormal hearing range is about range is about 100Hz to 15 kHz100Hz to 15 kHz..

The range for The range for audio communicationaudio communication is is 300Hz to 3kHz300Hz to 3kHz..

Radio Frequency BandsRadio Frequency Bands

Amateurs generally operate in the HF, VHF and UHF bands.Amateurs generally operate in the HF, VHF and UHF bands.

HF (High Frequency) - 3 to 30MHzHF (High Frequency) - 3 to 30MHz

VHF (Very High Frequency) - 30 to 300MHzVHF (Very High Frequency) - 30 to 300MHz

UHF (Ultra High Frequency - 300MHz to 3GHzUHF (Ultra High Frequency - 300MHz to 3GHz

NOTE:NOTE: These frequency bands will be on the exam information These frequency bands will be on the exam information sheetssheets

Component SymbolsComponent Symbols

When drawing circuits, symbols are used to represent When drawing circuits, symbols are used to represent components.components.

There are ten that need to be known. There are ten that need to be known.

In the practical section of your exam you will be shown In the practical section of your exam you will be shown at least fiveat least five which must be correctly identified. which must be correctly identified.

The five The five must must include the include the earthearth and and antenna antenna symbolssymbols

CellCellBatteryBattery

A battery may consist of one or more cells.A battery may consist of one or more cells.

The exact number of cells is not always shown, the dotted line The exact number of cells is not always shown, the dotted line indicates more cells.indicates more cells.

FuseFuse LampLamp

Occasionally a fuse may be drawn asOccasionally a fuse may be drawn as

A lamp may sometimes be shown as A lamp may sometimes be shown as RR

These alternatives will These alternatives will notnot be shown in the exam. be shown in the exam.p 92

ResistorResistor Switch (Open)Switch (Open)

A resistor may also be seen as A resistor may also be seen as

The switch above is a single pole single throw switch.The switch above is a single pole single throw switch.

AntennaAntenna EarthEarth

These two These two mustmust be known be known and and correctlycorrectly identified identified

MicrophoneMicrophone LoudspeakerLoudspeaker

The loudspeaker may be seen as The loudspeaker may be seen as

NoneNone of the alternatives will be used in the exam. of the alternatives will be used in the exam.

TransmittersTransmitters

A simple voice transmitter consists of:A simple voice transmitter consists of:

A microphoneA microphone

Audio amplifierAudio amplifier

Frequency Generation stage - OscillatorFrequency Generation stage - Oscillator

Modulator stageModulator stage

RF AmplifierRF Amplifier

Feed line and antennaFeed line and antenna

Transmitter Block DiagramTransmitter Block Diagram

1Audio Stage

2Modulator

4RF PowerAmplifier

3Frequency Generator(Oscillator)

Microphone

Antenna

This is the diagram from which will be required to identify This is the diagram from which will be required to identify blocks.blocks.

ModulationModulation

The audio (or data) is combined with the carrier (radio The audio (or data) is combined with the carrier (radio frequency) in the modulation stage of the transmitter.frequency) in the modulation stage of the transmitter.

This can be done by amplitude modulation (AM) or This can be done by amplitude modulation (AM) or frequency modulation (FM).frequency modulation (FM).

Single Side BandSingle Side Band (SSB) is a (SSB) is a form form of of Amplitude ModulationAmplitude Modulation (AM).(AM).

AM (amplitude modulation) can be used as an emission AM (amplitude modulation) can be used as an emission mode or further divided into upper or lower sidebands.mode or further divided into upper or lower sidebands.

p 16, 17

Amplitude ModulationAmplitude Modulation

In AM the audio varies the amplitude of the carrier.In AM the audio varies the amplitude of the carrier.

RF Carrier

Audio Input

AM Signal

Simple AM gives Simple AM gives the audio imposed the audio imposed on both sides of on both sides of the carrier.the carrier.

SSB is obtained by SSB is obtained by removing one side removing one side of the of the AM of the of the AM signal.signal.

Effect of Over ModulationEffect of Over Modulation

If the modulating audio has too much amplitude the If the modulating audio has too much amplitude the resulting modulated waveform will be distorted.resulting modulated waveform will be distorted.

The audio amplitude is controlled by the ‘ Mic Gain’ or The audio amplitude is controlled by the ‘ Mic Gain’ or ‘AF Gain’ control on most transceivers.‘AF Gain’ control on most transceivers.

This control adjusts the amount of amplification in the This control adjusts the amount of amplification in the audio amplifier.audio amplifier.

