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ArchaeologyFromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia

Archaeologyorarcheology,[1]isthestudyofhumanactivityinthepast,primarilythroughtherecoveryandanalysisofthematerialcultureandenvironmentaldatathathasbeenleftbehindbypasthumanpopulations,whichincludesartifacts,architecture,biofacts(alsoknownasecofacts)andculturallandscapes(thearchaeologicalrecord).Becausearchaeologyemploysawiderangeofdifferentprocedures,itcanbeconsideredtobebothasocialscienceandahumanity,[2]andintheUnitedStates,itisthoughtofasabranchofanthropology,[3]althoughinEurope,itisviewedasadisciplineinitsownright,orrelatedtootherdisciplines.Forexample,muchofarchaeologyintheUnitedKingdomisconsideredapartthestudyofhistory,whileinFranceitisconsideredpartofGeology.

ArchaeologystudieshumanprehistoryandhistoryfromthedevelopmentofthefirststonetoolsineasternAfrica4millionyearsagoupuntilrecentdecades.[4](Archaeologydoesnotincludethedisciplineofpaleontology).Itisofmostimportanceforlearningaboutprehistoricsocieties,whentherearenowrittenrecordsforhistorianstostudy,makingupover99%oftotalhumanhistory,fromthePaleolithicuntiltheadventofliteracyinanygivensociety.[2]Archaeologyhasvariousgoals,whichrangefromstudyinghumanevolutiontoculturalevolutionandunderstandingculturehistory.[5]

Thedisciplineinvolvessurveying,excavationandeventuallyanalysisofdatacollectedtolearnmoreaboutthepast.Inbroadscope,archaeologyreliesoncrossdisciplinaryresearch.Itdrawsuponanthropology,history,arthistory,classics,ethnology,geography,[6]geology,[7][8][9]linguistics,semiology,physics,informationsciences,chemistry,statistics,paleoecology,paleontology,paleozoology,paleoethnobotany,andpaleobotany.

ArchaeologydevelopedoutofantiquarianisminEuropeduringthe19thcentury,andhassincebecomeadisciplinepracticedacrosstheworld.Sinceitsearlydevelopment,variousspecificsubdisciplinesofarchaeologyhavedeveloped,includingmaritimearchaeology,feministarchaeologyandarchaeoastronomy,andnumerousdifferentscientifictechniqueshavebeendevelopedtoaidarchaeologicalinvestigation.Nonetheless,today,archaeologistsfacemanyproblems,suchasdealingwithpseudoarchaeology,thelootingofartifacts,alackofpublicinterest,andoppositiontotheexcavationofhumanremains.

Contents

1History1.1Antiquarians1.2Firstexcavations1.3Developmentofarchaeologicalmethod

2Purpose

2.1Theory



2.1Theory3Methods

3.1Remotesensing3.2Fieldsurvey3.3Excavation3.4Analysis3.5Virtualarchaeology3.6Drones

4Academicsubdisciplines4.1Historicalarchaeology4.2Ethnoarchaeology4.3Experimentalarchaeology4.4Archaeometry4.5Culturalresourcesmanagement

5Popularviewsofarchaeology6Currentissuesandcontroversy

6.1Publicarchaeology6.2Pseudoarchaeology6.3Looting6.4Descendantpeoples

6.4.1Repatriation7Fictionalarchaeologists8Seealso9References10Bibliography11Furtherreading12Externallinks

History

Antiquarians

Thescienceofarchaeology(fromGreek,archaiologiafrom,arkhaios,"ancient"and,logia,"logy")[10]grewoutoftheoldermultidisciplinarystudyknownasantiquarianism.Antiquariansstudiedhistorywithparticularattentiontoancientartefactsandmanuscripts,aswellashistoricalsites.Antiquarianismfocusedontheempiricalevidencethatexistedfortheunderstandingofthepast,encapsulatedinthemottoofthe18thcenturyantiquary,SirRichardColtHoare,"Wespeakfromfactsnottheory".TentativestepstowardsthesystematizationofarchaeologyasasciencetookplaceduringtheEnlightenmenterainEuropeinthe17thand18thcenturies.[11]

InEurope,philosophicalinterestintheremainsofGrecoRomancivilisationandtherediscoveryofclassicalculturebeganinthelateMiddleAge.FlavioBiondoanItalianRenaissancehumanisthistoriancreatedasystematicguidetotheruinsandtopographyofancientRomeintheearly15thcenturyforwhichhehasbeencalledanearlyfounderofarchaeology.Antiquarians,includingJohnLelandandWilliamCamden,conductedsurveysoftheEnglishcountryside,drawing,describingandinterpretingthemonumentsthattheyencountered.



AnearlyphotographofStonehengetakenJuly1877

Artefactsdiscoveredatthe1808BushBarrowexcavationbySirRichardColtHoareandWilliamCunnington.

Firstexcavations

OneofthefirstsitestoundergoarchaeologicalexcavationwasStonehengeandothermegalithicmonumentsinEngland.JohnAubreywasapioneerarchaeologistwhorecordednumerousmegalithicandotherfieldmonumentsinsouthernEngland.Hewasalsoaheadofhistimeintheanalysisofhisfindings.Heattemptedtochartthechronologicalstylisticevolutionofhandwriting,medievalarchitecture,costume,andshieldshapes.[12]

ExcavationswerealsocarriedoutintheancienttownsofPompeiiandHerculaneum,bothofwhichhadbeencoveredbyashduringtheEruptionofMountVesuviusinAD79.These

excavationsbeganin1748inPompeii,whileinHerculaneumtheybeganin1738.Thediscoveryofentiretowns,completewithutensilsandevenhumanshapes,aswelltheunearthingofancientfrescos,hadabigimpactthroughoutEurope.

However,priortothedevelopmentofmoderntechniques,excavationstendedtobehaphazardtheimportanceofconceptssuchasstratificationandcontextwereoverlooked.[13]

Developmentofarchaeologicalmethod

ThefatherofarchaeologicalexcavationwasWilliamCunnington(17541810).HeundertookexcavationsinWiltshirefromaround1798,[14]fundedbySirRichardColtHoare.CunningtonmademeticulousrecordingsofneolithicandBronzeAgebarrows,andthetermsheusedtocategoriseanddescribethemarestillusedbyarchaeologiststoday.[15]

Oneofthemajorachievementsof19thcenturyarchaeologywasthedevelopmentofstratigraphy.TheideaofoverlappingstratatracingbacktosuccessiveperiodswasborrowedfromthenewgeologicalandpalaeontologicalworkofscholarslikeWilliamSmith,JamesHuttonandCharlesLyell.TheapplicationofstratigraphytoarchaeologyfirsttookplacewiththeexcavationsofprehistoricalandBronzeAgesites.Inthethirdandfourthdecadesofthe19thcentury,archaeologistslikeJacquesBoucherdePerthesandChristianJrgensenThomsenbegantoputtheartifactstheyhadfoundinchronologicalorder.

Amajorfigureinthedevelopmentofarchaeologyintoarigoroussciencewasthearmyofficerandethnologist,AugustusPittRivers,[16]whobeganexcavationsonhislandinEnglandinthe1880s.Hisapproachwashighlymethodicalbythestandardsofthetime,andheiswidelyregardedasthefirstscientificarchaeologist.Hearrangedhisartefactsbytypeor"typologically,andwithintypesbydateor"chronologically".Thisstyleofarrangement,designedtohighlighttheevolutionarytrendsinhuman



MortimerWheelerpioneeredsystematicexcavationintheearly20thcentury.Pictured,arehisexcavationsatMaidenCastle,Dorset,inOctober1937.

artefacts,wasofenormoussignificancefortheaccuratedatingoftheobjects.Hismostimportantmethodologicalinnovationwashisinsistencethatallartefacts,notjustbeautifuloruniqueones,becollectedandcatalogued.[17]

WilliamFlindersPetrieisanothermanwhomaylegitimatelybecalledtheFatherofArchaeology.Hispainstakingrecordingandstudyofartefacts,bothinEgyptandlaterinPalestine,laiddownmanyoftheideasbehindmodernarchaeologicalrecordingheremarkedthat"Ibelievethetruelineofresearchliesinthenotingandcomparisonofthesmallestdetails."Petriedevelopedthesystemofdatinglayersbasedonpotteryandceramicfindings,whichrevolutionizedthechronologicalbasisofEgyptology.PetriewasthefirsttoscientificallyinvestigatetheGreatPyramidinEgyptduringthe1880s.[18]HewasalsoresponsibleformentoringandtrainingawholegenerationofEgyptologists,includingHowardCarterwhowentontoachievefamewiththediscoveryofthetombof14thcenturyBCpharaohTutankhamun.

