coherence in english as a second language
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COHERENCE IN ENGLISH AS A SECOND LANGUAGE
UNDERGRADUATE WRITING: A THEME-RHEME ANALYSIS
_______________
A Thesis
Presented to the
Faculty of
San Diego State University
_______________
In Partial Fulfillment
of the Requirements for the Degree
Master of Arts
in
Linguistics
_______________
by
Vickie D. Mellos
Summer 2011
iv
ABSTRACT OF THE THESIS
Coherence in English as a Second Language Undergraduate
Writing: A Theme-Rheme Analysis
by
Vickie D. Mellos
Master of Arts in Linguistics
San Diego State University, 2011
Coherence is a key attribute of successful undergraduate writing. When a student
produces a text which is difficult for a reader to follow, the success of their writing is
compromised regardless of the merit of their ideas. While English as a Second Language
(ESL) writing instruction tends to focus on coherence problems related to grammatical errors
or cohesive devices, ESL teachers lack a systematic way to address discourse-level
coherence in the classroom. Previous studies have shown that Systemic Functional
Linguistics, and in particular the theme-rheme analytical framework, can be used to identify
cohesion and coherence difficulties in student writing and should be incorporated into writing
curricula. However, very few studies have analyzed more than one or two student essays in
their research and only offer theoretical advice on how to incorporate the theme-rheme
analytical framework into the classroom. This thesis analyzed the theme and rheme patterns
in eight undergraduate ESL essays, four of which were evaluated as being high in coherence
and four of which scored low, in order to explore whether the theme-rheme choices can
characterize coherence in writing. The study found that high scoring coherent essays employ
dense and complex nominal groups in ideational themes, a wide variety of textual themes,
and different forms of thematic progression to establish connections between different parts
of the text and comment on abstract ideas relevant to the topic. In contrast, low scoring
papers frequently overuse unmarked themes of simple nominal groups or pronouns and
overuse theme reiteration in a way that makes the text difficult to follow and appear to lack
development. Based on the results of the study, specific teaching materials were created to
provide a model of how the theme-rheme analytical framework can be incorporated into an
academic writing curriculum.
v
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PAGE
ABSTRACT ............................................................................................................................. iv
LIST OF TABLES .................................................................................................................. vii
LIST OF FIGURES ............................................................................................................... viii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ..................................................................................................... ix
CHAPTER
1 INTRODUCTION .........................................................................................................1
2 BACKGROUND ...........................................................................................................6
Systemic Functional Linguistics ..............................................................................6
Theme-Rheme ..........................................................................................................7
Literature Review...................................................................................................14
3 METHODOLOGY ......................................................................................................23
The Course .............................................................................................................23
The Student Population ..........................................................................................24
The Assignment .....................................................................................................25
The Grading ...........................................................................................................26
The Analysis ..........................................................................................................27
4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION ..................................................................................33
Theme Types ..........................................................................................................33
Unmarked Ideational Themes ..........................................................................33
Marked Ideational Themes ..............................................................................38
Interpersonal Themes .......................................................................................41
Textual Themes ................................................................................................44
Thematic Progression.............................................................................................49
Theme Reiteration ............................................................................................50
Zig-Zag Pattern ................................................................................................53
Multiple-Rheme Pattern ...................................................................................56
Summary ................................................................................................................61
vi
5 THEME-RHEME TEACHING MATERIALS ...........................................................63
Introduction ............................................................................................................63
The Theme-Rheme Lesson ....................................................................................64
Introduction to Coherence and Theme-Rheme ................................................64
Analysis of Authentic and Model Texts ..........................................................65
Introduction to Theme-Rheme Patterns ...........................................................66
Analysis of Theme Patterns in Student Texts ..................................................67
Application to the Students‘ Writing ...............................................................68
Conclusion .............................................................................................................69
6 CONCLUSIONS..........................................................................................................70
REFERENCES ........................................................................................................................73
APPENDIX
A ESSAY PROMPT ........................................................................................................76
B SCORING CHART .....................................................................................................78
C THEME-RHEME TEACHING MATERIALS ...........................................................80
vii
LIST OF TABLES
PAGE
Table 1. Theme Types..............................................................................................................33
Table 2. Marked Themes .........................................................................................................38
Table 3. Textual Themes in the Student Texts ........................................................................44
Table 4. Thematic Progression ................................................................................................50
viii
LIST OF FIGURES
PAGE
Figure 1. Theme reiteration......................................................................................................10
Figure 2. The zig-zag pattern.. .................................................................................................12
Figure 3. The multiple-rheme pattern. .....................................................................................13
ix
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
First, I would like to thank all the excellent professors at SDSU for teaching me so
much in their courses. Through their instruction, not only did my passion for teaching
English grow, but I also acquired a deep interest in and appreciation for the field of
Linguistics.
I especially would like to thank Dr. Betty Samraj for all her patience and guidance
during the process of writing my thesis and other coursework. Dr. Samraj challenged me to
be a better student and a better writer and to her I owe a great deal. In addition, I am thankful
to Dr. Gregory Keating for his helpful comments on my thesis.
I am also indebted to Dr. Deborah Poole and Professor Julie Williams. I would like to
thank Dr. Poole for giving me the opportunity to teach ESL undergraduate writing and all of
her encouragement. I am also thankful to Julie Williams for allowing me the opportunity to
work with her and the support she gave me during the writing of my thesis. The meetings and
observations improved my lesson planning and helped me become a better teacher. This
teaching experience at SDSU has reaffirmed my belief that collaboration amongst teachers is
essential and truly improves instruction.
Finally, I would like to thank my family for all their love and support during my
studies. Without them, I may not have had the same opportunities to further my education
and professional development. I am truly blessed to have such a loving and extraordinary
family.
1
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
Coherence in academic writing has been identified as a challenge for English as a
Second Language (ESL) undergraduates (Bloor & Bloor, 1992; Cheng, 2008; Ho, 2009;
Lee, 2000, 2002; Vande Kopple, 1991; Wang, 2007). Lack of text coherence has been a
cause for concern for teachers of native speakers (NS) of English (Bamberg, 1983; Vande
Kopple, 1991; Witte & Faigley, 1981) in addition to teachers of non-native speakers
(NNS) of English. Although coherence is considered fundamental to the success of a
paper, it is ―difficult to teach and difficult to learn‖ because it is seen as ―an abstract and
fuzzy concept‖ (Lee, 2002, p. 135).
In composition studies a coherent text was traditionally characterized as a text
with tightly connected sentences creating autonomous paragraphs, which in turn were
connected with transition devices (Bain, 1890). A limitation with this characterization is
that many problems in writing not only involve sentence connections and paragraph
unity, but also discourse unity (Bamberg, 1983; Lee, 2002). In order to address this,
composition studies have drawn from the emerging linguistic theories in discourse, such
as Halliday and Hasan‘s (1976) taxonomy of cohesion in English. Halliday and Hasan‘s
(1976) interpretation of cohesion was similar to Bain‘s definition of coherence but
differed in that text connectivity was not seen as being limited to adjacent sentences, but
also included ties that extend throughout a text that bind larger chunks of discourse
(Bamberg, 1983; Witte & Faigley, 1981). However, studies applying Halliday & Hasan‘s
taxonomy to student writing found cohesion to be a limited means in identifying
coherence (Witte & Faigley, 1981; Stotsky, 1983; Khalil, 1989). The studies concluded
that while cohesion can contribute to coherence, it is not a determining factor because
cohesive papers can be incoherent (Bamberg, 1983; Khalil, 1989; Witte & Faigley,
1981).