The distortion, as well as making the transmitted signal hard The distortion, as well as making the transmitted signal hard to understand can cause the transmitter to splatter across to understand can cause the transmitter to splatter across adjacent frequencies causing interference.adjacent frequencies causing interference.

Frequency ModulationFrequency Modulation

In FM the frequency of the RF carrier is varied by the In FM the frequency of the RF carrier is varied by the audio signal – the amplitude remains constant.audio signal – the amplitude remains constant.

FM Signal

RF Carrier

Audio Input

The frequency The frequency variation is very variation is very small and is called small and is called the deviation.the deviation.

Signal amplitude Signal amplitude is constant and is is constant and is thus less likely to thus less likely to interference.interference.

Transmitter Output Matching Transmitter Output Matching

The final power amplifier stage of a transmitter must be The final power amplifier stage of a transmitter must be connected to a correctly matched transmission line and connected to a correctly matched transmission line and antenna to avoid possible damage to the transmitter/feed antenna to avoid possible damage to the transmitter/feed line and interference to other radio communications line and interference to other radio communications services.services.

The matching can be done by ensuring that all parts of the The matching can be done by ensuring that all parts of the circuit have the same resistance or by transforming the circuit have the same resistance or by transforming the voltage current ratio to eliminate the mismatch.voltage current ratio to eliminate the mismatch.

An antenna matching unit (often called an antenna tuner) An antenna matching unit (often called an antenna tuner) can be used to eliminate the mismatch.can be used to eliminate the mismatch.

Balanced Antenna MatchingBalanced Antenna Matching

To feed a balanced antenna with an unbalanced line To feed a balanced antenna with an unbalanced line without a mismatch a without a mismatch a balunbalun must be used. must be used.

BALUN stands for BALUN stands for BALBALanced to anced to UNUNbalanced.balanced.

TransmitterTransmitter

BALUNBALUN

Coax cableCoax cable

Dipole antennaDipole antenna

The coax is an unbalanced line.The coax is an unbalanced line.

The dipole is a balanced antenna.The dipole is a balanced antenna.

ReceiversReceiversThe basic blocks in a receiver are:The basic blocks in a receiver are:

AntennaAntenna

Tuning and RF AmplifierTuning and RF Amplifier

Tuner / RF Amp

DetectionDetection

Detector

Audio AmplifierAudio Amplifier

Audio Amp

LoudspeakerLoudspeaker

This is the diagram you will be asked to identify blocks from.This is the diagram you will be asked to identify blocks from.

Note:Note: The tuning is the first stage in the receiver. The tuning is the first stage in the receiver.p 18, 19

ReceiversReceivers

SensitivitySensitivity is the ability of a receiver to reproduce weak is the ability of a receiver to reproduce weak signals.signals.

Selectivity Selectivity is the ability of a receiver to accept one is the ability of a receiver to accept one signal while rejecting signals which are close by, in signal while rejecting signals which are close by, in frequency, and possibly louder than the wanted signal.frequency, and possibly louder than the wanted signal.

StabilityStability is the ability of a receiver to remain on frequency is the ability of a receiver to remain on frequency through a variety of operating temperatures both external through a variety of operating temperatures both external and internal temperatures.and internal temperatures.

Terms applicable to receiversTerms applicable to receivers

Transceiver ControlsTransceiver Controls

AF GainAF Gain: Controls the amplification in the AF amplifier in : Controls the amplification in the AF amplifier in receive mode. receive mode.

RF GainRF Gain: Controls the amplification of the RF amp in receive : Controls the amplification of the RF amp in receive mode. mode.

Mic Gain: Mic Gain: Controls the AF gain in the microphone circuit in Controls the AF gain in the microphone circuit in transmit mode. transmit mode.

Carrier or RF Power:Carrier or RF Power: Controls the RF amp in transmit and so Controls the RF amp in transmit and so the transmitter output power.the transmitter output power.

Mode: Mode: Control the emission mode (CW, AM, USB, LSB Control the emission mode (CW, AM, USB, LSB etc) of the transmitter and receiver.etc) of the transmitter and receiver.

VFO: VFO: Variable Frequency Oscillator – Main tuning Control Variable Frequency Oscillator – Main tuning Control for both transmitter and receiver.for both transmitter and receiver.

Band:Band: Switches between amateur bands. Switches between amateur bands.

RIT (Receiver Incremental Tuning or Clarifier).RIT (Receiver Incremental Tuning or Clarifier). Tunes the Tunes the receiver without affecting the transmitter. Usually receiver without affecting the transmitter. Usually within within about 2kHz.about 2kHz.