ThefirststratigraphicexcavationtoreachwidepopularitywithpublicwasthatofHissarlik,onthesiteofancientTroy,carriedoutbyHeinrichSchliemann,FrankCalvert,WilhelmDrpfeldandCarlBlegeninthe1870s.Thesescholarsindividuatedninedifferentcitiesthathadoverlappedwithoneanother,fromprehistorytotheHellenisticperiod.[19]Meanwhile,theworkofSirArthurEvansatKnossosinCreterevealedtheancientexistenceofanequallyadvancedMinoancivilization.[20]

ThenextmajorfigureinthedevelopmentofarchaeologywasSirMortimerWheeler,whosehighlydisciplinedapproachtoexcavationandsystematiccoverageinthe1920sand1930sbroughtthescienceonswiftly.Wheelerdevelopedthegridsystemofexcavation,whichwasfurtherimprovedbyhisstudentKathleenKenyon.

Archaeologybecameaprofessionalactivityinthefirsthalfofthe20thcentury,anditbecamepossibletostudyarchaeologyasasubjectinuniversitiesandevenschools.Bytheendofthe20thcenturynearlyallprofessionalarchaeologists,atleastindevelopedcountries,weregraduates.Furtheradaptationandinnovationinarchaeologycontinuedinthisperiod,whenmaritimearchaeologyandurbanarchaeologybecamemoreprevalentandrescuearchaeologywasdevelopedasaresultofincreasingcommercialdevelopment.[21]

Purpose

Thepurposeofarchaeologyistolearnmoreaboutpastsocietiesandthedevelopmentofthehumanrace.Over99%ofthedevelopmentofhumanityhasoccurredwithinprehistoriccultures,whodidnotmakeuseofwriting,therebynotleavingwrittenrecordsofthemselvesthatcanbestudiedtoday.Withoutsuchwrittensources,theonlywaytolearnaboutprehistoricsocietiesistousearchaeology.Becausearchaeologyisthestudyofpasthumanactivity,itstretchesbacktoabout2,5millionyearsagowhenwefindthefirststonetoolsTheOldowanIndustry.Manyimportantdevelopmentsinhumanhistoryoccurredduringprehistory,suchastheevolutionofhumanityduringthePaleolithicperiod,whenthehomininsdevelopedfromtheaustralopithecinesinAfricaandeventuallyintomodernHomosapiens.Archaeologyalsoshedslightonmanyofhumanity'stechnologicaladvances,forinstancetheabilitytousefire,thedevelopmentofstonetools,thediscoveryofmetallurgy,thebeginningsofreligionandthecreationof



CastoftheskulloftheTaungchild,uncoveredinSouthAfrica.TheChildwasaninfantoftheAustralopithecusafricanusspecies,anearlyformofhominin

SignatLubbockLakeLandmarkinLubbock,Texas

agriculture.Withoutarchaeology,wewouldknowlittleornothingabouttheuseofmaterialculturebyhumanitythatpredateswriting.[22]

However,itisnotonlyprehistoric,preliterateculturesthatcanbestudiedusingarchaeologybuthistoric,literateculturesaswell,throughthesubdisciplineofhistoricalarchaeology.Formanyliteratecultures,suchasAncientGreeceandMesopotamia,theirsurvivingrecordsareoftenincompleteandbiasedtosomeextent.Inmanysocieties,literacywasrestrictedtotheeliteclasses,suchastheclergyorthebureaucracyofcourtortemple.Theliteracyevenofaristocratshassometimesbeenrestrictedtodeedsandcontracts.Theinterestsandworldviewofelitesareoftenquitedifferentfromthelivesandinterestsofthepopulace.Writingsthatwereproducedbypeoplemorerepresentativeofthegeneralpopulationwereunlikelytofindtheirwayintolibrariesandbepreservedthereforposterity.Thus,writtenrecordstendtoreflectthebiases,assumptions,culturalvaluesandpossiblydeceptionsofalimitedrangeofindividuals,usuallyasmallfractionofthelargerpopulation.Hence,writtenrecordscannotbetrustedasasolesource.Thematerialrecordmaybeclosertoafairrepresentationofsociety,thoughitissubjecttoitsownbiases,suchassamplingbiasanddifferentialpreservation.[23]

Theory

Thereisnoonesingularapproachtoarchaeologicaltheorythathasbeenadheredtobyallarchaeologists.Whenarchaeologydevelopedinthelate19thcentury,thefirstapproachtoarchaeologicaltheorytobepracticedwasthatofculturalhistoryarchaeology,whichheldthegoalofexplainingwhycultureschangedandadaptedratherthanjusthighlightingthefactthattheydid,thereforeemphasizinghistoricalparticularism.[24]Intheearly20thcentury,manyarchaeologistswhostudiedpastsocietieswithdirectcontinuinglinkstoexistingones(suchasthoseofNativeAmericans,Siberians,Mesoamericansetc.)followedthedirecthistoricalapproach,comparedthecontinuitybetweenthepastandcontemporaryethnicandculturalgroups.[24]Inthe1960s,anarchaeologicalmovementlargelyledbyAmericanarchaeologistslikeLewisBinfordandKentFlanneryarosethatrebelledagainsttheestablishedculturalhistoryarchaeology.[25][26]Theyproposeda"NewArchaeology",whichwouldbemore"scientific"and"anthropological",withhypothesistestingandthescientificmethodveryimportantpartsofwhatbecameknownasprocessualarchaeology.[24]

Inthe1980s,anewpostmodernmovementaroseledbytheBritisharchaeologistsMichaelShanks,[27][28][29][30]ChristopherTilley,[31]DanielMiller,[32][33]andIanHodder,[34][35][36][37][38][39]whichhasbecomeknownaspostprocessualarchaeology.Itquestionedprocessualism'sappealstoscientificpositivismandimpartiality,andemphasizedtheimportanceofamoreselfcriticaltheoreticalreflexivity.However,thisapproachhasbeencriticizedbyprocessualistsaslackingscientificrigor,andthevalidityof



bothprocessualismandpostprocessualismisstillunderdebate.Meanwhile,anothertheory,knownashistoricalprocessualismhasemergedseekingtoincorporateafocusonprocessandpostprocessualarchaeology'semphasisofreflexivityandhistory.[40]

Archaeologicaltheorynowborrowsfromawiderangeofinfluences,includingneoDarwinianevolutionarythought,phenomenology,postmodernism,agencytheory,cognitivescience,structuralfunctionalism,genderbasedandfeministarchaeology,andsystemstheory.