In Witte and Faigley‘s (1981) analysis of cohesive ties in NS college freshman
essays, they concluded that analyzing cohesion was not enough to determine writing
2
quality and that broader issues of coherence needed to be addressed. Therefore, they
sought to clearly define and differentiate cohesion and coherence, with cohesion referring
to the ties that bind a text and coherence referring to what makes a text understood in the
real world. More specifically, they argued that a text is coherent when it is appropriate for
a particular context, which includes the following factors: ―the writer‘s purpose, the
audience‘s knowledge and expectations, and the information to be conveyed‖ (Witte &
Faigley, 1981, p. 202).
The understanding that cohesion is only one element of coherence was further
supported by Khalil (1989) in his analysis of cohesion and coherence in Arab English as
a Foreign Language (EFL) writing. Seeking to investigate the relationship between
cohesion and coherence, twenty freshman EFL texts were analyzed for cohesion in terms
of Halliday and Hasan‘s (1976) cohesion theory and for coherence in terms of Grice‘s
(1975) Cooperative Principle with the maxims of relevance, quantity, and manner. The
study found that the correlation between cohesion and coherence was weak, which was
consistent with Witte & Faigley‘s (1981) conclusion that cohesion is only one aspect of
coherence. Khalil‘s evaluation of coherence using Grice‘s Cooperative Principle also
shows that it may be useful to view text coherence as interaction between the reader and
writer.
Bamberg‘s (1983) analysis of NS high school writing also differentiated
coherence and cohesion, linking coherence to the broader context. Drawing from van
Dijk‘s (1980) theories on coherence, Bamberg evaluated essays written for the National
Assessment of Educational Progress for coherence on two levels: (1) ―local‖ (sentence)
coherence (van Dijk‘s (1980) term for cohesion) and (2) ―global‖ (discourse) coherence.
The study concluded that the absence of ―local‖ (sentence level) coherence was mostly
the result of mechanical and grammatical errors, which interfere with the processing of
sentences and the broader message of a text (Bamberg, 1983). On the other hand, lack of
―global‖ (discourse level) coherence was due to the failure to announce the topic, to
establish the context, and to select an adequate organizational plan. In addition, Bamberg
(1983) found that lack of overall coherence was the result of writers not determining the
main focus of an essay and being uncertain about the relationship among ideas. Bamberg
(1983, p. 425) argued that these problems are often due to creating a ―‗writer-based‘‖
3
prose (Flower, 1979), which fails to take into account the reader‘s needs and purpose in
reading. Overall, previous research indicates that coherence is not only related to surface
structures and cohesion, but is also context-bound and related to the reader‘s expectations
and knowledge.
While studies have shown that cohesion is only one element of coherence, ESL
writing instruction often continues to focus on teaching students how to use cohesive ties
and lacks a systematic way to teach coherence (Lee, 2002; Witte & Faigley, 1981).
Textbook and other instructional materials customarily include a chapter or unit on
formulaic cohesive ties, resulting in exactly what is taught: formulaic essays. While
cohesive devices such as coordinating conjunctions and conjunctive adverbs create
―local‖ coherence, they fail to address ―global‖ coherence (van Dijk, 1980; Bamberg,
1983). What research suggests is that coherence problems require attention at the level of
the whole discourse and not only at the level of the sentence (Bamberg, 1983; Witte &
Faigley, 1981).
Recently there have been attempts to create systematic ways of identifying and
teaching coherence in writing. Lee (2000, 2002) created a framework which characterizes
coherence as containing six identifiable elements: (1) purpose, audience, and context of
situation; (2) macrostructure; (3) information distribution; (4) propositional development;
(5) cohesion; and (6) metadiscourse. These ―text- and reader-based elements‖ (Lee, 2000,
p. 353) became the framework for tasks from which ESL students developed a meta-
awareness of coherence through text analysis.
Studies have also drawn on Systemic Functional Linguistics (SFL) (Eggins, 2004)
to analyze coherence in students‘ writing (Bloor & Bloor, 1992; Cheng, 2008; Christie &
Dreyfus, 2007; Ho, 2009; Schleppegrell, 2004, 2009; Vande Kopple, 1991; Wang, 2007).
SFL is especially suitable for analyzing coherence because it is concerned with the
relationship between language and its functions in social settings. SFL states that three
kinds of meaning are encoded in language known as metafunctions (semantic functions):
(1) ideational (content), (2) interpersonal (role relationships), and (3) textual
(organization) (Eggins, 2004; Halliday, 1985). The textual metafunction captures in many
senses what previous research has characterized as coherence: how a text is organized to
make it effective for its purpose and context. The framework used for analyzing the
4
textual metafunction in both spoken and written discourse is theme-rheme (Eggins, 2004;
Halliday, 1985).
Several studies have illustrated the usefulness of theme-rheme analysis as a tool to
characterize student writing as successful or less successful in terms of coherence. Bloor
and Bloor (1992) applied Halliday‘s (1985) dimensions of thematic structure (theme-
rheme) and information structure (given-new) to the written work of postgraduate
overseas students in Great Britain to reveal why weaker texts present information in a
way that cannot be easily processed by the reader. Similarly, Wang‘s (2007) theme-
rheme analysis of an ESL undergraduate essay revealed cohesion problems based on the
inappropriate management of old and new information. In addition to information
structure, theme-rheme analysis has been applied to student writing to reveal problems
with topic development and text flow (Christie & Dreyfus, 2007; Schleppegrell, 2004,
2009; Vande Kopple, 1991; Wang, 2007).
While studies have illustrated the usefulness of observing theme and rheme
choices to identify English students‘ and ESL students‘ writing difficulties (Bloor &
Bloor, 1992; Christie & Dreyfus, 2007; Schleppegrell, 2004, 2009; Vande Kopple, 1991;
Wang, 2007), very few studies have analyzed more than one or two student essays in
their research. Another gap in the research is that many studies suggest that the theme-
rheme framework can be applied to teaching students to write more cohesively and
coherently (Bloor & Bloor, 1992; Christie & Dreyfus, 2007; Schleppegrell, 2004, 2009;
Vande Kopple, 1991; Wang, 2007), but offer little more than theoretical advice, with the
exception of Schleppegrell (2009). Most studies that discuss the pedagogical potential of
theme-rheme analysis only do so in the larger context of genre-based pedagogy (Cheng,
2008; Ho, 2009; Lee, 2000, 2002) and offer minimal guidance on how to incorporate
theme-rheme analysis in an ESL classroom.
