chapter eight educational psychology: developing learners 6th edition jeanne ellis ormrod...

CHAPTER EIGHTEDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY:

DEVELOPING LEARNERS6TH EDITION

JEANNE ELLIS ORMROD

Higher-Level Cognitive Processes

Cognitive Processes

The ideal classroom regularly encourages both lower-level and higher-level cognitive processes. Lower-level cognitive processes include using

basic facts and skills. Higher-level cognitive processes are those in

which people do something fairly complex with what they are learning.

Jeanne Ellis OrmrodEducational Psychology: Developing Learners, sixth edition

Metacognition

The knowledge and beliefs about one’s own cognitive processes and one’s resulting attempts to regulate those cognitive processes to maximize learning and memory

The greater metacognitive awareness students have, the more likely they are to use effective strategies and have high achievement.

Metacognition

Metacognition includes planning, monitoring, and evaluating.

Reflecting on the nature of thinking and learning Knowing limits of one’s own skills Monitoring one’s own knowledge and

comprehension to monitor whether information has been successfully learned

Using effective learning strategies Planning a reasonable approach

Developing Metacognitive Skills

Metacognitive skills can be taught separately from school. Stand-alone programs such as note-taking

workshops and time management workshops Metacognitive skills can be taught within a

subject. Teaching students how to take notes Helping them identify important aspects of

topic/concepts Teaching students how to quiz themselves

Effective Learning Strategies

First, identify important informationSecond, retrieve relevant prior knowledgeThird, take notesFourth, organize informationFifth, elaborate on informationSixth, summarize informationSeventh, monitor comprehension

Factors Affecting Strategy Use

The nature of the task Lower-level thinking tasks don’t require elaborate

strategies. Our knowledge base

Not having relevant prior knowledge negatively impacts the effectiveness of strategies.

Previous comprehension monitoring If we don’t know what didn’t work for us before, we

are likely to continue to use ineffective strategies. Our epistemological beliefs

Understanding the nature of knowledge and learning positively impacts the effectiveness of strategies.

Our motivation Previous instruction in effective study strategies

Knowledge Transfer

Transfer occurs when something a student has learned at one time affects how the student learns or performs in a later situation.

Positive transfer vs. negative transfer Positive: When something we’ve learned before

helps us learn something new Negative: When something we’ve learned

before actually makes it harder for us to learn something new

Knowledge Transfer

Specific transfer vs. general transfer

Specific: What we learned before overlaps with what we’re learning now

General: What we learned before is different in content but still helpful

Factors Affecting Transfer

Amount of instructional time given to transferWhether the original learning was meaningfulLearning of general principles

The more general principles we know, the better

Amount and type of examples givenOpportunities for practiceSimilarity in what we’re learning to what we’ve

learned beforeTime between instruction and applicationBeing able to see the interrelatedness of

subjectsJeanne Ellis OrmrodEducational Psychology: Developing Learners, sixth edition

Problem Solving

Problems that are well-defined are easier to solve than those that are ill-defined. Well-defined problems are characterized by:

Clearly stated goals All information needed to solve the problem Only one correct answer

Problem Solving

Problems that are ill-defined occur more often in the real world than well-defined problems. Ill-defined problems are characterized by:

Unclear goals Missing information Several possible solutions

Problem-Solving Strategies

There are two types of problem-solving strategies Algorithm: Solving problems by following a prescribed

sequence of steps Heuristic: A general strategy that facilitates problem

solving

Effective Problem Solving

Cognitive factors that impact problem solving: Capacity of working memory Problem encoding Depth and integration of relevant knowledge Long-term memory retrieval Metacognitive processes

Promoting Problem-Solving Skills

Teach important topics in depthTie class material to what students

already knowGive students practice in dealing with ill-

defined problems and show them how to better define such problems

Help students automatize basic skillsProvide opportunities for applicationMake school tasks relevant to students’

livesAsk students to apply what they know in

tests and other assessmentsJeanne Ellis OrmrodEducational Psychology: Developing Learners, sixth edition

Creativity

What is creativity? Ability to produce work that is original but

appropriate, productive, and useful

Intelligence vs. creativity They are two separate abilities:

Tasks on intelligence tests involve convergent thinking.

Creativity involves divergent thinking.

Strategies for Fostering Creativity

Show students that creativity is valued by reserving judgment and encouraging play

Focus on internal rather than external rewards

Promote mastery of subject areaAsk thought-provoking questionsProvide the time that creativity requiresGive students the freedom and security

they need to take risks

Critical Thinking

Critical thinking is the process of evaluating the accuracy and worth of information and lines of reasoning.

It involves: Verbal reasoning: Understanding and evaluating

persuasive techniques found in oral and written language

Argument analysis: Discriminating between reasons that do not support a conclusion

Probabilistic reasoning: Determining the likelihood and uncertainties associated with various events

Hypothesis testing: Judging the value of data and research results in terms of the methods used to obtain them and their potential relevance to certain conclusions

Strategies That Foster Critical Thinking

Teach elements of critical thinkingEncourage intellectual skepticismModel critical thinkingGive students opportunities to practice Ask questions that encourage critical

thinkingHave students debate controversial

issuesEmbed critical thinking skills within the

context of authentic activities

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