Methods

Anarchaeologicalinvestigationusuallyinvolvesseveraldistinctphases,eachofwhichemploysitsownvarietyofmethods.Beforeanypracticalworkcanbegin,however,aclearobjectiveastowhatthearchaeologistsarelookingtoachievemustbeagreedupon.Thisdone,asiteissurveyedtofindoutasmuchaspossibleaboutitandthesurroundingarea.Second,anexcavationmaytakeplacetouncoveranyarchaeologicalfeaturesburiedundertheground.And,third,thedatacollectedfromtheexcavationisstudiedandevaluatedinanattempttoachievetheoriginalresearchobjectivesofthearchaeologists.Itisthenconsideredgoodpracticefortheinformationtobepublishedsothatitisavailabletootherarchaeologistsandhistorians,althoughthisissometimesneglected.[41]

Remotesensing

Beforeactuallystartingtodiginalocation,satelliteimagerycanbeusedtolookwheresitesarelocatedwithinalargearea.[42]Therearetwotypesofremotesensinginstrumentspassiveandactive.Passiveinstrumentsdetectnaturalenergythatisreflectedoremittedfromtheobservedscene.Passiveinstrumentssenseonlyradiationemittedbytheobjectbeingviewedorreflectedbytheobjectfromasourceotherthantheinstrument.Hereareothertwoinstrumentsthatarepassiveinremotesensing.

Lidar(LightDetectionandRanging)Alidarusesalaser(lightamplificationbystimulatedemissionofradiation)totransmitalightpulseandareceiverwithsensitivedetectorstomeasurethebackscatteredorreflectedlight.Distancetotheobjectisdeterminedbyrecordingthetimebetweenthetransmittedandbackscatteredpulsesandusingthespeedoflighttocalculatethedistancetraveled.Lidarscandetermineatmosphericprofilesofaerosols,clouds,andotherconstituentsoftheatmosphere.

LaserAltimeterAlaseraltimeterusesalidar(seeabove)tomeasuretheheightoftheinstrumentplatformabovethesurface.ByindependentlyknowingtheheightoftheplatformwithrespecttothemeanEarth'ssurface,thetopographyoftheunderlyingsurfacecanbedetermined.[43]

Fieldsurvey

Thearchaeologicalprojectthencontinues(oralternatively,begins)withafieldsurvey.Regionalsurveyistheattempttosystematicallylocatepreviouslyunknownsitesinaregion.Sitesurveyistheattempttosystematicallylocatefeaturesofinterest,suchashousesandmiddens,withinasite.Eachofthesetwogoalsmaybeaccomplishedwithlargelythesamemethods.

Surveywasnotwidelypracticedintheearlydaysofarchaeology.Culturalhistoriansandpriorresearcherswereusuallycontentwithdiscoveringthelocationsofmonumentalsitesfromthelocalpopulace,andexcavatingonlytheplainlyvisiblefeaturesthere.GordonWilleypioneeredthetechniqueofregional



MonteAlbanarchaeologicalsite

InvertedkiteaerialphotoofanexcavationofaRomanbuildingatNesleynearTetburyinGloucestershire.

settlementpatternsurveyin1949intheViruValleyofcoastalPeru,[44][45]andsurveyofalllevelsbecameprominentwiththeriseofprocessualarchaeologysomeyearslater.[46]

Surveyworkhasmanybenefitsifperformedasapreliminaryexerciseto,oreveninplaceof,excavation.Itrequiresrelativelylittletimeandexpense,becauseitdoesnotrequireprocessinglargevolumesofsoiltosearchoutartifacts.(Nevertheless,surveyingalargeregionorsitecanbeexpensive,soarchaeologistsoftenemploysamplingmethods.)[47]Aswithotherformsofnondestructivearchaeology,surveyavoidsethicalissues(ofparticularconcerntodescendantpeoples)associatedwithdestroyingasitethroughexcavation.Itistheonlywaytogathersomeformsofinformation,suchassettlementpatternsandsettlementstructure.Surveydataarecommonlyassembledintomaps,whichmayshowsurfacefeaturesand/orartifactdistribution.

Thesimplestsurveytechniqueissurfacesurvey.Itinvolvescombinganarea,usuallyonfootbutsometimeswiththeuseofmechanizedtransport,tosearchforfeaturesorartifactsvisibleonthesurface.Surfacesurveycannotdetectsitesorfeaturesthatarecompletelyburiedunderearth,orovergrownwithvegetation.Surfacesurveymayalsoincludeminiexcavationtechniquessuchasaugers,corers,andshoveltestpits.Ifnomaterialsarefound,theareasurveyedisdeemedsterile.

Aerialsurveyisconductedusingcamerasattachedtoairplanes,balloons,orevenKites.[48]Abird'seyeviewisusefulforquickmappingoflargeorcomplexsites.Aerialphotographsareusedtodocumentthestatusofthearchaeologicaldig.Aerialimagingcanalsodetectmanythingsnotvisiblefromthesurface.Plantsgrowingaboveaburiedmanmadestructure,suchasastonewall,willdevelopmoreslowly,whilethoseaboveothertypesoffeatures(suchasmiddens)maydevelopmorerapidly.Photographsofripeninggrain,whichchangescolourrapidlyatmaturation,haverevealedburiedstructureswithgreatprecision.Aerialphotographstakenatdifferenttimesofdaywillhelpshowtheoutlinesofstructuresbychangesinshadows.Aerialsurveyalsoemploysultraviolet,infrared,groundpenetratingradarwavelengths,LiDARandthermography.[49]

Geophysicalsurveycanbethemosteffectivewaytoseebeneaththeground.MagnetometersdetectminutedeviationsintheEarth'smagneticfieldcausedbyironartifacts,kilns,sometypesofstonestructures,andevenditchesandmiddens.Devicesthatmeasuretheelectricalresistivityofthesoilarealsowidelyused.Archaeologicalfeatureswhoseelectricalresistivitycontrastswiththatofsurroundingsoilscanbedetectedandmapped.Somearchaeologicalfeatures(suchasthosecomposedofstoneorbrick)havehigherresistivitythantypicalsoils,whileothers(suchasorganicdepositsorunfiredclay)tendtohavelowerresistivity.

Althoughsomearchaeologistsconsidertheuseofmetaldetectorstobetantamounttotreasurehunting,othersdeemthemaneffectivetoolinarchaeologicalsurveying.ExamplesofformalarchaeologicaluseofmetaldetectorsincludemusketballdistributionanalysisonEnglishCivilWarbattlefields,metaldistribution



Excavationsatthe3800yearoldEdgewaterParkSite,Iowa

ArchaeologicalexcavationthatdiscoveredprehistoriccavesinVill(Innsbruck),Austria

analysispriortoexcavationofa19thcenturyshipwreck,andservicecablelocationduringevaluation.Metaldetectoristshavealsocontributedtoarchaeologywheretheyhavemadedetailedrecordsoftheirresultsandrefrainedfromraisingartifactsfromtheirarchaeologicalcontext.IntheUK,metaldetectoristshavebeensolicitedforinvolvementinthePortableAntiquitiesScheme.

Regionalsurveyinunderwaterarchaeologyusesgeophysicalorremotesensingdevicessuchasmarinemagnetometer,sidescansonar,orsubbottomsonar.[50]

Excavation

Archaeologicalexcavationexistedevenwhenthefieldwasstillthedomainofamateurs,anditremainsthesourceofthemajorityofdatarecoveredinmostfieldprojects.Itcanrevealseveraltypesofinformationusuallynotaccessibletosurvey,suchasstratigraphy,threedimensionalstructure,andverifiablyprimarycontext.

Modernexcavationtechniquesrequirethatthepreciselocationsofobjectsandfeatures,knownastheirprovenanceorprovenience,berecorded.Thisalwaysinvolvesdeterminingtheirhorizontallocations,andsometimesverticalpositionaswell(alsoseePrimaryLawsofArchaeology).Likewise,theirassociation,orrelationshipwithnearbyobjectsandfeatures,needstoberecordedforlateranalysis.Thisallowsthearchaeologisttodeducewhichartifactsandfeatureswerelikelyusedtogetherandwhichmaybefromdifferentphasesofactivity.Forexample,excavationofasiterevealsitsstratigraphyifasitewasoccupiedbyasuccessionofdistinctcultures,artifactsfrommorerecentcultureswilllieabovethosefrommoreancientcultures.