In the present study, I analyzed ESL essays evaluated as being high and low in
coherence by using the analytical framework of theme-rheme of SFL (Eggins, 2004;
Halliday, 1985). Eight papers were selected from an ESL undergraduate academic
writing course at San Diego State University (SDSU) I taught in Spring 2010, four of
which received high scores for text organization and transitions, and four of which scored
low. The purpose was to explore if theme-rheme choices can indicate writing coherence
5
difficulties, and if these difficulties are systematic and not particular to one or two
students. In addition, specific teaching materials were developed based on theme and
rheme choices that teachers can use in ESL undergraduate writing courses to promote
student awareness of sentence-level choices that can affect the coherence of their writing.
The research questions that guided the study were:
1. What does a theme-rheme analysis of ESL undergraduate writing reveal?
2. How do theme and rheme choices differ among stronger and weaker papers?
3. How can the theme-rheme framework be used to teach coherence in the
classroom?
Overall, the goals of this research were to identify ESL learner difficulties in
writing coherently and to create teaching materials that build students‘ meta-awareness of
coherence. The ultimate aim is to help students become better at writing coherent
academic texts so they are successful in the university and, ultimately, in their
professional lives. Given that the ability to write coherently is fundamental to academic
success, the methods teachers can use to guide their students in this area are worthy of
study.
The following chapter will provide an overview of the theoretical framework of
SFL and other relevant literature that informed this study. Chapter 3 will discuss the
methodology used in this study. Chapter 4 will discuss the results of the theme-rheme
analysis. Chapter 5 will present teaching materials informed by this study. Finally,
Chapter 6 will provide an overview of the study and make suggestions for further
research.
6
CHAPTER 2
BACKGROUND
This chapter will describe Systemic Functional Linguistics (SFL), the theoretical
foundation of the present study, and theme-rheme, the analytical framework that will be
applied to the student essays. Next, I will review some studies which have utilized theme-
rheme as a tool to analyze writing from various perspectives. Studies have analyzed
theme and rheme choices to gain a deeper understanding of the characteristics of ‗expert‘
writing and student writing. Studies focusing on the developmental writing of students
have used qualitative methods to compare low and high scoring essays through theme-
rheme and thematic development analyses. The studies have shown that the theme-rheme
framework can be used to identify coherence and cohesion in student writing and can
potentially be taught to students to improve their writing skills.
SYSTEMIC FUNCTIONAL LINGUISTICS
Systemic Functional Linguistics, primarily developed by Michael Halliday,
examines language from a functional-semantic approach (Eggins, 2004; Halliday, 1985).
The aim of this theory is to understand the nature of texts through the analysis of texts in
their cultural and social contexts. The four main theoretical claims of SFL are (1)
language is functional, (2) its function is to make meanings (semantic), (3) these
meanings are influenced by social and cultural contexts, and (4) the process of using
language is semiotic (Eggins, 2004, p. 3).
In this functional-semantic theory, language is believed to carry three kinds of
simultaneous meanings: ideational, interpersonal, and textual. Ideational meaning refers
to the ‗real world‘ and how we represent experience in language while interpersonal
meaning expresses the writer‘s role relationships with others and people‘s attitudes
toward each other (Eggins, 2004, p.11). Textual meaning refers to the organization of a
written or spoken text. These three strands of meaning are all expressed simultaneously in
units of language, such as texts, paragraphs, sentences, and clauses.
7
In SFL, the context of a linguistic event is examined in order to understand the
different kinds of meanings and answer functional questions about language. Texts are
seen as being connected to context at two levels: register and genre. The register of
language is determined by three factors: (1) field (the topic of focus of an activity), (2)
tenor (the relationships between participants), and (3) mode (the channel of
communication, whether written or spoken) (Eggins, 2004, p. 9). Genre, also central to
understanding context, refers to the staged and structured way people in a culture use
language to achieve a particular goal (Eggins, 2004, p. 9-10).
SFL is distinctive because it has developed both a theory about language as a
social process and a methodology to analyze language patterns (Eggins, 2004, p. 21).
There are three main analytical tools to identify parts of a lexico-grammar in which
meaning is expressed (Eggins, 2004, p. 110). First, the field of a text, which carries
ideational meaning, can be analyzed through transitivity patterns. Second, the tenor of a
text, which expresses interpersonal meanings, can be identified through mood analysis.
Third, the mode of the text, typically associated with textual meanings, is analyzed
through theme patterns. These analytical tools or grammatical resources provide a
systematic way to identify each type of meaning and register, which ultimately helps
people gain a better understanding of language. These analytical tools have been applied
to a range of fields such as from child language development, to media discourse, to
language education (Eggins, 2004, p.2), which is the focus of the present study.
THEME-RHEME
The textual metafunction, one of the three strands of meaning associated with the
mode of the text, is concerned with the organization of a clause given its purpose and its
context (Eggins, 2004, p. 298). The grammar which identifies the lexico-grammatical
elements of this strand of meaning is theme-rheme. The theme of a sentence is the
starting point of a message signaling what the message is going to be about, while the
rheme is everything that comes after the theme (Eggins, 2004). The rheme is the part of
the message which develops the theme (Halliday, 1985). In example 1, the theme and
rheme structures are identified in a sentence from a student text.
8
(1) Student 2
Theme Rheme
Stock is not a mature reasoner*
Often, the theme is given information (familiar to the hearer or from the context)
and the rheme consists of new information. Although theme-rheme might be equated
with the topic-focus in the terms of information structure (old/given vs. new), they are
distinct. Fries (1995) notes that the theme is not the topic but rather ―orients the
listener/reader to the message that is about to be perceived and provides a framework for
the interpretation of that message‖ (p. 318).
The theme and rheme may or may not be conflated with the subject and predicate
of a sentence as in example 1. In example 2, the theme is realized as a circumstantial
adjunct (e.g. prepositional phrase or adverb).
(2) Student 6
Theme Rheme
In the article,
“Choosing Our
Genes,”
Stock writes that technological advances will bring
meaningful changes to our offspring and scientific
revolutions that may make fundamental changes in the
human species.
When the theme is the grammatical subject of the sentence, it is unmarked;
otherwise, it is marked, as in the case of a circumstantial adjunct in example 2.
In addition to markedness, themes are categorized according to their function:
ideational, interpersonal, or textual. Ideational themes are the first constituent which can
receive a transitivity role, such as participant, process, and circumstance. Every sentence
must have one and only one ideational theme, which may be marked or unmarked;
however, interpersonal and textual themes may or may not appear in a sentence.
Interpersonal themes express the writer‘s or speaker‘s attitude and establish role
relations, as illustrated in example 3. Interpersonal themes are finite verbs in
interrogative structures (e.g. Do you like apples?) and modal adjuncts (e.g. probably,
evidently, unfortunately) in declarative structures.
* All examples are from the students‘ essays from the present study, unless noted otherwise.
9
(3) Student 9
Interpersonal
Theme
Ideational
Theme
Rheme
In my
opinion,
Stock is not open to criticism, because he only presents and
defends what he believes is the correct position.
