chapter 42-endocrine-and-thyroid-disorder-i

Chapter 42Assessment and Management of

Patients with Endocrine Disorders

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Endocrine System Effects almost every cell, organ, and function of the

body The endocrine system is closely linked with the

nervous system and the immune systemNegative feedback mechanismHormones

Chemical messengers of the bodyAct on specific target cells

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Location of the major endocrine glands.

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HypothalamusSits between the cerebrum and brainstemHouses the pituitary gland and hypothalamusRegulates:

TemperatureFluid volumeGrowthPain and pleasure responseHunger and thirst

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Hypothalamus HormonesReleasing and inhibiting hormonesCorticotropin-releasing hormoneThyrotropin-releasing hormoneGrowth hormone-releasing hormoneGonadotropin-releasing hormoneSomatostatin-=-inhibits GH and TSH

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Pituitary GlandSits beneath the hypothalamusTermed the “master gland”Divided into:

Anterior Pituitary GlandPosterior Pituitary Gland

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Actions of the major hormones of the pituitary gland.

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Adrenal GlandsPyramid-shaped organs that sit on top of the

kidneysEach has two parts:

Outer CortexInner Medulla

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Adrenal CortexMineralocorticoid—aldosterone. Affects sodium

absorption, loss of potassium by kidney

Glucocorticoids—cortisol. Affects metabolism, regulates blood sugar levels, affects growth, anti-inflammatory action, decreases effects of stress

Adrenal androgens—dehydroepiandrosterone and androstenedione. Converted to testosterone in the periphery.

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Adrenal Medulla

Secretion of two hormonesEpinephrineNorepinephrine

Serve as neurotransmitters for sympathetic systemInvolved with the stress response

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Thyroid GlandButterfly shapedSits on either side of the tracheaHas two lobes connected with an isthmusFunctions in the presence of iodineStimulates the secretion of three hormonesInvolved with metabolic rate management and

serum calcium levels

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Thyroid Gland

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Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Thyroid Axis

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ThyroidFollicular cells—excretion of triiodothyronine (T3)

and thyroxine (T4)—Increase BMR, increase bone and protien turnover, increase response to catecholamines, need for infant G&D

Thyroid C cells—calcitonin. Lowers blood calcium and phosphate levels

BMR: Basal Metabolic Rate

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Parathyroid GlandsEmbedded within the posterior lobes of the thyroid

glandSecretion of one hormoneMaintenance of serum calcium levelsParathyroid hormone—regulates serum

calcium

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PancreasLocated behind the stomach between the spleen

and duodenumHas two major functions

Digestive enzymesReleases two hormones: insulin and glucagon

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Kidney1, 25 dihydroxyvitamin D—stimulates calcium

absorption from the intestineRenin—activates the Renin-Angiotensin System

(RAS)Erythropoietin—Increases red blood cell

production

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OvariesEstrogenProgesterone—important in menstrual cycle,

maintains pregnancy,

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TestesAndrogens, testosterone—secondary sexual

characteristics, sperm production

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ThymusReleases thymosin and thymopoietinAffects maturation of T lymphocetes

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PinealMelatoninAffects sleep, fertility and aging

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Past Medical HistoryHormone replacement therapySurgeries, chemotherapy, radiationFamily history: diabetes mellitus, diabetes insipidus,

goiter, obesity, Addison’s disease, infertilitySexual history: changes, characteristics, menstruation,

menopause

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Physical AssessmentGeneral appearance

Vital signs, height, weightIntegumentary

Skin color, temperature, texture, moistureBruising, lesions, wound healingHair and nail texture, hair growth

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Physical AssessmentFace

Shape, symmetryEyes, visual acuityNeck

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Palpating the thyroid gland from behind the client. (Source: Lester V. Bergman/Corbis)

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Physical AssessmentExtremities

Hand and feet sizeTrunkMuscle strength, deep tendon reflexesSensation to hot and cold, vibrationExtremity edema

ThoraxLung and heart sounds

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Older Adults and Endocrine FunctionRelationship unclearAging causes fibrosis of thyroid glandReduces metabolic rateContributes to weight gainCortisol level unchanged in aging

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Abnormal FindingsAsk the client:

Energy levelFatigueMaintenance of ADLSensitivity to heat or coldWeight levelBowel habitsLevel of appetiteUrination, thirst, salt craving

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Abnormal Findings (continued)Ask the client:

Cardiovascular status: blood pressure, heart rate, palpitations, SOB

Vision: changes, tearing, eye edemaNeurologic: numbness/tingling lips or extremities,

nervousness, hand tremors, mood changes, memory changes, sleep patterns

Integumentary: hair changes, skin changes, nails, bruising, wound healing

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Most Common Endocrine DisordersThyroid abnormalitiesDiabetes mellitus

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Diagnostic TestsGH: fasting, well rested, not physically stressedT3/T4, TSH: no specific preparationSerum calcium/phosphate: fasting may or may not be

requiredCortisol/aldosterone level24 urine collection to measure the level of catacholamines

(epinephrine, norepinephrine, dopamine).