Excavationisthemostexpensivephaseofarchaeologicalresearch,inrelativeterms.Also,asadestructiveprocess,itcarriesethicalconcerns.Asaresult,veryfewsitesareexcavatedintheirentirety.Againthepercentageofasiteexcavateddependsgreatlyonthecountryand"methodstatement"issued.Inplaces90%excavationiscommon.Samplingisevenmoreimportantinexcavationthaninsurvey.Itiscommonforlargemechanicalequipment,suchasbackhoes(JCBs),tobeusedinexcavation,especiallytoremovethetopsoil(overburden),thoughthismethodisincreasinglyusedwithgreatcaution.Followingthisratherdramaticstep,theexposedareaisusuallyhandcleanedwithtrowelsorhoestoensurethatallfeaturesareapparent.

Thenexttaskistoformasiteplanandthenuseittohelpdecidethemethodofexcavation.Featuresdugintothenaturalsubsoilarenormallyexcavatedinportionstoproduceavisiblearchaeologicalsectionforrecording.Afeature,forexampleapitoraditch,consistsoftwoparts:thecutandthefill.Thecutdescribestheedgeofthefeature,wherethefeaturemeetsthenaturalsoil.Itisthefeature'sboundary.Thefilliswhatthefeatureisfilledwith,andwilloftenappearquitedistinctfromthenaturalsoil.Thecutandfillaregivenconsecutivenumbersforrecordingpurposes.Scaledplansand



AnarchaeologistsiftingforPOWremainsonWakeIsland.

sectionsofindividualfeaturesarealldrawnonsite,blackandwhiteandcolourphotographsofthemaretaken,andrecordingsheetsarefilledindescribingthecontextofeach.Allthisinformationservesasapermanentrecordofthenowdestroyedarchaeologyandisusedindescribingandinterpretingthesite.

Analysis

Onceartifactsandstructureshavebeenexcavated,orcollectedfromsurfacesurveys,itisnecessarytoproperlystudythem,togainasmuchdataaspossible.Thisprocessisknownaspostexcavationanalysis,andisusuallythemosttimeconsumingpartofthearchaeologicalinvestigation.Itisnotuncommonforthefinalexcavationreportsonmajorsitestotakeyearstobepublished.

Atitsmostbasic,theartifactsfoundarecleaned,catalogedandcomparedtopublishedcollections,toclassifythemtypologicallyandtoidentifyothersiteswithsimilarartifactassemblages.However,amuchmorecomprehensiverangeofanalyticaltechniquesareavailablethrougharchaeologicalscience,meaningthatartifactscanbedatedandtheircompositionsexamined.Thebones,plantsandpollencollectedfromasitecanallbeanalyzed(usingthetechniquesofzooarchaeology,paleoethnobotany,andpalynology),whileanytextscanusuallybedeciphered.

Thesetechniquesfrequentlyprovideinformationthatwouldnototherwisebeknownandthereforecontributegreatlytotheunderstandingofasite.

Virtualarchaeology

Sometimearound1995archaeologistsstartedusingcomputergraphicstobuildvirtual3DmodelsofsitessuchasthethroneroomofanancientAssyrianpalaceorancientRome.[51]Thisisdonebycollectingnormalphotographsandusingcomputergraphicstobuildthevirtual3Dmodel.[51]Inmoregeneralterms,computerscanbeusedtorecreatetheenvironmentandconditionsofthepast,suchasobjects,buildings,landscapesandevenancientbattles.[51]Computersimulationcanbeusedtosimulatethelivingconditionsofanancientcommunityandtoseehowitwouldhavereactedtovariousscenarios(suchashowmuchfoodtogrow,howmanyanimalstoslaughter,etc.)[51]Computerbuilttopographicalmodelshavebeencombinedwithastronomicalcalculationstoverifywhetherornotcertainstructures(suchaspillars)werealignedwithastronomicaleventssuchasthesun'spositionatasolstice.[51]

Drones

InPeruarchaeologistsusedronestospeedupsurveyworkandprotectsitesfromsquatters,buildersandminers.SmalldroneshelpedresearchersproducethreedimensionalmodelsofPeruviansitesinsteadoftheusualflatmapsandindaysandweeksinsteadofmonthsandyears.[52]

Droneshavereplacedexpensiveandclumsysmallplanes,kitesandheliumballoons.Dronescostingaslittleas650haveprovenuseful.In2013droneshaveflownoveratleastsixPeruvianarchaeologicalsites,includingthecolonialAndeantownMachuLlacta4,000metres(13,000ft)abovesealevel.Thedrones



continuetohavealtitudeproblemsintheAndes,leadingtoplanstomakeadroneblimp,employingopensourcesoftware.[52]

JeffreyQuilter,anarchaeologistwithHarvardUniversitysaid,"Youcangoupthreemetresandphotographaroom,300metresandphotographasite,oryoucangoup3,000metresandphotographtheentirevalley."[52]

InSeptember2014dronesweighingabout5kg(11lb)wereusedfor3DmappingoftheabovegroundruinsoftheGreekcityofAphrodisias.ThedataisbeinganalysedbytheAustrianArchaeologicalInstituteinVienna.[53]

Academicsubdisciplines

Aswithmostacademicdisciplines,thereareaverylargenumberofarchaeologicalsubdisciplinescharacterisedbyaspecificmethodortypeofmaterial(e.g.,lithicanalysis,music,archaeobotany),geographicalorchronologicalfocus(e.g.NearEasternarchaeology,Islamicarchaeology,Medievalarchaeology),otherthematicconcern(e.g.maritimearchaeology,landscapearchaeology,battlefieldarchaeology),oraspecificarchaeologicalcultureorcivilization(e.g.Egyptology,Indology,Sinology).

Historicalarchaeology

Historicalarchaeologyisthestudyofcultureswithsomeformofwriting.

InEngland,archaeologistshaveuncoveredthelonglostlayoutsofmedievalvillagesabandonedaftercrisesofthe14thcentury(suchastheBlackDeath)andtheequallylostlayoutsof17thcenturyparterregardenssweptawaybyachangeinfashion.IndowntownNewYorkCityarchaeologistshaveexhumedthe18thcenturyremainsoftheAfricanburialground.

Ethnoarchaeology

Ethnoarchaeologyisthearchaeologicalstudyoflivingpeople.[54][55][56][57][58][59]Theapproachgainednotorietyduringtheemphasisonmiddlerangetheorythatwasafeatureoftheprocessualmovementofthe1960s.Earlyethnoarchaeologicalresearchfocusedonhuntingandgatheringorforagingsocieties.Ethnoarchaeologycontinuestobeavibrantcomponentofpostprocessualandothercurrentarchaeologicalapproaches.[60][61][62][63]Ethnoarchaeologyistheuseofethnographytoincreaseandimproveanalogs,whicharethenusedasanalogiestointerpretthearchaeologicalrecord.Inshort,ethnoarchaeologyistheapplicationofethnographytoarchaeology.[64]

Experimentalarchaeology

Experimentalarchaeologyrepresentstheapplicationoftheexperimentalmethodtodevelopmorehighlycontrolledobservationsofprocessesthatcreateandimpactthearchaeologicalrecord.[65][66][67][68][69]Inthecontextofthelogicalpositivismofprocessualismwithitsgoalsofimprovingthescientificrigorofarchaeologicalepistemologiestheexperimentalmethodgainedimportance.Experimentaltechniquesremainacrucialcomponenttoimprovingtheinferentialframeworksforinterpretingthearchaeologicalrecord.