Textual themes relate clauses to the preceding text and the situational context and
enable writers to produce cohesive texts. Textual themes are identified as continuatives
(e.g. well, yes, now), conjunctive adjuncts (e.g. however), and coordinating and
subordinating conjunctions (e.g. and, although), such as the phrase in bold in example 4.
(4) Student 10
Textual
Theme
Ideational
Theme
Rheme
In
addition,
he argues that Germinal Choice Technologies are beneficial to
human beings because they will help to find the causes of
many diseases.
Theme choices can vary since there is a choice of including interpersonal and textual
themes, single or multiple themes, and marked and unmarked themes. Theme choices are
often related to the mode of a text, whether it is spoken or written language. Spoken texts
tend to use personal pronouns and names for the ideational theme and more unmarked
themes while written texts tend to contain lengthy ideational themes (nominalizations)
and marked themes (Eggins, 2004, p. 322-323).
Eggins (2004) notes that one of the most significant contributions of analyzing the
ideational, interpersonal, and textual theme choices in a text is that such an analysis offers
insight into the semantic and cohesive structure of a text. She states,
It is because it plays this essential semantic support role that Halliday refers to
the textual metafunction as the enabling function of language. Textual
choices, such as Theme, do not introduce new content or new interpersonal
dimensions into a text. But textual choices are essential to the text‘s making
sense. The most striking contribution of Thematic choices, then, is to the
internal cohesion of the text: skillful use of Thematic selection results in a text
which appears to hang together and make sense. (p. 321)
In other words, theme choices and the textual strand of meaning ‗enable‘ the ideational
and interpersonal meanings to be realized in coherent and cohesive texts.
10
The coherence and cohesion of a text can also be analyzed according to the
succession of themes across sentences and paragraphs. Referred to as thematic
development or thematic progression, three patterns can be observed: (1) theme
reiteration <T-R>, (2) the zig-zag pattern <Z-Z>, and (3) the multiple-rheme pattern
<M-R>.
When a text uses theme reiteration <T-R>, the same element appears as theme
repeatedly in a text. This pattern is diagrammed in Figure 1.
Figure 1. Theme reiteration.
Example 5 illustrates the theme reiteration pattern in a student text.
(5) Student 6
Ideational Theme Rheme
In his article,
―Choosing Our
Genes,‖
Stock claims that genetic engineering will improve the health of
children so it should not be banned.
He believes we will have the technology to change humans genetically.
He <T-R> thinks we will use this science.
He <T-R> thinks we should look toward the future and make decisions about
how this knowledge should be used.
Stock <T-R> contends that technological advances will allow scientists to
identify, isolate, and modify our genes.
In example 5, cohesion is created through the repetition of the ideational theme
(Stock or he). Having the same participant made theme multiple times can provide the
text with a clear focus. However, as in example 5, repetition can also create a sense of
monotony, deter text flow, and prevent topic development. As the theme is the point of
departure, when it is continuously exactly the same, the author is always leaving the same
spot and never developing the information in the rheme (Eggins, 2004).
Sentence 1 Theme Rheme
Sentence 2 Theme Rheme
Sentence 3 Theme Rheme
11
Theme reiteration can also be exploited to create a strong topical focus in a text
(Eggins, 2004). The theme reiteration pattern not only occurs when the exact theme or
pronoun (e.g. Stock or he) appears in a text, but also includes instances when a theme gets
made thematic in association with other elements, such as nominalizations, as in
example 6.
(6) Student 1
Textual
Theme
Ideational Theme Rheme
Stock also shows that he has knowledge of his
argument‘s context by sharing his expertise in
genetic engineering with the readers.
His credentials <T-R> speak for his years of dedication in genetic
sciences, which includes his position as the
director of the Program on Medicine, Technology,
and Society at UCLA and being widely recognized
as one of the prominent speakers for genetic
evolution (Speakers Platform Keynote Speakers
Bureau).
Since Stock advocates
that genetic engineering
would only improve
humans‘ lives, <T-R>
he believes it is only logical to promote its
development rather than impede it.
He <T-R> also shares his knowledge and expertise about
genetic engineering and the increased progress of
scientists‘ work worldwide, which the United
States should also be a part of (Stock 666).
Hence, his credentials and
knowledge in genetic
engineering <T-R>
substantially supports his claim and refutations.
(S1)
In example 6, theme reiteration is exploited with greater complexity than in
example 5. The initial theme Stock is made thematic in later themes not through exact
repetition but in combination with other elements, such as his credentials and knowledge
in genetic engineering. When theme reiteration is used in this way, the text retains a
strong topical focus and avoids monotonous repetition.
The zig-zag pattern of development <Z-Z> occurs when an element in the rheme
of clause one gets introduced into the theme of clause two, as illustrated
diagrammatically in Figure 2.
12
Figure 2. The zig-zag pattern. Source: Eggins,
S. (2004). An introduction to systemic functional
linguistics. London, England: Continuum.
Example 7 illustrates the zig-zag pattern in a student text.
(7) Student 2
Ideational Theme Rheme
The Futurist is a journal targeting such readers who are concerned about issues
people will face in the future. <Z-Z>
These issues are various, ranging from environmental problems to ethical and
social subjects.
The rheme in sentence one (issues people will face in the future) gets reintroduced in the
theme of sentence two. The zig-zag pattern gives texts a sense of cumulative
development because new information in successive clauses becomes the point of
departure of later clauses, allowing new information to be further developed.
The third thematic pattern, multiple-rheme pattern <M-R>, occurs when the
theme of one clause introduces a number of different pieces of information, each of
which is made theme in subsequent clauses in a paragraph or an entire text. This pattern
is diagrammed in Figure 3.
Example 8 provides an example of how the multiple-rheme pattern appeared in a
student text.
The first sentence signals two points (two reasons) that will be picked up in
subsequent sentences (First and Second). In example 8, the multiple-rheme pattern
organizes a paragraph, but this pattern can occur across paragraphs, which will be
discussed further in Chapter 4.
Sentence 1 Theme Rheme
Sentence 2 Theme Rheme
Sentence 3 Theme Rheme
13
Figure 3. The multiple-rheme pattern. Source: Eggins, S. (2004).
An introduction to systemic functional linguistics. London,
England: Continuum
(8) Student 3
Textual Theme Ideational Theme Rheme
In his article, Stock gives two reasons <M-R> to
support his claim.
First, <M-R> he suggests that genetic engineering will
prevent diseases.
In the article, Stock refers to some recent studies that
suggest that Down syndrome children
have a great percentage in decrease in
occurrence of many cancers.
Stock argues that there is likelihood that ―the
trisomy 21 in children with Down
syndrome may be protective against
cancer‖ (663).
Identifying what genes
―are responsible for the
protection against
cancer‖, and ―placing
them on an artificial
chromosome‖, and
―adding it to an embryo‖
might ―reduce the occurrence of cancer,‖
according to Stock (663).
Second, <M-R> he also suggests that genetic engineering
will enhance the ―physical or mental
well-being of children‖ (664).
For instance, Stock argues that genetic engineering
interventions may ―improve a child‘s
beauty, intelligence, strength, altruism,
and other qualities‖ (664).
