bilinguals and bilingualism

Bilinguals and Bilingualism

Carol BerdinCarl Gonzaga

Gustavo AguileraYoung Bin Lee

Mary Jane MondigoMary Jerica Pelaez

Josie Villareal

What is bilingualism?

• using two languages, not necessarily with equal proficiency.

• In order to understand a bilingual speaker’s language ability, we need to know:when they learned their

languages, how proficient they are in the

languages, and in what contexts (and

with whom) they use the languages.

• Bilingual speakers learn their languages either simultaneously, as they grow up, or sequentially, learning the second language after the first

A bilingual person may be able to:

speak, read, and write fluently in two languages – that is, they are biliterate.

speak, read, and write in one language, but only speak another

speak, read, and write in one language, but understand to some extent what is said in another language – that is, they can understand what a speaker of their second language is saying, even though they may not be confident about speaking that language. This is termed passive bilingualism.

Three key questions to find out about how the person is bilingual:

1. When did the person learn their language(s)?

2. Do they have opportunities to listen, speak, read, and/or write in their language(s)?

3. In what contexts do they use their language(s)?

When did they learn their language(s)?

• at the same time, usually in early childhood and as a result of family bilingualism. – called simultaneous bilinguals.

• learning one language later than the other – perhaps as the result of living in a new country or formally learning a second language at a school or university – are called sequential bilinguals or consecutive bilinguals

According to Romaine (1995), there are six ways of acquiring bilingualism:

Type 1. One person - one language• Parents: Each parent has a different native

language and each one has a degree of competence in the language of the other.

• Community: The language of one parent is the dominant language of the community.

• Strategy: Each parent speaks their own native language to the child from birth.

Author Mother

language

Father

language

Commu

nity

languag

e

Strategy

Ronjar (1913) German French French German/

French

Leopold

(1939-1949)

English German German English/

German

Taeschner

(1983)

German Italian Italian German/

Italian

 Type 2. Non-dominant home language

• Parents: Parents have different native languages.

• Community: The language of one parent is the dominant language of the community.

• Strategy: Both parents speak the non-dominant language to the child and the child is fully exposed to the dominant language only when outside home.

Author Mother

languag

e

Father

langua

ge

Communi

ty

language

Strateg

y

Fantini

(1985)

Spanish English English Spanish

Type 3. Non-dominant home language without community support

• Parents: Parents share the same native language.

• Community: The dominant language is not of his parents.

• Strategy: The parents speak their own language to the child.

Author Mother

language

Father

language

Communit

y

language

Strategy

Haugen

(1953)

Norwegian Norwegian English Norwegian

Ruke-

Dravina

(1967)

Latvian Latvian Swedish Latvian

Pavlovitc

h (1920)

Servian Servian French Servian

Type 4. Double non-dominant home language without community support

• Parents: Parents do not share the same native language.

• Community: The dominant language is different from either of the parent’s languages.

• Strategy: The parents speak their own language to the child.

Author Mother

language

Father

language

Communi

ty

language

Strategy

Elwrt

(1959)

English German Italian English/

German

Type 5. Non-native parents

• Parents: Parents share the same native language.

• Community: The dominant language is the same as that of the parents.

• Strategy: One of the parents always addresses the child in a language which is not his/her native language

Author Mother

languag

e

Father

languag

e

Community

language

Strategy

Saunder

s (1982)

English English

(German)

English German

Type 6. Mixed languages

• Parents: Parents are bilinguals.• Community: Sector of community may

also be bilingual.• Strategy: Parents code-switch and mix

languages.

Author Mother

languag

e

Father

language

Community

language

Strategy

Tabouret-

Keller

(1962)

French/

German

French/

German

French/

German

French/

German

Ellul

(1978)

Maltese/

English

Maltese/

English

Maltese/

English

Maltese/

English

Do they have opportunities to listen, speak, read, and/or write in their language(s)?

• The degree of proficiency depends largely on the opportunities

• If they are able to speak both languages extensively, then they will become fluent in both. However, if they have less opportunity to speak one language, their level of fluency in that language may be less.

• bilingual people may also have different levels of proficiency in the key language modes of listening, speaking, reading, and writing for each language.

In what contexts do they use their language(s)?

• Language use is also often dependent on wider societal attitudes to the particular languages they speak.

• If both of the languages that bilingual people speak are valued in the wider society, then it is likely they will use both their languages in a wide variety of contexts. – balanced bilinguals

• For example, a bilingual person may speak one language with their immediate family and another language with their friends or at school. • The different contexts of language use

are called language domains

• Even if they have comparable levels of fluency, they may use one language more than the other, or may use one language in certain contexts (or with certain people), and the other language in other contexts (or with other people).

Compound vs. Coordinate Bilinguals

• For compound bilinguals, words and phrases in different languages are the same concepts.

• For example: a ‘perro' and a 'dog' are two words for the same concept: things just naturally have two names.