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Thyroid DisordersCretinism HypothyroidismHyperthyroidismThyroiditisGoiter Thyroid cancer

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HYPOTHYRODISM

Hypothyroidism is the disease state caused by insufficient production of thyroid hormone by the thyroid gland.

INCEDENCE • 30-60 yrs of age• Mostly women (5 times more than men)

CausesAutoimmune disease (Hashimoto's

thyroiditis, post–Graves' disease)Atrophy of thyroid gland with agingTherapy for hyperthyroidism

Radioactive iodine (131I)Thyroidectomy

MedicationsRadiation to head and neck

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Clinical Manifestations:

1. Fatigue.

2. Constipation.

3. Apathy

4. Weight gain.

5. Memory and mental impairment and decreased

concentration.

6. masklike face.

7. Menstrual irregularities and loss of libido.

8. Coarseness or loss of hair.

9. Dry skin and cold intolerance.10. Menstrual disturbances 11. Numbness and tingling of

fingers. 12. Tongue, hands, and feet

may enlarge 13. Slurred speach 14. Hyperlipidemia. 15. Reflex delay. 16. Bradycardia. 17. Hypothermia. 18. Cardiac and respiratory

complications .

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LABORATORY ASSESSMENT T3 T4 TSH

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TREATMENT

LIFELONG THYROID HORMONE REPLACEMENT levothyroxine sodium (Synthroid, T4, Eltroxin) IMPORTANT: start at low does, to avoid hypertension,

heart failure and MITeach about S&S of hyperthyroidism with replacement

therapy

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MYXEDEMA DEVELOPS

Rare serious complication of untreated hypothyroidismDecreased metabolism causes the heart muscle to become

flabby Leads to decreased cardiac outputLeads to decreased perfusion to brain and other vital organsLeads to tissue and organ failureLIFE THREATENING EMERGENCY WITH HIGH

MORTALITY RATEEdema changes client’s appearanceNonpitting edema appears everywhere especially around the

eyes, hands, feet, between shoulder blades Tongue thickens, edema forms in larynx, voice husky

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PROBLEMS SEEN WITH MYXEDEMA COMAComaRespiratory failureHypotensionHyponatremiaHypothermiahypoglycemia

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TREATMENT OF MYEXEDEMA COMA

Patent airwayReplace fluids with IV.Give levothyroxine sodium IVGive glucose IVGive corticosteroidsCheck temp, BP hourlyMonitor changes LOC hourlyAspiration precautions, keep warm

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Hyperthyroidism

Clinical Manifestations (thyrotoxicosis):1. Heat intolerance.2. Palpitations, tachycardia, elevated systolic BP.3. Increased appetite but with weight loss.4. Menstrual irregularities and decreased libido.5. Increased serum T4, T3.6. Exophthalmos (bulging eyes) 7. Perspiration, skin moist and flushed ; however,

elders’ skin may be dry and pruritic 8. Insomnia.9. Fatigue and muscle weakness10. Nervousness, irritability, can’t sit quietly. 11. Diarrhea.

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Hyperthyroidism

Hyperthyroidism is the second most prevalent endocrine disorder, after diabetes mellitus.

Graves' disease: the most common type of hyperthyroidism, results from an excessive output of thyroid hormones.

May appear after an emotional shock, stress, or an infection

Other causes: thyroiditis and excessive ingestion of thyroid hormone

Affects women 8X more frequently than men (appears between second and fourth decade)

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Medical Management of Hyperthyroidism

Radioactive 131I therapy Medications

Propylthiouracil and methimazoleSodium or potassium iodine solutionsDexamethasoneBeta-blockers

Surgery; subtotal thyroidectomy Relapse of disorder is commonDisease or treatment may result in hypothyroidism

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ThyroiditisInflammation of the thyroid gland. Can be acute, subacute, or chronic (Hashimoto's

Disease)Each type of thyroiditis is characterized by

inflammation, fibrosis, or lymphocytic infiltration of the thyroid gland.

Characterized by autoimmune damage to the thyroid.May cause thyrotoxicosis, hypothyroidism, or both

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Thyroid Tumors

Can be being benign or malignant. If the enlargement is sufficient to cause a visible

swelling in the neck, referred to as a goiter.Some goiters are accompanied by hyperthyroidism, in

which case they are described as toxic; others are associated with a euthyroid state and are called nontoxic goiters.