Squelch:Squelch: Sets the signal volume which will activate the Sets the signal volume which will activate the receiver. receiver.

XIT (Transmitter incremental Tuning):XIT (Transmitter incremental Tuning): Tunes the Tunes the transmitter without affecting the receiver. Usually transmitter without affecting the receiver. Usually within within about 2kHz.about 2kHz.

Not all transceivers will have all of the above controls.Not all transceivers will have all of the above controls.

The section of a transmitter that generates the RF carrier The section of a transmitter that generates the RF carrier is:is:

A. Audio AmplifierA. Audio Amplifier

B. OscillatorB. Oscillator

C. ModulatorC. Modulator

D. RF AmplifierD. RF Amplifier

ANSWER: B OscillatorANSWER: B Oscillator

If a transmitter is over modulated it is likely to:If a transmitter is over modulated it is likely to:

A. Transmit a higher power.A. Transmit a higher power.

B. OverheatB. Overheat

C. Generate FM instead of AMC. Generate FM instead of AM

D. Generate interferenceD. Generate interference

ANSWER D Generate InterferenceANSWER D Generate Interference

The ability of a receiver to receive very weak signals The ability of a receiver to receive very weak signals is known as:is known as:

A. StabilityA. Stability

B. SensitivityB. Sensitivity

C. SelectivityC. Selectivity

D. Super abilityD. Super ability

ANSWER B SensitivityANSWER B Sensitivity

Feeder LinesFeeder Lines

There are two basic types of feed line.There are two basic types of feed line.

Coaxial Cable (Coax)Coaxial Cable (Coax) Coax

Consists of a centre conductor for the signal surrounded by a Consists of a centre conductor for the signal surrounded by a dielectric (insulator) and an outer screen at earth potential.dielectric (insulator) and an outer screen at earth potential.

Twin Feeder (Ladder Twin Feeder (Ladder line or ribbon cable)line or ribbon cable)

TwinFeeder

Consists of two parallel conductors which are at opposite and Consists of two parallel conductors which are at opposite and equal potential.equal potential.

Unbalanced LineUnbalanced Line

Balanced LineBalanced Line

Feeder LinesFeeder Lines

Coax cable is most widely used for RF signals because of Coax cable is most widely used for RF signals because of its screening qualities.its screening qualities.

To maintain these screening qualities all plugs and sockets To maintain these screening qualities all plugs and sockets must be the correct type for the cable and the outer braid must must be the correct type for the cable and the outer braid must correctly connected to the plug/socket. correctly connected to the plug/socket.

The screen should be earthed.The screen should be earthed.

If not correctly connected the outer braid may radiate and If not correctly connected the outer braid may radiate and cause interference.cause interference.

Coax ConnectorsCoax Connectors

There is a large variety of connectors exist.There is a large variety of connectors exist.

Common RF connectors include BNC, PL259, N Type, etc.Common RF connectors include BNC, PL259, N Type, etc.

Ensure both inner conductor and outer braid are correctly Ensure both inner conductor and outer braid are correctly assembled.assembled.

Connectors in bad condition or incorrectly assembled Connectors in bad condition or incorrectly assembled are a major cause of bad SWR and power loss.are a major cause of bad SWR and power loss.

Screen must be continuos through all plugs and sockets.Screen must be continuos through all plugs and sockets.

p 23, 24

PL259 ConnectorsPL259 Connectors

BNC ConnectorsBNC Connectors

N Type ConnectorsN Type Connectors

AntennasAntennas

Antennas transform AC signals into propagating radio Antennas transform AC signals into propagating radio waves.waves.

Gain is the apparent increase in power by directing it in one Gain is the apparent increase in power by directing it in one (or two) direction(s).(or two) direction(s).

Antenna size is determined by wavelength.Antenna size is determined by wavelength.

Antenna PolarisationAntenna Polarisation

An antenna radiates both a magnetic and an electrical field.An antenna radiates both a magnetic and an electrical field.

These two fields are at right angles to each otherThese two fields are at right angles to each other

The electrical field is in the same plane as the antenna.The electrical field is in the same plane as the antenna.

It is the It is the electrical fieldelectrical field that that determines the polarisationdetermines the polarisation of the antenna.of the antenna.

A vertical antenna is vertically polarised.A vertical antenna is vertically polarised.

An antenna that is positioned horizontally is horizontally An antenna that is positioned horizontally is horizontally polarised.polarised.