• These speakers posses the skills necessary for communication in both languages. They are fluent, but have certain errors in L2 that have become fossilized.

Compound Bilinguals

Fossilization: When an error becomes a habit of speech in L2 learner; common when error does not interfere with communication, and therefore, speaker does not get corrective feedback.

Coordinate Bilingual

• can easily switch from one language to the other and has a larger linguistic “confidence area”.

• For coordinate bilinguals, words and phrases in the speaker's mind are all related to their own unique concepts.

• Fore example: a bilingual speaker of this type has different associations for “perro” and for “dog”.

• In these individuals, one language, usually the first language, is more dominant than the other, and the first language may be used to think through the second language.

Coordinate and compound bilinguals demonstrate higher cognitive proficiency then monolinguals

Early vs. Late Bilinguals

• Both co-ordinated bilingualism and compound bilingualism develop in early childhood and are classified as forms of early bilingualism.

Early Bilingual

• someone who has acquired two languages early in childhood (usually received systematic training/learning of a second language before age 6).

Late Bilingual• develops when a second language is learned

after age 12.

Balanced vs. Dominant Bilinguals

• A person being more proficient in one of the two languages (in most cases native-like).

• Someone who is more or less equally proficient in both languages, but will not necessarily pass for a native speaker in both languages.

Balanced Bilingual

Dominant Bilingual

• someone with greater proficiency in one of his or her languages and uses it significantly more than the other language

Simultaneous vs. Sequential Bilinguals

• Learning two languages as "first languages".• Simultaneous bilinguals learn both of their

languages from childhood, rather than learning one language before starting to learn the other

• for example when they are raised by parents speaking more than one language.

Simultaneous Bilingual

Sequential Bilingual

• Also known as consecutive bilinguals • when the child acquires the second

language(s) after having considerably learnt the first language

• for example when the parental tongue is different than the main language of the community or education system.

Additive vs. Subtractive Bilinguals

• When learning a second language does not interfere with the learning of a first language. Both languages are developed.

Additive bilingualism

• When learning a second language interferes with the learning of a first language. The second language replaces the first language.

• This is commonly found in children who emigrate to a foreign country when they are young, especially in cases of orphans who are deprived of their first language input

Subtractive bilingualism

Elite vs. Folk Bilinguals

• Individuals who choose to have a bilingual home, often in order to enhance social status.

• include intermarried couples and those who are living abroad, temporarily or permanently, for business or educational reasons.

Elite Bilingual

• are minority areas (including so-called "guest workers") who have not to the same degree chosen to be surrounded by another language but who feel they must be bilingual in order to preserve their heritage.

• Although this may look like a choice to us, it feels less like a choice to those who make it.

Folk Bilingual

Code Switching and

Code Mixing

Code Switching• Often present in those people who is

a bilingual user, they often switch between their two languages in the middle of a conversation.

• It can take place between or even within sentences, involving phrases or words or even parts of words

• It often occurs in conversation rather than in writing

• "Code-switching performs several functions (Zentella, 1985). First, people may use code-switching to hide fluency or memory problems in the second language (but this accounts for about only 10 percent of code switches).

• Second, code-switching is used to mark switching from informal situations (using native languages) to formal situations (using second language).

• Third, code-switching is used to exert control, especially between parents and children.

• Fourth, code-switching is used to align speakers with others in specific situations (e.g., defining oneself as a member of an ethnic group). Code-switching also 'functions to announce specific identities, create certain meanings, and facilitate particular interpersonal relationships' (Johnson, 2000, p. 184)."(William B. Gudykunst, Bridging Differences: Effective Intergroup Communication, 4th ed. Sage, 2004)

Three Kinds of Codes Switching

• Situational Code Switching – the situation determines the choice of language

• Conversational Code Switching – the topic of the conversation dictates the choice of the language

• Metaphorical Code Switching – the choice of language determines the situation

Types of Code Switching• Borrowing – a word from another language that

has been adapted for use in another. Adaptation of its pronunciation and morphological functions in the sentences.

• Calque - is literally translating a phrase without a regard to proper context (Hughes et al., 2006).

• Inter-sentential – is switching at the sentence level. May serve to emphasize at point made in the other language–  is inserting an entire phrase from the secondary

language into a conversation using the other language (Hughes et al., 2006)

• Intra-sentential – switching is the clause, phrase level, or a word level if no morphophonological adaptation occurs

Code Mixing/Mixed Code• Refers to linguistic behaviour of a bilingual

speaker who imports words or phrases from one of his/her languages into the other one.

• Numan and Carter define code mixing as, a “phenomenon of switching from one language to another in the same discourse.”

• According to Berthold, Mangubhai and Bartorowiez 1997, code mixing occurs when speakers shift from one language to the other in the midst of their conversation. Thus this definition accommodates inter-sentential switching and intra-sentential mixing both under the term code switching.