Sentence 1 Theme Rheme
Sentence 3 Theme Rheme
Sentence 2 Theme Rheme
Sentence 4 Theme Rheme
A)
B)
C)
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LITERATURE REVIEW
The theme-rheme structure and thematic progression of a text have been analyzed
in various texts to gain insight into the textual strand of meaning, the textual
metafunction. In written texts, theme-rheme has been useful in deepening our
understanding of how texts are organized to enable ideational and interpersonal meanings
to be realized. In this section, I will review studies which have analyzed the theme-rheme
patterns of written discouse. Research in the theme-rheme patterns of the ‗expert‘ writing
of academics have provided insight into the organization of research articles (RAs)
whereas studies examining the thematic patterns of student texts have been useful in
characterizing well-written and less successful papers and understanding how cohesion
and coherence can be achieved through the effective organization of themes in a text.
The theme-rheme framework has been applied to analyzing research articles to
gain insight into the nature of academic genres. Studies have provided textual evidence of
significant differences in theme and rheme choices and information management in texts
across disciplines. Lovejoy and Lance (1991) outline a descriptive model for the analysis
of information management and cohesion in written discourse which was used to
compare published scholarly articles in three disciplines: counseling psychology, biology,
and history. Information management was examined by taking components from studies
in Functional Linguistics (theme-rheme, topic-comment, given-new, and marked-
unmarked) and cohesion was analyzed according to Halliday and Hasan‘s (1976)
taxonomy of cohesion in English and Stotsky‘s (1983) refinements of this taxonomy
(Lovejoy, 1991; Lovejoy & Lance, 1991). The results of the study showed differences in
information management and cohesive strategies between the disciplines, which the
authors suggest can inform composition teachers. The examination of how accomplished
writers and editors master the techniques of managing information and controlling
cohesive ties can be useful to composition teachers in understanding what their students
are required to do in the college classroom (Lovejoy & Lance, 1991, p. 269).
In addition to cross-disciplinary comparisons, studies have applied the theme-
rheme framework to gain better understanding of the conventions of particular
disciplines. Lorés (2004) analyzed RA abstracts in the field of linguistics, comparing the
thematic structure of informative IMRD (Introduction-Methods-Results-Discussion) and
15
indicative CARS (Create a Research Space) type abstracts. The abstracts were examined
using the model devised by Gosden (1993), which includes the grammatical subject as an
obligatory element in thematic analysis and classifies grammatical subjects according to
their semantic roles. She also analyzed thematic progression (TP), following Daneš‘
(1974) model.* The results of the study showed that both the IMRD and CARS types of
abstracts combined linear TPs and constant themes, but not TPs with derived themes, and
that the distribution of thematic progressions was systematic in each type of abstract.
Also, the application of Gosden‘s (1993) model yielded the following results: in the
IMRD abstracts the writer tends to hide behind real world entities and processes while in
CARS abstracts the writer chooses to present himself or herself as a visible participant in
the research community.
The theme-rheme framework has also been used to compare how theme choices
differ across sections of an RA. Martínez (2003) conducted a study comparing the
thematic structure of Methods and Discussion sections of biology RAs. Themes were
analyzed using the categories of SFL in addition to a subclassification of unmarked
themes into semantic categories similar to MacDonald‘s (1994) and Gosden‘s (1993)
classifications. The study showed that the themes in the Methods section consisted of
predominately simple unmarked ideational themes; when there were multiple themes,
they tended to be textual and temporal (e.g. First) (Martínez, 2003, p. 112). In the
Discussion section, there were more multiple themes than in the Methods section;
ideational and textual themes appeared more frequently, and the textual themes tended to
be more adversative (e.g. However) (Martínez, 2003, p. 112). The study also found
differences in the use of marked themes across sections. In the Methods, the marked
themes frequently were circumstances of purpose (e.g. To determine if…) and of time
(e.g. After the process of…) while the marked themes in the Discussion section were
mostly circumstances of place (e.g. In our model) (Martínez, 2003, p. 115). The results
* Daneš (1974): Types of thematic progression (TP):
(1) Single Linear TP: the Rheme of a sentence becomes the Theme of the next sentence.
(2) TP with a constant Theme: the same Theme appears to which different Rhemes are linked.
(3) TP with derived Themes: different Themes are derived from the same Hypertheme.
16
were attributed to the purpose of each section, namely that in Methods, the purpose is to
be descriptive while in the Discussion, it is to be more argumentative. Martínez (2003)
noted that these studies are much needed because many NNS scholars express frustration
with the rejection of their texts for publication, and the lack of insight into the exact
problem with their writing. Overall, theme-rheme studies of published RAs contribute to
our knowledge of disciplinary conventions and can inform teachers of composition.
In addition to published research articles, the theme-rheme framework has been
applied to student writing to examine the degree to which undergraduates acculturate into
their discipline‘s discourse community. In North‘s (2005) study of undergraduate writing
in a history of science course, the essays of students from ‗arts‘ and ‗science‘
backgrounds were compared to observe whether thematic patterns in student essays
reflect disciplinary differentiation. This framework was recognized as appropriate given
that what writers choose to foreground as theme often reflects their ideological and
epistemological positioning (North, 2005, p. 434). The theme-rheme model used in this
study also included the grammatical subject because the study was examining
disciplinary variation and previous studies had shown that subject choices are sensitive to
disciplinary conventions (MacDonald, 1992, 1994). North‘s (2005) theme-rheme
framework differentiated two types of themes: orienting and topical themes. Orienting
themes included textual themes, interpersonal themes, and experiential themes (i.e.
marked ideational themes such as circumstantial adjuncts). Topical themes predominantly
corresponded to the grammatical subject. The study found that students who came from
an ‗arts‘ field were more successful in their writing than ‗science‘ students because they
used orienting themes more frequently, which resulted in their foregrounding knowledge
as a matter of interpretation rather than a matter of fact. The significance of this study
was that the theme-rheme framework was able to identify how undergraduates adopted
the discourse practices of their disciplines, and the way their particular disciplines viewed
how knowledge is constructed.
One of the more frequent applications of theme-rheme has been to analyze the
quality of student writing. Given this framework‘s capacity to capture the organization of
a text and the effective ordering of constituents, it can be especially useful for analyzing
ESL student writing in terms of cohesion and coherence. In order to identify the textual
17
features that characterize effective writing, most studies use qualitative methods such as
comparing the theme patterns of high and low quality student writing or in-depth
analyses of single papers (Bloor & Bloor, 1992; Christie & Dreyfus, 2007; Schleppegrell,
2004; Vande Kopple, 1991; Wang, 2007). However, very few studies have conducted
quantitative studies of the theme and rheme patterns in student writing.