Types of AntennaTypes of Antenna

In the practical session of the exam you will be required In the practical session of the exam you will be required to identify several types of antenna, either by diagram or to identify several types of antenna, either by diagram or actual examples.actual examples.

There are several antennas outside which we will look at in a There are several antennas outside which we will look at in a moment.moment.

You will not be required to estimate the frequency band the You will not be required to estimate the frequency band the antenna is designed to operate on.antenna is designed to operate on.

Antenna TypesAntenna Types

DIPOLE DIPOLE

The dipole consists of two equal halves.The dipole consists of two equal halves.

Normally built as a half wave antenna.Normally built as a half wave antenna.

Is a balanced antenna and therefore needs either a balun or a Is a balanced antenna and therefore needs either a balun or a twin feed line.twin feed line.

Antenna TypesAntenna TypesFolded DipoleFolded Dipole

The folded di-pole is a broadband antenna.The folded di-pole is a broadband antenna.

Normally fed with a 300 Ohm TV Ribbon.Normally fed with a 300 Ohm TV Ribbon.

If coax fed a balun must be used.If coax fed a balun must be used. p 25

Antenna TypesAntenna TypesQUARTER WAVE VERTICALQUARTER WAVE VERTICAL

Normally built as a quarter wave length antenna to conserve space Normally built as a quarter wave length antenna to conserve space but will function if built to half or full wave length.but will function if built to half or full wave length.

The vertical (whip) needs a ground plane to operate properly.The vertical (whip) needs a ground plane to operate properly.

The ground plane can be the ground, radials or a solid base like a The ground plane can be the ground, radials or a solid base like a car roof.car roof. p 25

Antenna TypesAntenna TypesFIVE-EIGHTHS VERTICALFIVE-EIGHTHS VERTICAL

Common for mobile use.Common for mobile use.

Identifiable by the coil at the bottom.Identifiable by the coil at the bottom.

The radials serve the same purpose as the quarter wave.The radials serve the same purpose as the quarter wave.

Better impedance match and gain than a quarter wave.Better impedance match and gain than a quarter wave.p 25

Antenna TypesAntenna TypesYAGIYAGI

Yagi’s are a directional antennas.Yagi’s are a directional antennas.

The director gives focus to give gain and the reflector(s) The director gives focus to give gain and the reflector(s) gives front/back isolation.gives front/back isolation.

Only the driven element radiates – on its own it is a dipole.Only the driven element radiates – on its own it is a dipole.

More directors may be added to add focus (narrow the beam).More directors may be added to add focus (narrow the beam).p 25

Antenna TypesAntenna Types

Station

RF Earth

LONG WIRE or END FEDLONG WIRE or END FED

Common at HF because of the long wavelengths involved.Common at HF because of the long wavelengths involved.

Needs an ATU to match it for multiple bands.Needs an ATU to match it for multiple bands.

Has strong RF near the house which can cause interference Has strong RF near the house which can cause interference (EMC) problems.(EMC) problems.

Gain / Effective Radiated PowerGain / Effective Radiated Power

Effective Radiated Power (ERP) is the power radiated in the Effective Radiated Power (ERP) is the power radiated in the direction of the maximum radiation.direction of the maximum radiation.

ERP is the product of the power supplied by the transmitter ERP is the product of the power supplied by the transmitter and the gain of the antenna.and the gain of the antenna.

Antenna Matching - SWRAntenna Matching - SWR

The The antennaantenna must be matched, in must be matched, in length,length, to the to the frequencyfrequency being used.being used.

This creates a challenge for multi band HF working.This creates a challenge for multi band HF working.

SWR – Standing Wave Ratio is a measure of the mismatch of SWR – Standing Wave Ratio is a measure of the mismatch of the antenna system to the radio output impedance.the antenna system to the radio output impedance.

A high SWR results in power being reflected back down A high SWR results in power being reflected back down the feedline to the transmitter.the feedline to the transmitter.

This is inefficient and potentially damaging.This is inefficient and potentially damaging.

Antenna Matching - SWRAntenna Matching - SWR

SWR meters give a ratio of transmitter power (or forward power) SWR meters give a ratio of transmitter power (or forward power) to reflected power. to reflected power.

Some meters will also show the actual power levels, forward and Some meters will also show the actual power levels, forward and reflected.reflected.

They are valuable for checking power, correct antenna design, They are valuable for checking power, correct antenna design, installation and operation.installation and operation.

A sudden change in SWR will usually indicate a fault in the antenna A sudden change in SWR will usually indicate a fault in the antenna system.system.