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Thyroid Cancer

Much less prevalent than other forms of cancer; however, it accounts for 90% of endocrine malignancies.

Diagnosis: thyroid hormone, biobsyManagement

The treatment of choice surgical removal. Total or near-total thyroidectomy is performed if possible. Modified neck dissection or more extensive radical neck dissection is performed if there is lymph node involvement.

After surgery, radioactive iodine.Thyroid hormone supplement to replace the hormone.

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ThyroidectomyTreatment of choice for thyroid cancerPreoperative goals include the reduction of stress and anxiety

to avoid precipitation of thyroid storm (euothyroid)Iodine prep (Lugols or K iodide solution) to decrease size

and vascularity of gland to minimize risk of hemorrhage, reduces risk of thyroid storm during surgery

Preoperative teaching includes dietary guidance to meet patient metabolic needs and avoidance of caffeinated beverages and other stimulants, explanation of tests and procedures, and demonstration of support of head to be used postoperatively

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Postoperative Care

Monitor dressing for potential bleeding and hematoma formation; check posterior dressing

Monitor respirations; potential airway impairmentAssess pain and provide pain relief measuresSemi-Fowler’s position, support headAssess voice but discourage talking Potential hypocalcaemia related to injury or removal of

parathyroid glands; monitor for hypocalcaemia

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POST-OP THYROIDECTOMY NURSING CARE

1. VS, I&O, IV2. Semifowlers3. Support head4. Avoid tension on sutures5. Pain meds, analgesic lozengers6. Humidified oxygen, suction7. First fluids: cold/ice, tolerated best, then soft diet8. Limited talking , hoarseness common9. Assess for voice changes: injury to the recurrent

laryngeal nerve

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POSTOP THYROIDECTOMY NURSING CARE

CHECK FOR HEMORRHAGE 1st 24 hrs:

Look behind neck and sides of neck

Check for c/o pressure or fullness at incision site

Check drain REPORT TO MD

CHECK FOR RESPIRATORY DISTRESS

Laryngeal stridor (harsh hi pitched resp sounds)

Result of edema of glottis, hematoma,or tetany

Tracheostomy set/airway/ O2, suction

CALL MD for extreme hoarseness

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Complication of operation:

HemorrhageLaryngeal nerve damage.HypoparathyrodismHypothyroidismSeptesisPostoperative infection

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Parathyroid Four glands on the posterior thyroid glandParathormone regulates calcium and phosphorus

balanceIncreased parathormone elevates blood calcium by

increasing calcium absorption from the kidney, intestine, and bone.

Parathormone lowers phosphorus level.

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Parathyroid Glands

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Hyperparathyroidism

Primary hyperparathyroidism is 2–4 X more frequent in women.Manifestations include elevated serum calcium, bone

decalcification, renal calculi, apathy, fatigue, muscle weakness, nausea, vomiting, constipation, hypertension, cardiac dysrhythmias, psychological manifestations

TreatmentParathyroidectomyHydration therapyEncourage mobility reduce calcium excretionDiet: encourage fluid, avoid excess or restricted calcium

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QuestionIs the following statement True or False?

The patient in acute hypercalcemic crisis requires close monitoring for life-threatening complications and prompt treatment to reduce serum calcium levels.

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HypoparathryoidismDeficiency of parathormone usually due to surgeryResults in hypocalcaemia and hyperphosphatemiaManifestations include tetany, numbness and tingling

in extremities, stiffness of hands and feet, bronchospasm, laryngeal spasm, carpopedal spasm, anxiety, irritability, depression, delirium, ECG changesTrousseau’s sign and Chvostek’s sign

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Management of Hypoparathyroidism

Increase serum calcium level to 9—10 mg/dL Calcium gluconate IVMay also use sedatives such as pentobarbital to

decrease neuromuscular irritabilityParathormone may be administered; potential allergic

reactionsEnvironment free of noise, drafts, bright lights, sudden

movementDiet high in calcium and low in phosphorusVitamin D Aluminum hydroxide is administered after meals to

bind with phosphate and promote its excretion through the gastrointestinal tract.