Archaeometry

Archaeometryisafieldofstudythataimstosystematizearchaeologicalmeasurement.Itemphasizestheapplicationofanalyticaltechniquesfromphysics,chemistry,andengineering.Itisafieldofresearchthatfrequentlyfocusesonthedefinitionofthechemicalcompositionofarchaeologicalremainsforsourceanalysis.[70]Archaeometryalsoinvestigatesdifferentspatialcharacteristicsoffeatures,employingmethodssuchasspacesyntaxtechniquesandgeodesyaswellascomputerbasedtoolssuchasgeographicinformationsystemtechnology.[71]Rareearthelementspatternsmayalsobeused.[72]Arelativelynascentsubfieldisthatofarchaeologicalmaterials,designedtoenhanceunderstandingofprehistoricandnonindustrialculturethroughscientificanalysisofthestructureandpropertiesofmaterialsassociatedwithhumanactivity.[73]

Culturalresourcesmanagement

Whilearchaeologycanbedoneasapurescience,itcanalsobeanappliedscience,namelythestudyofarchaeologicalsitesthatarethreatenedbydevelopment.Insuchcases,archaeologyisasubsidiaryactivitywithinCulturalresourcesmanagement(CRM),alsocalledheritagemanagementintheUnitedKingdom.[74]Today,CRMaccountsformostofthearchaeologicalresearchdoneintheUnitedStatesandmuchofthatinwesternEuropeaswell.IntheUS,CRMarchaeologyhasbeenagrowingconcernsincethepassageoftheNationalHistoricPreservationAct(NHPA)of1966,andmosttaxpayers,scholars,andpoliticiansbelievethatCRMhashelpedpreservemuchofthatnation'shistoryandprehistorythatwouldhaveotherwisebeenlostintheexpansionofcities,dams,andhighways.Alongwithotherstatutes,theNHPAmandatesthatprojectsonfederallandorinvolvingfederalfundsorpermitsconsidertheeffectsoftheprojectoneacharchaeologicalsite.

TheapplicationofCRMintheUnitedKingdomisnotlimitedtogovernmentfundedprojects.Since1990PPG16[75]hasrequiredplannerstoconsiderarchaeologyasamaterialconsiderationindeterminingapplicationsfornewdevelopment.Asaresult,numerousarchaeologicalorganisationsundertakemitigationworkinadvanceof(orduring)constructionworkinarchaeologicallysensitiveareas,atthedeveloper'sexpense.

InEngland,ultimateresponsibilityofcareforthehistoricenvironmentrestswiththeDepartmentforCulture,MediaandSport[76]inassociationwithEnglishHeritage.[77]InScotland,WalesandNorthernIreland,thesameresponsibilitiesliewithHistoricScotland,[78]Cadw[79]andtheNorthernIrelandEnvironmentAgency[80]respectively.

AmongthegoalsofCRMaretheidentification,preservation,andmaintenanceofculturalsitesonpublicandprivatelands,andtheremovalofculturallyvaluablematerialsfromareaswheretheywouldotherwisebedestroyedbyhumanactivity,suchasproposedconstruction.Thisstudyinvolvesatleastacursoryexaminationtodeterminewhetherornotanysignificantarchaeologicalsitesarepresentintheareaaffectedbytheproposedconstruction.Ifthesedoexist,timeandmoneymustbeallottedfortheirexcavation.Ifinitialsurveyand/ortestexcavationindicatesthepresenceofanextraordinarilyvaluablesite,theconstructionmaybeprohibitedentirely.CRMisathrivingentity,especiallyintheUnitedStatesandEuropewherearchaeologistsfromprivatecompaniesandalllevelsofgovernmentengageinthepracticeoftheirdiscipline.



ExtensiveexcavationsatBeitShe'an,Israel

Culturalresourcesmanagementhas,however,beencriticized.CRMisconductedbyprivatecompaniesthatbidforprojectsbysubmittingproposalsoutliningtheworktobedoneandanexpectedbudget.Itisnotunheardoffortheagencyresponsiblefortheconstructiontosimplychoosetheproposalthatasksfortheleastfunding.CRMarchaeologistsfaceconsiderabletimepressure,oftenbeingforcedtocompletetheirworkinafractionofthetimethatmightbeallottedforapurelyscholarlyendeavor.Compoundingthetimepressureisthevettingprocessofsitereportsthatarerequired(intheUS)tobesubmittedbyCRMfirmstotheappropriateStateHistoricPreservationOffice(SHPO).FromtheSHPO'sperspectivethereistobenodifferencebetweenareportsubmittedbyaCRMfirmoperatingunderadeadline,andamultiyearacademicproject.TheendresultisthatforaCulturalResourceManagementarchaeologisttobesuccessful,theymustbeabletoproduceacademicqualitydocumentsatacorporateworldpace.

Theannualratioofopenacademicarchaeologypositions(inclusiveofPostDoc,temporary,andnontenuretrackappointments)totheannualnumberofarchaeologyMA/MScandPhDstudentsisgrosslydisproportionate.Thisdearthofacademicpositionscausesapredictableexcessofwelleducatedindividualswhojointheranksofthefollowingyear'scropofnonacademicallyemployedarchaeologists.CulturalResourceManagement,onceconsideredanintellectualbackwaterforindividualswith"strongbacksandweakminds"[81]hasreapedthebenefitofthismassivepoolofwelleducatedprofessionals.ThisresultsinCRMofficesincreasinglystaffedbyadvancedegreedindividualswithatrackrecordofproducingscholarlyarticlesbutwhohavethenotchesontheirtrowelstoshowtheyhavebeeninthetrenchesasashovelbum.

Popularviewsofarchaeology

Earlyarchaeologywaslargelyanattempttouncoverspectacularartifactsandfeatures,ortoexplorevastandmysteriousabandonedcities.Earlyarchaeologywasmostlydonebyupperclass,scholarlymen.Thisgeneralizationlaidthefoundationforthemodernpopularviewofarchaeologyandarchaeologists.Thisgeneralizationhasbeenwithwesterncultureforalongtime.Anotherpopularthoughtthatdatesbacktothiseraisthatarchaeologyismonetarilylucrative.Alargemajorityofthegeneralpublicisundertheimpressionthatexcavationsareundertakenformoneyandnothistoricaldata.Itiseasyforthegeneralpublictoholdthisnotionforthatiswhatispresentedtothemthroughgeneralmedia,andhasbeenformanydecades.

Themajorityofthepublicviewarchaeologyasbeingsomethingonlyavailabletoanarrowdemographic.Thejobofarchaeologistisdepictedasa"romanticadventuristoccupation".[82]Togeneralize,thepublicviewsarchaeologyasafantasizedhobbymorethanajobinthescientificcommunity.Theaudiencemaynottakeawayscientificmethodsfrompopularcinemabuttheydoformanotionof"whoarchaeologistsare,whytheydowhattheydo,andhowrelationshipstothepastareconstituted".[82]Themoderndepictionofarchaeologyissensationalizedsomuchthatithasincorrectlyformedthepublic'sperceptionofwhatarchaeologyis.Thepublicisoftenundertheimpressionthatallarchaeologytakesplaceinadistantandforeignland,onlytocollectmonetarilyorspirituallypricelessartifacts.

Suchpursuitscontinuetofascinatethepublic.Books,films,andvideogames,suchasIndianaJones,KingSolomon'sMines,TheCityofBrass,RelicHunter,TheMummy,Stargate,andTombRaideralltestifytothepublic'sinterestinthediscoveryaspectofarchaeology.



PermanentexhibitioninaGermanmultistoreycarpark,explainingthearchaeologicaldiscoveriesmadeduringtheconstructionofthisbuilding

Indeed,itisawidelyheldbeliefthatthegeneralpublictakesmanyoftheirstereotypicalidealsofarchaeologistsandarchaeologyfromthesefilms.TheIndianaJonesmovieshaveputforththeimageoftheablebodiedwhitewesternmalewhoiscomfortableinboththeclassroomandholdinghisownagainstbaddies,andwhileIndianaJonesscholarsliketopointtothisreallifearchaeologistandthatoneastheprototypeforthecharacteritislikelythatcomingupwithacharacterwhoisarugged,sexuallyappealingmalethatissmartenoughtohaveadoctorateandcanstillsaveyourlifewhileunderextremeperilcouldnothavebeendifficultforscreenwriters.[83]WhiletheLaraCroft:TombRaidermoviesandvideogamesstereotypefemalearchaeologistsasneedingtobewealthyandfitandhaveaparentwhocarriedweightintheirfieldtobesuccessful,assheisnotconsideredherselftobeanarchaeologistsomuchassheisatreasurehunter.Fromtheoriginal1932MummyfilmwithBorisKarlofftheviewingpublicisfirstshowntheideaofarchaeologytakingplaceinadistantlandonfilm,anideawhichcontinuedthroughoutalloftheabovefilms.Therearesubsequentlynumerousmovieswhichalltakeplaceinwarmandexoticlocales,includingallfourIndianaJonesmoviesbothTombRaidermoviesandthreemoremummyfilmsafterthefranchisewasreimagined.