Dummy Loads are resistances used in place of antennas for Dummy Loads are resistances used in place of antennas for tunning and testing without actually radiating a signal.tunning and testing without actually radiating a signal.

PropagationPropagationRadio waves nominally travel in straight lines and get Radio waves nominally travel in straight lines and get weaker as they travelweaker as they travel..

Diffraction, the slight bending around buildings, spreading Diffraction, the slight bending around buildings, spreading out after passing through a narrow gap, following land out after passing through a narrow gap, following land contours etc, does occur. contours etc, does occur.

Radio waves (especially at UHF & above) will also bounce Radio waves (especially at UHF & above) will also bounce off solid objects although some absorption, depending on off solid objects although some absorption, depending on the material, will be present.the material, will be present.

Refraction is the bending of radio waves.Refraction is the bending of radio waves.

Other factors that affect propagation are meteor scatter, Other factors that affect propagation are meteor scatter, aurora’s and for microwave ranges rain and tropospheric aurora’s and for microwave ranges rain and tropospheric scatter.scatter. p 33

Propagation at VHF/UHFPropagation at VHF/UHF

VHF/UHF normally has almost line of sight propagation.VHF/UHF normally has almost line of sight propagation.

A clear path is better to increase signal strength than an A clear path is better to increase signal strength than an increase in power of 10 or 100 times.increase in power of 10 or 100 times.

For example a satellite can be reached with only a few watts For example a satellite can be reached with only a few watts if there are no obstructions whereas a signal travelling 5 -10 if there are no obstructions whereas a signal travelling 5 -10 kms through trees and buildings will be almost unreadable. kms through trees and buildings will be almost unreadable. An increase antenna height will beat an increase in power. An increase antenna height will beat an increase in power.

Buildings and hills cause shadows and path loss.Buildings and hills cause shadows and path loss.

In towns the reflection and scatter caused by many buildings In towns the reflection and scatter caused by many buildings will improve expected reception.will improve expected reception.

Diffraction/refraction over the horizon will occur but is Diffraction/refraction over the horizon will occur but is limited.limited.

Refraction at UHF/VHF can be caused by high/low Refraction at UHF/VHF can be caused by high/low pressure – often called ducting or lift. pressure – often called ducting or lift.

These ducts can extend the range of U/VHF signal by These ducts can extend the range of U/VHF signal by hundreds of kilometres.hundreds of kilometres.

Propagation at HFPropagation at HFThe main difference between VHF and HF propagation is The main difference between VHF and HF propagation is the effect of the ionosphere.the effect of the ionosphere.

The ionosphere is layers of ionised air 70 – 400kms The ionosphere is layers of ionised air 70 – 400kms above the earth.above the earth.

They are created by the suns rays on the upper atmosphere They are created by the suns rays on the upper atmosphere and therefore vary from day to night and season to season.and therefore vary from day to night and season to season.

They are also affected by sunspot activity.They are also affected by sunspot activity.

It is the Ionosphere that makes long distance HF It is the Ionosphere that makes long distance HF communications possible.communications possible.

Propagation at HFPropagation at HF

The ionised layers refract (bend) HF radio waves but have The ionised layers refract (bend) HF radio waves but have little or no effect on VHF and above.little or no effect on VHF and above.

70kms70kms

400kms400kms

The higher the frequency the less bending effect.The higher the frequency the less bending effect.

Signals that are returned may make a second hop. Signals that are returned may make a second hop. p 35

Question 19Question 19The purpose of an antenna is to:The purpose of an antenna is to:

A. Let people know you are an amatuerA. Let people know you are an amatuer

B. Allow balanced transmission lines to be used.B. Allow balanced transmission lines to be used.

C. Convert electrical signals into radio waves.C. Convert electrical signals into radio waves.

D. Provide a place for birds to perch.D. Provide a place for birds to perch.

ANSWER: C Convert electrical signals into radio waves.ANSWER: C Convert electrical signals into radio waves.

Question 20 Question 20

The longer the antenna:The longer the antenna:

A. The higher the frequency of operation.A. The higher the frequency of operation.

B. The lower the frequency of operation.B. The lower the frequency of operation.

C. The polarisation will be vertical.C. The polarisation will be vertical.

D. The more power it can produce.D. The more power it can produce.

ANSWER: B The lower the frequency of operation. ANSWER: B The lower the frequency of operation.

As a radio wave is radiated away from the antenna it As a radio wave is radiated away from the antenna it becomes:becomes:

A. Stronger.A. Stronger.

B Weaker.B Weaker.