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Adrenal Glands

Adrenal medullaFunctions as part of the autonomic nervous systemCatecholamines; epinephrine and norepinephrine

Adrenal cortexGlucocorticoidsMineralocorticoidsAndrogens

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Adrenal Insufficiency Adrenal cortex function is inadequate to

meet the needs for cortical hormonesPrimary: Addison’s DiseaseSecondaryMay be the result of adrenal suppression by

exogenous steroid use

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Adrenal Crisis

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Manifestations

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Muscle weakness, anorexia, GI symptoms, fatigue, dark pigmentation of skin and mucosa, hypotension, low blood glucose, low serum sodium, high serum potassium, mental changes, apathy, emotional lability, confusion

Addisonian crisis: circulatory collapseDiagnostic tests; adrenocortical hormone levels, ACTH

levels, ACTH stimulation test

Adrenal CrisisMedical Management

ImmediateReverse shockRestore blood circulation

Antibiotics if infectionIdentify causeSupplement

glucocorticoids during stressful procedures or significant illness

Nursing Management

Assess fluid balanceMonitor VS closelyGood skin assessmentLimit activity Provide quiet, non-

stressful environment

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Nursing Process: The Care of the Patient with Adrenocortical Insufficiency

AssessmentLevel of stress; note any illness or stressors that may

precipitate problemsFluid and electrolyte status VS and postural blood pressuresNote signs and symptoms related to adrenocortical

insufficiency such as weight changes, muscle weakness, and fatigue

MedicationsMonitor for signs and symptoms of Addisonian crisis

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Nursing Process: The Care of the Patient with Adrenocortical Insufficiency

DiagnosesRisk for fluid volume deficitActivity intolerance and fatigueKnowledge deficit

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Interventions

Risk for fluid deficit; monitor for signs and symptoms of fluid volume deficit, encourage fluids and foods, select foods high in sodium, administer hormone replacement as prescribed

Activity intolerance; avoid stress and activity until stable, perform all activities for patient when in crisis, maintain a quiet nonstressful environment, measures to reduce anxiety

Teaching(See Chart 42-10)

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Cushing’s SyndromeDue to excessive

adrenocortical activity or corticosteroid medications

Women between the ages of 20 and 40 years are five times more likely than men to develop Cushing's syndrome.

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Cushing’s Syndrome/ManifestationsHyperglycemia which may develop into diabetes,

weight gain, central type obesity with “buffalo hump,” heavy trunk and thin extremities, fragile thin skin, ecchymosis, striae, weakness, lassitude, sleep disturbances, osteoporosis, muscle wasting, hypertension, “moon-face”, acne, increased susceptibility to infection, slow healing, virilization in women, loss of libido, mood changes, increased serum sodium, decreased serum potassium

Diagnosis: Dexamethasone suppression test, ↑ Na+ ↑ glucose, ↓ K+, metabolic alkalosis

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Cushing’s Syndrome

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Cushing’s SyndromeMedical Management

Pituitary tumorSurgical removalradiation

AdrenalectomyAdrenal enzyme

inhibitors Attempt to reduce or

taper corticosteroid dose

Nursing Managment

Prevent injuryIncreased protein, calcium

and vitamin D in dietMedical asepsisMonitor blood glucoseModerate activity with rest

periodsProvide restful

environment

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Nursing Process: The Care of the Patient with Cushing’s Syndrome

AssessmentActivity level and ability to carry out self-careSkin assessmentChanges in physical appearance and patient responses

to these changesMental functionEmotional statusMedications

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Nursing Process: The Care of the Patient with Cushing’s Syndrome—

DiagnosesRisk for injuryRisk for infectionSelf-care deficitImpaired skin integrityDisturbed body imageDisturbed thought processes

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Collaborative Problems/Potential Complications

Addisonian crisisAdverse effects of adrenocortical activity

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Nursing Process: The Care of the Patient with Cushing’s Syndrome

Planning: Goals may include 1. Decreased risk of injury, 2. Decreased risk of infection, 3. Increased ability to carry out self-care activities, 4. Improved skin integrity, 5. Improved body image, 6. Improved mental function, and 7. Absence of complications

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InterventionsDecrease risk of injury; establish a protective environment;

assist as needed; encourage diet high in protein, calcium, and vitamin D.

Decrease risk of infection; avoid exposure to infections, assess patient carefully as corticosteroids mask signs of infection.

Plan and space rest and activity.Meticulous skin care and frequent, careful skin assessment.Explanation to the patient and family about causes of

emotional instability. Patient teaching.

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Diabetes InsipidusA disorder of the posterior lobe of the pituitary gland

that is characterized by a deficiency of ADH (vasopressin). Excessive thirst (polydipsia) and large volumes of dilute urine.

It may occur secondary to head trauma, brain tumor, or surgical ablation or irradiation of the pituitary gland, infections of the central nervous system or with tumors

Another cause of diabetes insipidus is failure of the renal tubules to respond to ADH

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Medical Management

The objectives of therapy are 1. to replace ADH (which is usually a long-term

therapeutic program), 2. to ensure adequate fluid replacement, and 3. to identify and correct the underlying

intracranial pathology.

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