Sowhileitisclearthatfilmmakersareattheveryleastdrawingattentiontoarchaeologyinawaythatothersciencescannotboast,thereiscertainlyaveryrealdisconnectbetweenwherearchaeologyisactuallypracticed(allovertheworld,ofteninmudorsnowasoftenasinthesandydeserts)andbywhomitisdonethesedays(primarilyyoungwomenseemstobetheanswer).Archaeologyinpopularcultureisarguablythriving,andwilllikelycontinuetodosointheformofhighlyexaggeratedfilmsasthatiswhatthepublicwant.Itthereforremainsthejoboftheeverydayarchaeologytoinformtheirstudentsaboutthegrandtraditionofthesefilmsandtoshowthemtheparallelsthatwillultimatelydrawnewscientistsintothefieldofarchaeology.

MuchthoroughandproductiveresearchhasindeedbeenconductedindramaticlocalessuchasCopnandtheValleyoftheKings,butthebulkofactivitiesandfindsofmodernarchaeologyarenotsosensational.Archaeologicaladventurestoriestendtoignorethepainstakingworkinvolvedincarryingoutmodernsurveys,excavations,anddataprocessing.Somearchaeologistsrefertosuchoffthemarkportrayalsas"pseudoarchaeology".[84]

Archaeologyhasbeenportrayedinthemainstreammediainsensationalways.Thishasitsadvantagesanddisadvantages.ManypractitionerspointtothechildhoodexcitementofIndianaJonesfilmsastheirinspirationtoenterthefield.[85][86]Archaeologistsarealsoverymuchreliantonpublicsupportthequestionofexactlywhotheyaredoingtheirworkforisoftendiscussed.[87]

Currentissuesandcontroversy

Publicarchaeology



ExcavationsatthesiteofGranDolina,intheAtapuercaMountains,Spain,2008

Motivatedbyadesiretohaltlooting,curbpseudoarchaeology,andtohelppreservearchaeologicalsitesthrougheducationandfosteringpublicappreciationfortheimportanceofarchaeologicalheritage,archaeologistsaremountingpublicoutreachcampaigns.[88]Theyseektostoplootingbycombattingpeoplewhoillegallytakeartifactsfromprotectedsites,andbyalertingpeoplewholiveneararchaeologicalsitesofthethreatoflooting.Commonmethodsofpublicoutreachincludepressreleases,andtheencouragementofschoolfieldtripstositesunderexcavationbyprofessionalarchaeologists.Publicappreciationofthesignificanceofarchaeologyandarchaeologicalsitesoftenleadstoimprovedprotectionfromencroachingdevelopmentorotherthreats.

Oneaudienceforarchaeologists'workisthepublic.Theyincreasinglyrealizethattheirworkcanbenefitnonacademicandnonarchaeologicalaudiences,andthattheyhavearesponsibilitytoeducateandinformthepublicaboutarchaeology.Localheritageawarenessisaimedatincreasingcivicandindividualpridethroughprojectssuchascommunityexcavationprojects,andbetterpublicpresentationsofarchaeologicalsitesandknowledge.TheU.S.Dept.ofAgriculture,ForestService(USFS)operatesavolunteerarchaeologyandhistoricpreservationprogramcalledthePassportinTime(PIT).VolunteersworkwithprofessionalUSFSarchaeologistsandhistoriansonnationalforeststhroughouttheU.S.Volunteersareinvolvedinallaspectsofprofessionalarchaeologyunderexpertsupervision.[89]

IntheUK,populararchaeologyprogramssuchasTimeTeamandMeettheAncestorshaveresultedinahugeupsurgeinpublicinterest.Wherepossible,archaeologistsnowmakemoreprovisionsforpublicinvolvementandoutreachinlargerprojectsthantheyoncedid,andmanylocalarchaeologicalorganizationsoperatewithintheCommunityarchaeologyframeworktoexpandpublicinvolvementinsmallerscale,morelocalprojects.Archaeologicalexcavation,however,isbestundertakenbywelltrainedstaffthatcanworkquicklyandaccurately.Oftenthisrequiresobservingthenecessaryhealthandsafetyandindemnityinsuranceissuesinvolvedinworkingonamodernbuildingsitewithtightdeadlines.Certaincharitiesandlocalgovernmentbodiessometimesofferplacesonresearchprojectseitheraspartofacademicworkorasadefinedcommunityproject.Thereisalsoaflourishingindustrysellingplacesoncommercialtrainingexcavationsandarchaeologicalholidaytours.

Archaeologistsprizelocalknowledgeandoftenliaisewithlocalhistoricalandarchaeologicalsocieties,whichisonereasonwhyCommunityarchaeologyprojectsarestartingtobecomemorecommon.Oftenarchaeologistsareassistedbythepublicinthelocatingofarchaeologicalsites,whichprofessionalarchaeologistshaveneitherthefunding,northetimetodo.

TheArchaeologicalLegacyInstitute(ALI),selfdescribedas"anindependent,nonprofit,taxexempt(501[c][3])",isaresearchandeducationcorporationregisteredinOregonin1999.TheALIfoundedanonlineArchaeologyChannel(http://archaeologychannel.org/)tosupporttheorganization'smission"todevelopwaystomakearchaeologymoreeffectivebothingatheringimportantinformationaboutpasthumanlifewaysandindeliveringthatinformationtothepublicandtheprofession."[90]

Pseudoarchaeology



Alooter'spitonthemorningfollowingitsexcavation,takenatRontoy,HuauraValley,PeruinJune2007.Severalsmallholesleftbylooters'prospectingprobescanbeseen,aswellastheirfootprints.

Pseudoarchaeologyisanumbrellatermforallactivitiesthatfalselyclaimtobearchaeologicalbutinfactviolatecommonlyacceptedandscientificarchaeologicalpractices.Itincludesmuchfictionalarchaeologicalwork(discussedabove),aswellassomeactualactivity.Manynonfictionauthorshaveignoredthescientificmethodsofprocessualarchaeology,orthespecificcritiquesofitcontainedinpostprocessualism.

AnexampleofthistypeisthewritingofErichvonDniken.His1968book,ChariotsoftheGods?,togetherwithmanysubsequentlesserknownworks,expoundsatheoryofancientcontactsbetweenhumancivilisationonEarthandmoretechnologicallyadvancedextraterrestrialcivilisations.Thistheory,knownaspalaeocontacttheory,orAncientastronauttheory,isnotexclusivelyDniken's,nordidtheideaoriginatewithhim.Worksofthisnatureareusuallymarkedbytherenunciationofwellestablishedtheoriesonthebasisoflimitedevidence,andtheinterpretationofevidencewithapreconceivedtheoryinmind.