Given that the theme-rheme framework offers insight into the textual strand of
meaning and is connected to the mode of a text, whether it is spoken and written, this
framework can be beneficial in research on student writing given that part of academic
development is the transition from spoken to written discourse. Schleppegrell (2004) used
theme-rheme, among other analytical frameworks of SFL, to analyze the difficulties
students face in acquiring academic language in secondary school by comparing it to
informal speech. In informal conversation, texts are co-created by the interlocutors and
pronomials are frequently used while in academic writing meaning is not co-created
between interlocutors and requires different grammatical strategies (Eggins, 2004, p. 323;
Schleppegrel, 2004, p. 63). In contrast to speech, theme choices in scholarly writing often
involve abstractions, such as nominalizations, appropriate conjunctions (textual themes),
and thematic development (zig-zag progression) (Eggins, 2004, p. 323; Schleppegrel,
2004, p. 63). As students transition from informal spoken to scholarly written discourse
communities, one of the challenges becomes learning how to effectively exploit the
theme position of a sentence to create coherent texts.
In studies comparing successful and less successful student writing, common
theme and rheme patterns have been identified. One frequent problem of inexperienced
writers is the failure to control a text‘s information structure, where old or given
information usually appears in the theme and new information in the rheme. In spoken
interaction, there are more opportunities to negotiate meaning if the information is not
shared or given between the interlocutors (Bloor & Bloor, 1992, p. 34). However, in
written discourse, immediate repair of meaning is not available which makes it all the
more important for the writer to carefully predict what information is given and new, and
use the appropriate linguistic devices to position them appropriately in a sentence. In
Bloor and Bloor‘s (1992) theme-rheme analysis of the writing of postgraduate overseas
students in Great Britain, three common problems were found: (1) the problem of brand
18
new theme (new information is put in the theme) (2) the problem of double rheme, (a
sentence with multiple rhemes has old information in one of the rhemes), and (3) the
problem of empty rheme (the rheme contains old information). In Wang‘s (2007) theme-
rheme analysis of an essay by a Chinese university student, problematic sections of the
writing were found to be due to themes carrying new information and rhemes carrying
old information, which was consistent with Bloor and Bloor‘s (1992) findings. Overall,
these studies indicate that the mismanagement of given and new elements deters text
flow, and can make a text incoherent for a reader.
Along the same lines, Vande Kopple (1991) suggested that ideational themes
lacking connections can also make a text incoherent. Using data from previous studies
(Cooper, 1988; Stubbs, 1983) and student writing, he argued that skilled writers use the
ideational themes to signal to the reader ―to focus on identical things, related things, and
some things that can be inferred from others‖ (Vande Kopple, 1991, p. 332). Connections
between themes make a text coherent because readers store information in a similar way,
by placing related information in groups and hierarchies (Vande Kopple, 1991, p. 332).
Another important factor in developing coherence in academic prose is the
appropriate use of textual themes. Studies have found that a wider range and number of
textual themes are employed in more successful academic writing. Schleppegrell (2004)
pointed out that since students are accustomed to using a limited set of conjunctions in
speech (e.g. but, because), one challenge students face is learning to make use of a wide
variety of conjunctions in academic discourse (e.g. however, nevertheless). Vande
Kopple (1991, p. 332) also notes that one factor contributing to the incoherence of a text
is lack of textual themes.
In addition to textual themes, studies have indicated that academic discourse and
successful student writing strategically utilize more marked forms as the point of
departure of a message. Eggins (2004) argued that skillful writers use marked themes to
create links to earlier stages in a text, and to add coherence and emphasis to a text. The
use of marked themes also reflects the strong tendency in academic writing to comment
on abstractions (Eggins, 2004, p. 323). Examining two representative texts of very good
and unsuccessful secondary English writing, Christie and Dreyfus (2007) reported that
more successful papers were able to offer abstract ideas about the texts while the weaker
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papers tended to lean on plot summary. One of the tools students used to make
abstractions was through marked themes, as illustrated in examples 9 and 10. In these
examples, the writer did not foreground the grammatical subjects we and Buffy, but the
movies and texts became the ideational theme because the assignment was to analyze the
texts, not to summarize the events. Christie and Dreyfus (2007, p. 239) also note that
marked themes help shape the direction a text takes as it unfolds.
(9)
Theme Rheme
In both Buffy the Vampire Slayer and
Frankenstein
we can see examples of strong emotions
throughout. (Christie & Dreyfus, 2007, p. 239)
(10)
Theme Rheme
In the episode ‗School hard‘ Buffy is the saviour and the hero to her friends
and mother. (Christie & Dreyfus, 2007, p. 239)
The theme-rheme framework has been applied to student writing to reveal
coherence problems by focusing on thematic development. Studies analyzing thematic
progression have shown that strong writers of academic discourse are able to exploit the
theme position of a sentence by condensing previous information, as in example 11,
which Eggins (2004) refers to as the zig-zag pattern (Christie & Dreyfus, 2007;
Schleppegrell, 2004; Wang, 2007).
(11)
Theme Rheme
Many astronomers now believe that the radio sources inside quasars are objects known
as black holes.
The existence of
black holes
is more or less taken for granted by many astronomers, although no
one has ever seen one. (Schleppegrell, 2004, p. 70)
In example 11, the phrase black holes in the rheme of the first sentence gets
reintroduced in the theme of the second sentence but as a nominalization (the existence of
black holes). Skilled writers exploit this strategy in academic writing so that information
is presented hierarchically. Christie and Dreyfus (2007, p. 242) note that students who
employ zig-zag progression create more organized, developed, and coherent texts: ―The
effect is to build a sense of unfolding of information, moving forward while also harking
back, and building an overall sense of unity of meaning.‖
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The linguistic structures that skilled writers use to create thematic progression are
a challenge for novices. In academic discourse, information is presented in a more
integrated and dense format with embedded and nominal structures (Hyland, 2004;
Schleppegrell, 2004). Often these nominalizations are presented in the theme of a clause,
where information is taken from the rheme of one sentence and then presented in a highly
condensed form in the theme of the following sentence. However, this can pose a
challenge to some students. Schleppegrell notes (2004, p. 65-66), ―A key challenge for
students is to learn to condense meanings in denser clause structures that incorporate
logical relationships rather than stringing together one clause after another with
conjunctions as they do in spoken interaction.‖
In contrast, weak papers tend to lack zig-zag progression and overuse theme
reiteration (where the same element appears as theme repeatedly), resulting in a text that
seems disconnected (Christie & Dreyfus, 2007; Schleppegrell, 2004; Vande Kopple,
1991; Wang, 2007). In Wang‘s (2007) evaluation of a student‘s text, she found that one
problem was the overuse of constant progression. Wang (2007, p. 171) noted that when
the same word appears as theme repeatedly, the effect is that the text reads like a ―list‖
where there is no further development of the rheme. Studies have shown that theme
reiteration is more predominant in spoken discourse (Eggins, 2004; Schleppegrell, 2004).
Overall, functional linguistics, which highlights the linguistic choices that realize
particular kinds of contexts, can help teachers make the demands of academic language
more explicit for students.
In terms of classroom application, Vande Kopple (1991) argued that students can
be taught to use themes in a strategic way so there is continuity in their writing. Some of
the activities Vande Kopple (1991, p. 333) recommended were having students chart
ideational themes, or rewrite texts with scrambled ideational themes. Bloor and Bloor
(1992, p. 41) suggested that more research on how the distribution of old and new
information creates coherence in a text can shed light on this area of student difficulty.