Types of Code Mixing• Intra-lexical Mixing – The insertion of well-defined

chunks of language B into a sentence that otherwise belongs to language A. Insertion of words from one language into a structure of another language

• Involving a change of Pronunciation – This kind of code mixing occurs at the phonological level as when people in language A say an English word, but modify it to its own Language phonological structure

• Intra-sentential – The succession of fragments in language A and B in a sentence, which is overall not identifiable as belongings to either A, or B.

Studies conducted on Bilingualism

Word Order Of A Bilingual Child’s Clauses

In Each Language: A Case Study

Word Order Of A Bilingual Child’s Clauses

In Each Language: A Case Study

A Research Paper by:

Carol Ann BerdinJulius Cesar Cudera

Mia Larainne Dueñas

A Research Paper by:

Carol Ann BerdinJulius Cesar Cudera

Mia Larainne Dueñas

Research QuestionsResearch Questions

• When using each language, what word order (Greenberg, 1966, in Callies, 2009 and Denzer-King, 2010) in her clauses does the child follow?

• Does the word order employed by the child for either language follow the typology of word order each language belongs to?

• When using each language, what word order (Greenberg, 1966, in Callies, 2009 and Denzer-King, 2010) in her clauses does the child follow?

• Does the word order employed by the child for either language follow the typology of word order each language belongs to?

• Word Order (Greenberg, 1966, in Callies, 2009 &Denzer-King, 2010)

– Siewierska (1998)– Koda and Zehler (2008)

• Word Order Typology

– Greenberg (1966, in Odlin, 1989)

– Thompson (1978, in Jiang, 2009)

– Randriamasimanana (2000)

• Word Order (Greenberg, 1966, in Callies, 2009 &Denzer-King, 2010)

– Siewierska (1998)– Koda and Zehler (2008)

• Word Order Typology

– Greenberg (1966, in Odlin, 1989)

– Thompson (1978, in Jiang, 2009)

– Randriamasimanana (2000)

• Design: Quantitative-qualitative• Participant: a 4-year old bilingual child• Tools: video-recorded observation,

questionnaires, and Jefferson’s (2005, in Hutchby and Wooffitt, 2008) system of transcription

• Procedure–Gathering of Data: obtaining consent,

video-recording, obtaining participant ‘s profile and questionnaire for the guardian

–Treatment of Data: Transcription, Tally, tabulation and textual explanation/interpretation

• Design: Quantitative-qualitative• Participant: a 4-year old bilingual child• Tools: video-recorded observation,

questionnaires, and Jefferson’s (2005, in Hutchby and Wooffitt, 2008) system of transcription

• Procedure–Gathering of Data: obtaining consent,

video-recording, obtaining participant ‘s profile and questionnaire for the guardian

–Treatment of Data: Transcription, Tally, tabulation and textual explanation/interpretation

Table 1: Accurate Word Orders for Cebuano and English

Table 1: Accurate Word Orders for Cebuano and English

FindingsFindings

Table 2: Word Order TypologyTable 2: Word Order Typology

FindingsFindings

ConclusionsConclusions

• The child’s grasp of accurate word order in each language and it’s match of word order typology reflects the level of the child’s language exposure and usage

• The levels of language exposure and usage is also reflected in the child’s mixed languages bilingual acquisition but dominant bilingualism in Cebuano.

• The child’s grasp of accurate word order in each language and it’s match of word order typology reflects the level of the child’s language exposure and usage

• The levels of language exposure and usage is also reflected in the child’s mixed languages bilingual acquisition but dominant bilingualism in Cebuano.

• First, that more than one child be studied.

• Second, that other word order frameworks aside from Greenberg’s (1966) be used.

• First, that more than one child be studied.

• Second, that other word order frameworks aside from Greenberg’s (1966) be used.

Participant’s ProfileParticipant’s Profile

• Name: Crystal Shane M. Dayday• Age: 4 years old• Birth Rank: 2nd• Gender: Female• Educational Background: Began Kindergarten 1

this year• Child’s Parents or Guardian/s: Evangeline D.

Berdin• Parents’/Guardian’s Occupation: Company worker• Languages Spoken by the Child: Tagalog,

Cebuano, English• Languages Spoken by the Parents/Guardian:

Cebuano, Tagalog• Educational Background of the

Parents/Guardian: High School Level

• Name: Crystal Shane M. Dayday• Age: 4 years old• Birth Rank: 2nd• Gender: Female• Educational Background: Began Kindergarten 1

this year• Child’s Parents or Guardian/s: Evangeline D.

Berdin• Parents’/Guardian’s Occupation: Company worker• Languages Spoken by the Child: Tagalog,

Cebuano, English• Languages Spoken by the Parents/Guardian:

Cebuano, Tagalog• Educational Background of the

Parents/Guardian: High School Level

Participant’s ProfileParticipant’s Profile

Cognitive of Bilingualism starts as early as 7 months age

Frequent of hearing of two different language lead to acquire

bilingualism easily later on

Memory Flexibility

Thank you for listening!

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