Looting

Lootingofarchaeologicalsitesisanancientproblem.Forinstance,manyofthetombsoftheEgyptianpharaohswerelootedduringantiquity.[91]Archaeologystimulatesinterestinancientobjects,andpeopleinsearchofartifactsortreasurecausedamagetoarchaeologicalsites.Thecommercialandacademicdemandforartifactsunfortunatelycontributesdirectlytotheillicitantiquitiestrade.Smugglingofantiquitiesabroadtoprivatecollectorshascausedgreatculturalandeconomicdamageinmanycountrieswhosegovernmentslacktheresourcesandorthewilltodeterit.Lootersdamageanddestroyarchaeologicalsites,denyingfuturegenerationsinformationabouttheirethnicandculturalheritage.Indigenouspeoplesespeciallyloseaccesstoandcontrolovertheir'culturalresources',ultimatelydenyingthemtheopportunitytoknowtheirpast.[92]

In1937W.F.HodgetheDirectoroftheSouthwestMuseumreleasedastatementthatthemuseumwouldnolongerpurchaseoracceptcollectionsfromlootedcontexts.[93]ThefirstconvictionofthetransportofartifactsillegallyremovedfromprivatepropertyundertheArchaeologicalResourcesProtectionAct(ARPAPublicLaw969593Statute721(http://www.nps.gov/history/locallaw/FHPL_ArchRsrcsProt.pdf)16U.S.C.470aamm(http://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/16/470aamm.html))wasin1992intheStateofIndiana.[94]

Descendantpeoples

IntheUnitedStates,examplessuchasthecaseofKennewickManhaveillustratedthetensionsbetweenNativeAmericansandarchaeologists,whichcanbesummarizedasaconflictbetweenaneedtoremainrespectfultowardsacredburialsitesandtheacademicbenefitfromstudyingthem.Foryears,AmericanarchaeologistsdugonIndianburialgroundsandotherplacesconsideredsacred,removingartifactsandhumanremainstostoragefacilitiesforfurtherstudy.Insomecaseshumanremainswerenoteventhoroughlystudiedbutinsteadarchivedratherthanreburied.Furthermore,Westernarchaeologists'viewsof



StelaofakingnamedAdadNirari.ObjectstolenfromtheIraqNationalMuseuminthelootinginconnectionwiththeIraqwarof2003.

thepastoftendifferfromthoseoftribalpeoples.TheWestviewstimeaslinearformanynatives,itiscyclic.FromaWesternperspective,thepastislonggonefromanativeperspective,disturbingthepastcanhavedireconsequencesinthepresent.

Asaconsequenceofthis,AmericanIndiansattemptedtopreventarchaeologicalexcavationofsitesinhabitedbytheirancestors,whileAmericanarchaeologistsbelievedthattheadvancementofscientificknowledgewasavalidreasontocontinuetheirstudies.ThiscontradictorysituationwasaddressedbytheNativeAmericanGravesProtectionandRepatriationAct(NAGPRA,1990),whichsoughttoreachacompromisebylimitingtherightofresearchinstitutionstopossesshumanremains.Dueinparttothespiritofpostprocessualism,somearchaeologistshavebeguntoactivelyenlisttheassistanceofindigenouspeopleslikelytobedescendedfromthoseunderstudy.

Archaeologistshavealsobeenobligedtoreexaminewhatconstitutesanarchaeologicalsiteinviewofwhatnativepeoplesbelievetoconstitutesacredspace.Tomanynativepeoples,naturalfeaturessuchaslakes,mountainsorevenindividualtreeshaveculturalsignificance.Australianarchaeologistsespeciallyhaveexploredthisissueandattemptedtosurveythesesitestogivethemsomeprotectionfrombeingdeveloped.Suchworkrequirescloselinksandtrustbetweenarchaeologistsandthepeopletheyaretryingtohelpandatthesametimestudy.

Whilethiscooperationpresentsanewsetofchallengesandhurdlestofieldwork,ithasbenefitsforallpartiesinvolved.Tribalelderscooperatingwitharchaeologistscanpreventtheexcavationofareasofsitesthattheyconsidersacred,whilethearchaeologistsgaintheelders'aidininterpretingtheirfinds.Therehavealsobeenactiveeffortstorecruitaboriginalpeoplesdirectlyintothearchaeologicalprofession.

Repatriation

SeeRepatriationandreburialofhumanremains

AnewtrendintheheatedcontroversybetweenFirstNationsgroupsandscientistsistherepatriationofnativeartifactstotheoriginaldescendants.AnexampleofthisoccurredJune21,2005,whencommunitymembersandeldersfromanumberofthe10AlgonquiannationsintheOttawaareaconvenedontheKitiganZibireservationnearManiwaki,Quebec,tointerancestralhumanremainsandburialgoodssomedatingback6,000years.Itwasnotdetermined,however,iftheremainsweredirectlyrelatedtotheAlgonquinpeoplewhonowinhabittheregion.TheremainsmaybeofIroquoianancestry,sinceIroquoianpeopleinhabitedtheareabeforetheAlgonquin.Moreover,theoldestoftheseremainsmighthavenorelationatalltotheAlgonquinorIroquois,andbelongtoanearlierculturewhopreviouslyinhabitedthearea.

Theremainsandartifacts,includingjewelry,toolsandweapons,wereoriginallyexcavatedfromvarioussitesintheOttawaValley,includingMorrisonandtheAllumetteIslands.TheyhadbeenpartoftheCanadianMuseumofCivilization'sresearchcollectionfordecades,somesincethelate19thcentury.EldersfromvariousAlgonquincommunitiesconferredonanappropriatereburial,eventuallydecidingontraditionalredcedarandbirchbarkboxeslinedwithredcedarchips,muskratandbeaverpelts.



Now,aninconspicuousrockmoundmarksthereburialsitewherecloseto80boxesofvarioussizesareburied,nofurtherscientificstudyispossible.AlthoughnegotiationswereattimestensebetweentheKitiganZibicommunityandmuseum,theywereabletoreachagreement.[95]

KennewickManisanotherrepatriationcandidatethathasbeenthesourceofheateddebate.

Fictionalarchaeologists

BlueBeetleLaraCroftDoctorFateSydneyFoxHawkgirlHawkwomanDanielJackson(Stargate)IndianaJonesScroogeMcDuckMetamorphoAmeliaPeabodyDirkPittElijahSnowAdamStrangeBerniceSummerfield

Seealso

Outlineofarchaeology

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ArchaeoacousticsArchaeoastronomyArchaeobiologyArchaeologyandanimationArchaeologyofreligionandritualAreaofarchaeologicalpotentialBiblicalarchaeologyDatingmethodologiesDumpdigging

ExcavationGeographicInformationSystemsGraverobberyHarrismatrixIntellectualPropertyIssuesinCulturalHeritageproject(IPinCH)KiteaerialphotographyLostcityPalaeoarchaeology

PaleoneurologyVirtualartifactXenoarchaeology

Lists

ArchaeologicalperiodsArchaeologicalsitesbycountryArchaeologistsPaleoethnobotanists