C. Less polarised.C. Less polarised.

D. Ionised.D. Ionised.

ANSWER: B WeakerANSWER: B Weaker

Electro Magnetic CompatibilityElectro Magnetic Compatibility

EMC has two aspects:EMC has two aspects:

1. Avoidance of generating interference.1. Avoidance of generating interference.

2. The immunity of your own equipment and appliances 2. The immunity of your own equipment and appliances from being interfered with.from being interfered with.

Electro Magnetic Compatibility (EMC) is the ability of an Electro Magnetic Compatibility (EMC) is the ability of an electronic device to operate properly, without interference, in electronic device to operate properly, without interference, in the presence of electromagnetic radiation.the presence of electromagnetic radiation.

Electro Magnetic CompatibilityElectro Magnetic Compatibility

1. The more power emitted, the greater the likelihood of 1. The more power emitted, the greater the likelihood of generating interference.generating interference.

2. The mode of emission that is being used has a great 2. The mode of emission that is being used has a great effect on interference.effect on interference.

3. The closer the antenna to the other equipment the 3. The closer the antenna to the other equipment the more likelihood of creating interference.more likelihood of creating interference.

Factors which will effect the amount of interference generated include:

4. Good earthing of equipment will help prevent interference.

Earthing and EMCEarthing and EMCThere are two types of earthing.

The normal mains earth, which is provided by the third pin (normally vertical) on the normal three pin plug.

This is designed to cause a fuse to blow if the equipments outside case becomes live due to a fault inside the equipment.

Ensure that equipment is run from a common mains earth to Ensure that equipment is run from a common mains earth to prevent earth loops – use filtered mains boards and ferrite prevent earth loops – use filtered mains boards and ferrite rings correctly.rings correctly.

It is essential for safety reasons that mains earths are correctly connected.

Earthing and EMCEarthing and EMC

Mains earths are NOT designed to conduct Radio Frequencies to ground.

If RF enters the mains system it may be conducted through the system and enter other equipment/appliances.

Radio Frequency (RF) earths are separate to mains earths and Radio Frequency (RF) earths are separate to mains earths and the two should not be mixed.the two should not be mixed.

Good reception, especially on HF, as well as EMC Good reception, especially on HF, as well as EMC performance, depends on good RF earthing.performance, depends on good RF earthing.

RF Earth ConnectionRF Earth Connection

This provides a path to ground for RF currents which otherwise This provides a path to ground for RF currents which otherwise may enter the mains system and cause interference.may enter the mains system and cause interference.

A good RF earth should consist of a copper stake well buried A good RF earth should consist of a copper stake well buried into the earth, as close as possible to the equipment, with a into the earth, as close as possible to the equipment, with a thick copper braid connection.thick copper braid connection.

RF earths should be a separate earth stake, RF earths should be a separate earth stake, DO NOTDO NOT try to try to use existing water or gas pipes as an earth.use existing water or gas pipes as an earth.

AM/SSB can be easily rectified/detected, so is most likely to cause AM/SSB can be easily rectified/detected, so is most likely to cause interference to domestic equipment.interference to domestic equipment.

Antennas SystemsAntennas Systems

Antenna siting and type of system can assist in minimising Antenna siting and type of system can assist in minimising interference.interference.

A balanced antenna system is less likely to create problems A balanced antenna system is less likely to create problems than an unbalanced system.than an unbalanced system.

When using directional antennas avoid pointing them at When using directional antennas avoid pointing them at neighbouring equipment/antennas.neighbouring equipment/antennas.

Maximise distance between transmitting and receiving Maximise distance between transmitting and receiving antennas/equipment. antennas/equipment.

FiltersFilters

Filters can be fitted to transmitting systems to stop Filters can be fitted to transmitting systems to stop unwanted radiation and to receiving systems to stop unwanted radiation and to receiving systems to stop unwanted signals entering the system.unwanted signals entering the system.

Filters can also be used on power supplies to stop RF Filters can also be used on power supplies to stop RF entering the mains or interference from mains entering entering the mains or interference from mains entering equipment.equipment.

Where used Where used filters filters should be should be fittedfitted as as closeclose as possible to as possible to the effected the effected equipment.equipment.

RF ChokeRF Choke

A coil, preferably wound on a ferrite A coil, preferably wound on a ferrite rod, makes an effective RF choke or rod, makes an effective RF choke or filter.filter.

Speaker wire wound as shown will Speaker wire wound as shown will prevent RF signals being fed through prevent RF signals being fed through speakers.speakers.