Wang (2007) claimed that theme-rheme is a valuable tool for teachers to diagnose writing
difficulties and students can be taught how to arrange old and new information to help
improve cohesion in their writing. However, the study offers little specific information on
how teachers can go about using it in the classroom. Christie and Dreyfus (2007, p. 245)
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advocated a genre-based approach to teaching, which includes deconstructing genre
models for theme and thematic progression among other things. However, very few
studies have developed and studied teaching materials informed by theme-rheme.
Although not focusing on theme pattern analysis specifically, more recent studies
have investigated the effectiveness of incorporating genre-based pedagogies informed by
SFL into the classroom (Cheng, 2008; Ho, 2009). In these studies, pre- and post-essays
were evaluated before and after genre-based teaching instruction to explore whether this
approach helped students improve their writing. Cheng (2008), focusing on a group of
EFL college freshman in Taiwan, used the following lesson plan: stage one focused on
raising students‘ awareness of contextual variables in genres, such as audience and
communicative intent; stage 2 involved students identifying the schematic moves of a
text; and stage 3 included analyzing the lexico-grammatical features and noticing their
relationship to the situational context. Analyzing theme choices was part of the third
stage. Ho (2009) applied a similar approach, incorporating a systemic textual analysis
method of instruction, which was aimed at raising the learner‘s (an ESL university
student) awareness of a genre‘s schematic moves, clause structure, and thematic
development. Ho (2009) conducted a systemic textual analysis of the student‘s essay
before and after the lessons. The results of both studies found that raising students‘
awareness of discourse and lexico-grammatical features in a text helps students improve
the quality of their writing overall (Cheng, 2008; Ho, 2009). For an ESL teacher, these
studies do not provide enough specific guidance on how theme-rheme can be
incorporated into classroom activities.
The review of literature shows that analyzing the theme choices and patterns in a
text can shed light on the semantic and cohesive structure of a text. Studies have applied
the theme-rheme analytical framework to gain insight into the organization of research
articles and have contributed to our knowledge of disciplinary conventions and can help
NNS scholars improve their quality of writing in addition to informing composition
teachers. Researchers have also investigated the thematic patterns in student writing,
highlighting both effective and ineffective thematic patterns in student texts. These
studies have shed light on how cohesion and coherence can be achieved through the
appropriate organization of themes in a text. However, while the research strongly
22
indicates that the theme-rheme framework can be an invaluable tool for identifying and
teaching coherence, teachers have had little guidance on how to incorporate theme-rheme
instruction into a writing curriculum. By comparing texts with varying levels of
coherence, the present study aims to identify whether theme and rheme choices can
systematically characterize coherence in writing. In addition, this study presents theme-
rheme teaching materials to help students understand coherence and improve their
writing.
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CHAPTER 3
METHODOLOGY
This chapter will discuss the methodology used in this study. First, I will provide
a general background of the student texts analyzed in this study. I will describe the ESL
course, the student population, and the writing prompt for the texts used in this study.
Second, I will discuss how the students‘ essays were graded and selected for the theme-
rheme analysis. Third, I will discuss the categorization used for identifying the different
types of themes and thematic progression in the student texts.
THE COURSE
The texts for this study were drawn from an undergraduate ESL Academic
Reading and Writing (RWS* 281) course I taught in Spring 2010. Students are required to
enroll in RWS 280 or 281 when they receive a score of seven or lower (twelve is the
highest score) on the Writing Proficiency Assessment (WPA), which is part of a
California State University requirement. The exam tests students‘ ability to write at the
upper division level and is taken when students have completed 60 units or when
community college transfer students are in their first semester at SDSU. The exam tests
students‘ ability to analyze and think critically about an academic text, to develop and
organize ideas with evidence and examples, to understand a text‘s intended audience, and
to use clear and precise language through appropriate paragraphing, sentence structure,
grammar, punctuation, and spelling. The students who do not meet these requirements in
the WPA are taught these skills in RWS 280 and 281.
RWS 281 is the equivalent of 280 but specifically designed for students whose
first language is not English. As with RWS 280, the course objectives of RWS 281 are to
teach students how to read and analyze complex academic texts and improve their ability
to plan, draft, revise, and edit essays. What RWS 281 offers in addition is instruction in
* RWS = Rhetoric and Writing Studies
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grammatical features relevant to the L2 population. Given that enrollment is based on a
low scoring writing assessment, the students‘ academic writing skills are frequently
problematic. Many different writing difficulties appear depending on their educational
and cultural background. One writing difficulty is achieving coherence, which makes this
group of student writing an interesting context for investigating theme and rheme
choices.
THE STUDENT POPULATION
The student population in RWS 281 is diverse. During the Spring semester of
2010, the students‘ countries of origin were Korea, Brazil, Georgia, Japan, Jordan,
Colombia, Singapore, Taiwan, and Mexico. Due to San Diego‘s close proximity to the
U.S. - Mexico border, well over 50% of the students were from Mexico. The students‘
levels of English and time in the United States often vary as well. Some students obtain
student visas and come to the U.S. for the specific purpose of studying at SDSU, with
most of their English instruction having been completed abroad in an EFL learning
context. Other students are immigrants who have been in the U.S. for longer than many
exchange students, but feel more comfortable communicating in their L1, which is often
the language they use at home and amongst friends and peers. Often the discourse of
these ESL students is influenced by their L1, which may result in sentence level errors
(e.g. absence of articles, different rules for count/non-count nouns), syntactic variation
(e.g. non-standard word order), and punctuation mistakes (e.g. comma splices).
Another large demographic in RWS 281 has been Generation 1.5 students. These
students have often received most of their education in the United States and may appear
to be fluent English speakers, but they have not acquired ―a complete communicative
range in English‖ (Singhal, 2004, p.1). In particular, many lack the academic English
necessary for university, with their writing resembling informal spoken discourse and the
interlanguage of non-native speakers of English (Singhal, 2004). These students may also
lack the academic register of their L1 because most of their schooling has been completed
in the United States. What sets Generation 1.5 students apart from international students
or more ―traditional‖ ESL students is the virtual absence of any prior grammatical
instruction. As these students are often ―ear learners,‖ the kinds of errors they might
25
make are the omission of the past participle ending –ed and lack of subject-verb
agreement (Singhal, 2004).
THE ASSIGNMENT
In the course, students are required to write a rhetorical analysis and evaluation of
articles on controversial subjects as their first written assignment. During the Spring 2010
semester course, the topic was genetic engineering and the article the students had to
analyze was ―Choosing Our Genes‖ by Gregory Stock (2009). The assignment has two
parts. In part 1, the students conduct a rhetorical analysis of the article, describing the
author (credentials, publications), identifying the claim and reason, providing an audience
analysis, and commenting on text organization. In part 2, the students evaluate the article,
identifying its strengths and weaknesses based on the four criteria of mature reasoning
(being well-informed, being open to constructive criticism, arguing with the audience in
mind, and knowing the context of the argument) (see Appendix A for paper prompt). The
required length of this assignment is approximately four pages. This particular
assignment in many ways is the focus of the class as it resembles the WPA and also is the
prompt for the RWS 281 final exam.