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PrehistoryMiller,D.&Tilley,C.(1984),"Ideology,PowerandPrehistory:AnIntroduction",inMiller,D.&Tilley,C.,Ideology,Power,andPrehistory,Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,ISBN0521255260,OCLC2415992099827625(https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/241599209+9827625)Miller,D.,Rowlands,M.,Tilley,C.,ed.(1989),DominionandResistance,NewYork:RoutledgeMunson,C.A.,Jones,M.M.&Fry,R.E.(1995),"TheGEMound:AnARPACaseStudy",AmericanAntiquity60(1):131159,doi:10.2307/282080(https://dx.doi.org/10.2307%2F282080),JSTOR282080(https://www.jstor.org/stable/282080)Ogundele,S.O.(2005),"EthnoarchaeologyofDomesticSpaceandSpatialBehaviourAmongtheTivandUngwaiofCentralNigeria",AfricanArchaeologicalReview22:2554,doi:10.1007/s1043700531582(https://dx.doi.org/10.1007%2Fs1043700531582)Pauketat,T.R.(2001),"PracticeandHistoryinArchaeology:AnEmergingParadigm",AnthropologicalTheory1:7398,doi:10.1177/14634990122228638(https://dx.doi.org/10.1177%2F14634990122228638)Redman,C.L.(1974),ArchaeologicalSamplingStrategies,Binghamton:StateUniversityofNewYorkatBinghamtonRenfrew,C.&Bahn,P.G.(1991),Archaeology:Theories,Methods,andPractice,London:ThamesandHudsonLtd,ISBN0500278679,OCLC18580820034521234(https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/185808200+34521234)Saraydar,S.&Shimada,I.(1971),"AQuantitativeComparisonofEfficiencyBetweenAStoneAxeandASteelAxe",AmericanAntiquity36(2):216217,doi:10.2307/278680(https://dx.doi.org/10.2307%2F278680),JSTOR278680(https://www.jstor.org/stable/278680)Saraydar,S.C.&Shimada,I.(1973),"ExperimentalArchaeology:ANewOutlook",AmericanAntiquity38(3):344350,doi:10.2307/279722(https://dx.doi.org/10.2307%2F279722),JSTOR279722(https://www.jstor.org/stable/279722)Sellet,F.,Greaves,R.&Yu,P.L.(2006),ArchaeologyandEthnoarchaeologyofMobility,Gainesville:UniversityPressofFloridaShanks,M.&Tilley,C.(1987),ReconstructingArchaeology,NewYork:CambridgeuniversityPressShanks,M.&Tilley,C.(1988),SocialTheoryandArchaeology,Albuquerque:UniversityofNewMexicoPress,ISBN0745601847,OCLC16465065185783860(https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/16465065+185783860)Shanks,M.(1991),"Somerecentapproachestostyleandsocialreconstructioninclassicalarchaeology",ArchaeologicalReviewfromCambridge10:164174Shanks,M.(1993),"StyleandthedesignofaperfumejarfromanArchaicGreekcitystate",JournalofEuropeanArchaeology1:77106,doi:10.1179/096576693800731190(https://dx.doi.org/10.1179%2F096576693800731190)Sheets,P.D.(1973),"ThePillageofPrehistory",AmericanAntiquity38(3):317320,doi:10.2307/279718(https://dx.doi.org/10.2307%2F279718),JSTOR279718(https://www.jstor.org/stable/279718)Shott,M.J.&Sillitoe,P.(2005),"UselifeandcurationinNewGuineaexperimentalusedflakes",JournalofArchaeologicalScience32(5):653663,doi:10.1016/j.jas.2004.11.012(https://dx.doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.jas.2004.11.012)Tassie,G.J.,Owens,L.S.(2010),StandardsofArchaeologicalExcavations:AFieldguidetotheMethology,RecordingTechniquesandConventions,London:GHP,ISBN9781906137175Taylor,W.W.(1948),AStudyofArchaeology,Menasha:AmericanAnthropologicalAssociation,ISBN0906367123,OCLC9714935(https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/9714935)Tilley,Christopher,ed.(1993),InterpretiveArchaeology,Oxford:Berg,ISBN0854968423,OCLC18549400126263158(https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/185494001+26263158)Trigger,B.G.(1989),AHistoryofArchaeologicalThought,Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPressWatters,M.R.(1992),PrinciplesofGeoarchaeology:ANorthAmericanPerspective,Tucson:TheUniversityofArizonaPressWatters,M.R.(2000),"AlluvialstratigraphyandgeoarchaeologyintheAmericanSouthwest",Geoarchaeology15(6):537557,doi:10.1002/15206548(200008)15:63.0.CO2E(https://dx.doi.org/10.1002%2F15206548%28200008%2915%3A6%3C537%3A%3AAIDGEA5%3E3.0.CO%3B2E)Willey,G.R.(1953),PrehistoricSettlementPatternsintheVirValley,Per,WashingtonDCWilley,G.(1968),SettlementArchaeology,PaloAlto:NationalPressWylie,A.(1985),"TheReactionAgainstAnalogy",inSchiffer,MichaelB.,AdvancesinArchaeologicalMethod



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Furtherreading

Archaeology(magazine)LewisBinfordNewPerspectivesinArchaeology(1968)ISBN0202330222GlynDanielAShortHistoryofArchaeology(1991)KevinGreeneIntroductiontoArchaeology(1983)ThomasHester,HarryShafer,andKennethL.FederFieldMethodsinArchaeology7thedition(1997)IanHodder&ScottHutson"ReadingthePast"3rd.edition(2003)RichHutchingsandMarinaLaSalle.2014.TeachingAntiColonialArchaeology.Archaeologies:TheJournaloftheWorldArchaeologicalCongress(http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s117590149250y)10(1):2769.InternationalJournalofSouthAmericanArchaeologyIJSA(magazine)InternetArchaeology,ejournalC.U.LarsenSitesandMonuments(1992)AdrianPraetzellisDeathbyTheory,AltaMiraPress(2000).ISBN0742503593/9780742503595ColinRenfrew&PaulBahnArchaeology:theories,methodsandpractice,2ndedition(1996)Smekalova,T.N.VossO.&SmekalovS.L.(2008)."MagneticSurveyinginArchaeology.Morethan10yearsofusingtheOverhauserGSM19gradiometer".Wormianum.DavidHurstThomasArchaeology,3rd.edition(1998)RobertJ.Sharer&WendyAshmoreArchaeology:DiscoveringourPast2ndedition(1993)BruceTrigger"AHistoryofArchaeologicalThought"2nd.edition(2007)AlisonWylieThinkingFromThings:EssaysinthePhilosophyofArchaeology,UniversityofCaliforniaPress,BerkeleyCA,2002

Externallinks400,000recordsofarchaeologicalsitesandarchitectureinEngland(http://pastscape.org.uk/)Archaeolog.org(http://archaeolog.org/)Archaeologicalnewsupdateddaily(http://www.archaeologynews.org/)ArchaeologyDailyNews(http://www.archaeologydaily.com/)ArchaeologyTimes|Thetoparchaeologynewsfromaroundtheworld(http://www.archaeologytimes.com/)CouncilforBritishArchaeology(http://www.britarch.ac.uk/)EstudiodeMuseologaRosario(https://web.archive.org/web/20091024171735/http://geocities.com/emuseoros)FastiOnlineanonlinedatabaseofarchaeologicalsites(http://www.fastionline.org/)GreatArchaeology(http://www.greatarchaeology.com/)KiteAerialPhotographersArchaeology(http://www.armadale.org.uk/kite03.htm)

Wylie,A.(1985),"TheReactionAgainstAnalogy",inSchiffer,MichaelB.,AdvancesinArchaeologicalMethodandTheory,Orlando,FL:AcademicPress,pp.63111Yellen,J.&Harpending,H.(1972),"HunterGathererPopulationsandArchaeologicalInference",WorldArchaeology4(2):244253,doi:10.1080/00438243.1972.9979535(https://dx.doi.org/10.1080%2F00438243.1972.9979535)Yellen,J.(1977),ArchaeologicalApproachestothePresent,NewYork:AcademicPress,ISBN0127703500,OCLC2911020(https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/2911020)



NPSArcheologyProgram:VisitArcheology(Archeologytravelguides)(http://www.nps.gov/history/archeology/visit/index.htm)SriLankaArchaeologyNewKnowledgeinArchaeologyinSriLanka(http://www.archaeology.lk/)TheArchaeologicalInstituteofAmerica(http://www.archaeological.org/)TheArchaeologyChannel(http://www.archaeologychannel.org/)TheArchaeologyDataServiceOpenaccessonlinearchiveforUKandglobalarchaeology(http://archaeologydataservice.ac.uk/)TheArchaeologyDivisionoftheAmericanAnthropologicalAssociation(http://www.aaanet.org/)TheCanadianMuseumofCivilizationArchaeology(http://www.civilization.ca/cmc/exhibitions/onlineexhibitions/archaeology)TheSocietyforAmericanArchaeology(http://www.saa.org/)TheWorldArchaeologicalCongress(http://www.worldarchaeologicalcongress.org/site/about.php)USForestServiceVolunteerprogramPassportinTime(http://www.passportintime.com/)WorldArchaeologyNewsweeklyupdatefromBBCRadioarchaeologist,WinScutt(http://www.archaeology.ws/worldarchnews.html)

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