If put into an antenna cable it will If put into an antenna cable it will prevent weaker signals from interfering prevent weaker signals from interfering with TV or Radio.with TV or Radio.

TV InterferenceTV Interference

Herringbone patterning on TV

A herringbone pattern, A herringbone pattern, with possible loss of with possible loss of colour is generally caused colour is generally caused by an FM transmission.by an FM transmission.

There is usually no effect There is usually no effect on sound but in extreme on sound but in extreme cases sound may be cases sound may be distorted. distorted.

The distortion lines often move when the transmission is The distortion lines often move when the transmission is modulated.modulated.

AM / SSB Patterning on screen

Thick white lines across a Thick white lines across a screen are known as sound screen are known as sound bars.bars.

Caused by AM and SSB Caused by AM and SSB transmissions.transmissions.

Distorted sound possibly in time Distorted sound possibly in time with the visual distortion.with the visual distortion.

This can often be cured with a filter in the antenna line.This can often be cured with a filter in the antenna line.

Digital TV is effected quite Digital TV is effected quite differently.differently.

The picture may become The picture may become blocked (form squares like a blocked (form squares like a jigsaw), jerky, freeze or jigsaw), jerky, freeze or disappear completely.disappear completely.

These symptoms are the same as a weak signal and the owner may These symptoms are the same as a weak signal and the owner may suspect a TV problem rather than interference.suspect a TV problem rather than interference.

Repeaters/BeaconsRepeaters/BeaconsRepeaters are used to extend the normal VHF/UHF range.Repeaters are used to extend the normal VHF/UHF range.

The repeater has a transmitter of a different frequency to the The repeater has a transmitter of a different frequency to the receiver.receiver.

Each station receives and transmits on different frequencies.Each station receives and transmits on different frequencies.

Repeaters/BeaconsRepeaters/Beacons

When using a repeater always allow time for the repeater When using a repeater always allow time for the repeater to reset.to reset.

Repeaters must have a time out mechanism. Repeaters must have a time out mechanism.

Beacons are fixed transmitters on certainly frequencies Beacons are fixed transmitters on certainly frequencies which are used on HF to give an indication of propagation.which are used on HF to give an indication of propagation.

They may be timed to allow of network of world wide They may be timed to allow of network of world wide stations to transmit on the same frequency.stations to transmit on the same frequency.

IRLP and Echo LinkIRLP and Echo LinkThese systems allow repeaters that are equipped with the system These systems allow repeaters that are equipped with the system (nodes) to link together throughout the world via the internet.(nodes) to link together throughout the world via the internet.

IRLP requires a radio to access the input repeater and receive IRLP requires a radio to access the input repeater and receive the output where as Echo Link can be run from a registered the output where as Echo Link can be run from a registered computer.computer. p 67

DTMFDTMF

Dual Tone Multi FrequencyDual Tone Multi Frequency uses the same tones as mobile uses the same tones as mobile phones.phones.

They are used to They are used to control repeater functionscontrol repeater functions such as switching such as switching from high to low power, and for causing an from high to low power, and for causing an IRLP or Echo LinkIRLP or Echo Link repeater to repeater to link to another nodelink to another node..

Each IRLP or Echo Link node is designated a four figure Each IRLP or Echo Link node is designated a four figure number. When the number of a remote node is entered the number. When the number of a remote node is entered the local computer links to the called node.local computer links to the called node.

CTCSSCTCSS

Continuous Tone Coded Squelch SystemContinuous Tone Coded Squelch System is a system where is a system where a sub audible tone is used to break the squelch on a remote a sub audible tone is used to break the squelch on a remote receiver.receiver.

Interference often can cause a repeater to turn on and lock Interference often can cause a repeater to turn on and lock on while the interference is present.on while the interference is present.

By using CTCSS the receiver has to hear the tone before it By using CTCSS the receiver has to hear the tone before it will will open the squelchopen the squelch and and allow the receiver to activateallow the receiver to activate..

In Perth all 70cm repeaters are CTCSS equipped. In Perth all 70cm repeaters are CTCSS equipped.

Interference resulting in EMC problems can be Interference resulting in EMC problems can be minimised by:minimised by:

A. Only operating from a mobile station.A. Only operating from a mobile station.

B. Using vertically polarised antennas.B. Using vertically polarised antennas.

C. Careful siting of antennas.C. Careful siting of antennas.

D. Using dipole antennas.D. Using dipole antennas.

ANSWER: C Careful siting of antennas.ANSWER: C Careful siting of antennas.

One way that interference can be passed between equipment One way that interference can be passed between equipment is:is:

A. By the mains power supply lines.A. By the mains power supply lines.

B. Moist atmosphere.B. Moist atmosphere.

C. Gas Pipes.C. Gas Pipes.

D. RF chokes.D. RF chokes.

ANSWER: A By the mains power supply linesANSWER: A By the mains power supply lines

DTMF stands forDTMF stands for

A. Dual Tone Multi Frequency.A. Dual Tone Multi Frequency.

B. Double Tone Multi Frequency.B. Double Tone Multi Frequency.

C. Dual Tone Modulated Frequency.C. Dual Tone Modulated Frequency.

D. Double Tone Masking Frequency.D. Double Tone Masking Frequency.

ANSWER: A Dual tone Multi FrequencyANSWER: A Dual tone Multi Frequency

Safety FirstSafety First

High voltage is extremely dangerous – Electrocution is High voltage is extremely dangerous – Electrocution is possible with almost any voltage but remember high possible with almost any voltage but remember high voltages can and will jump for an earth.voltages can and will jump for an earth.

High currents as well as shocking, create heat and may melt High currents as well as shocking, create heat and may melt insulation and cause fires.insulation and cause fires.

RF radiation is dangerous as it will heat metal (rings, RF radiation is dangerous as it will heat metal (rings, watches etc).watches etc).

In addition to heating metal it will heat the human body and In addition to heating metal it will heat the human body and cause internal damage and external burns.cause internal damage and external burns.

SafetySafety

All items in a radio shack should be earthed and protected by All items in a radio shack should be earthed and protected by RCD’s (Safety Switch’s).RCD’s (Safety Switch’s).

Only items marked as double Insulated may be used with out Only items marked as double Insulated may be used with out a mains earth.a mains earth.

Have a clearly marked, easily accessible mains switch for the Have a clearly marked, easily accessible mains switch for the shack.shack.

Fuses protect equipment from fire not people.Fuses protect equipment from fire not people.

Avoid trip hazards caused by cords etc.Avoid trip hazards caused by cords etc.p 46

Outdoor SafetyOutdoor Safety

Working at heights, either on a ladder or up a tower, is Working at heights, either on a ladder or up a tower, is dangerous not just from the falling aspect but also for people dangerous not just from the falling aspect but also for people below from falling items.below from falling items.

Lightning is extremely high voltage and currents. Disconnect Lightning is extremely high voltage and currents. Disconnect antennas during thunderstorms.antennas during thunderstorms.

It is illegal to use power/telephone poles to support or anchor It is illegal to use power/telephone poles to support or anchor antennas, towers etc.antennas, towers etc.

When setting up antennas be aware of power/telephone lines.When setting up antennas be aware of power/telephone lines.

When operating mobile stations be aware of your antenna height.When operating mobile stations be aware of your antenna height.

Electric shockElectric shock

Symptoms include loss of consciousness, breathing Symptoms include loss of consciousness, breathing difficulty, weak ,erratic or no pulse and burns at entry and difficulty, weak ,erratic or no pulse and burns at entry and exit points.exit points.

NEVERNEVER approach approach a victim of electric shock until you are a victim of electric shock until you are certain the certain the powerpower has been has been disconnected.disconnected.

Be especially careful if any liquid is present. Be especially careful if any liquid is present.

First AidFirst Aid

The The first action must alwaysfirst action must always be to ensure be to ensure power power is is off.off.

Check for response, breathing and pulse.Check for response, breathing and pulse.

Start resuscitating the victim. Start resuscitating the victim.

Get someone else to call 000 and get assistance.Get someone else to call 000 and get assistance.

If patient is conscious reassure them, cool burns. Never If patient is conscious reassure them, cool burns. Never use oils or ointments on burns.use oils or ointments on burns.

If a fall has occurred do not move the victim in case of If a fall has occurred do not move the victim in case of spinal injuries.spinal injuries.

PRODUCED FORPRODUCED FOR

Ham CollegeHam College

With thanks to With thanks to

Chelmsford Amateur Radio SocietyChelmsford Amateur Radio Society

Westlakes Amateur Radio ClubWestlakes Amateur Radio Club IncInc

Fred Swainston VK3DACFred Swainston VK3DAC

The Wireless Institute of AustraliaThe Wireless Institute of Australia

VK6BDOVK6BDO

amateur radio foundation licence presentation neil husk vk6bdo ham college produced by

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radio communications

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amateur use

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