The student texts used in this study consist of the final drafts of the students‘ first
paper assignment described above. The students wrote their first draft in class under
timed conditions. They were given feedback on their writing mostly regarding the content
of their writing and less so on grammatical errors. The students were given one week to
revise and edit their papers and were encouraged to meet with the instructor and tutor for
help in revising their essays. During the one-on-one meetings, the instructor and tutor do
not proofread the students‘ essays but rather guide students to notice frequently occurring
errors, problems with organization, and any other weaknesses in their essay and then
offer suggestions for improvement. In class, activities focus on helping students learn to
revise and edit their own writing so that students develop proofreading skills. For
example, in one activity the teacher compiled common problematic sentences from their
first drafts and the students edited the sentences in small groups and then as a class.
After the students submitted their final draft, the essays were graded by the
instructor. The length of the final drafts ranged from two and a half to five pages. The
26
next section will describe the assessment process for the assignments in RWS 281 and for
this research.
THE GRADING
The students‘ papers are graded according to eight criteria: thesis, organization,
content, transitions, introduction/conclusion, sentence control, diction, and mechanical
issues. Each student essay is given a score on a scale from 1-5 (1/2=Failing,
2/3=Inadequate, 3/4=Satisfactory, 4/5=Good, 5=Excellent) for each of the eight criteria
(see Appendix B for scoring chart). In addition, the student essays are given one holistic
score for the overall quality of the writing based on the assessment of the eight criteria.
After students had received their grades on their final drafts, permission to
participate in my study was requested. Twenty-two students granted permission by
submitting their graded final essays, which I divided into high scoring and low scoring
groups based on their holistic scores; essays which had received holistic scores of 5 or 4
were placed in the high group and those which had holistic scores of 3, 2, or 1 were
placed in the low group.
As grades are not only based on coherence, not all the papers could be used in the
study. Of the eight grading criteria, organization and transitions are two major
contributing factors for coherence. According to the rubric, a high score in transitions is
given to a text whose use of ―transitions signal changes in thought process throughout the
text‖ and ―provide coherence between ideas in paragraphs and sentences‖ (Appendix B).
As for organization, a high score is given to a text whose ―overall structure is clear‖ and
―thought process easy to follow‖ (Appendix B). Therefore, transitions and organization
were deemed appropriate criteria to characterize coherent and less coherent texts. In
addition to transitions and organization, the holistic score was included in the selection of
coherent and incoherent papers.
Out of the twenty-two texts, eight texts were chosen, four from the high group and
four from the low group, based on the transition, organization, and holistic scores. The
four essays in the high group had received a grade of five or four for their organization,
transition, and holistic scores. In the low scoring group, the four essays had received a
grade of three, two, or one for their organization, transition, and holistic scores. The texts
27
were labeled Student 1, Student 2, Student 3, Student 4 for texts in the high group and
Student 5, Student 6, Student 7, and Student 8 for the low group since the names of the
students were removed to protect their privacy. Any grammatical errors found in the
student texts were not corrected.
For each group, I selected texts that had a range of scores in order to discover
whether theme and rheme choices could capture variation in levels of coherence from
very high scoring papers to progressively low scoring papers. As a result of this selection
process, it is important to note that the quantitative results will not reflect a very large
difference between the two groups since each group has a range of scores. However,
selecting texts with a range of scores allows a close examination of the types of theme
and rheme patterns in texts with different levels of coherence.
To ensure inter-rater reliability, two instructors who teach the same course (RWS
281), a graduate student in Applied Linguistics and a lecturer who specializes in ESL
writing instruction, independently graded the essays in order to verify the allocation of
scores. Though the grades were not identical, the scores indicated that from the first essay
to the last, the essays received progressively lower scores; in addition, the first four
essays received passing scores from all graders, in contrast to the last four, which were
below passing. Where there was disagreement on one score, the graders discussed the
essay and reached an agreement on the assessment.
THE ANALYSIS
The eight texts were analyzed using the theme-rheme framework (Halliday 1985;
Eggins, 2004) to examine how coherence can be achieved through the effective
organization of themes in a text. For the purposes of this research, themes were analyzed
at the level of the sentence rather than the clause because the aim of the study was to
examine patterns of thematic development across large amounts of text (North, 2005).
Example 12 illustrates how only the themes in first clause of every sentence were coded.
(12) Student 1
Theme Rheme
He <UM> believes that even though reproductive cloning is banned in the United
States, it would not stop people from other countries to continue with the
research in the next ten years (Stock 665).
28
Themes were categorized as ideational <ID>, textual <TX>, or interpersonal <IN>. The
ideational themes were further categorized as unmarked <UM> and marked <M>.
Unmarked themes are grammatical sentence subjects in declarative clauses, and can be
realized as simple and complex nominal groups. The marked themes were further
subcategorized into type: circumstantial adjunct <CA>, subordinating clause <SC>, and
attributive clause <AC>. Examples 13, 14, and 15 illustrate each type of marked theme.
In addition, textual themes were analyzed for the different kinds of textual themes used.
(13) Student 5
Ideational Theme Rheme
In this article, <M-CA> Stock discusses the future if genetic engineering continues
and how it will be beneficial for all human beings.
(14) Student 1
Ideational Theme Rheme
Since Stock advocates that
genetic engineering would only
improve humans’ lives, <M-SC>
he believes it is only logical to promote its
development rather than impede it.
(15) Student 3
Ideational Theme Rheme
It is presumable that
<M-AC>
Stock‘s educated audience would agree with his viewpoint in
the article and find it to be effective due to the benefits that
genetic engineering could offer.
After all occurrences of theme types were coded and tallied, percentages were
calculated by dividing each theme type by the total number of sentences. For the
subcategorizations of marked themes, the percentages were derived by comparing the
number of circumstantial adjuncts, subordinating clauses, and attributive clauses to the
total number of marked themes in each group. Theme types were calculated for each
student and then for the high scoring and low scoring groups.
The students‘ papers were also examined for thematic progression. Using the
model described in Eggins (2004), I categorized the texts for containing the following:
(1) theme reiteration <T-R>, (2) the zig-zag pattern <Z-Z>, and (3) the multiple-rheme
pattern <M-R>. To measure theme reiteration, the repetition of themes was analyzed in
each paragraph. After the first mention of a theme in a paragraph, every subsequent
mention of the theme as a proper noun or pronominal (e.g. Stock, he, his) or in
29
association with other elements (e.g. Stock’s article) was coded as an instance of theme
reiteration <T-R>. Example 16 illustrates two instances of theme reiteration in a
paragraph from a student essay. After the theme Gregory Stock was first mentioned,
every subsequent mention of Gregory Stock or he was counted for theme reiteration
<T-R>. In the paragraph in example 17, there are four instances of theme reiteration. The
first theme (Stock) is referred to in other forms (he, his) and in extended themes (His
credentials, Since Stock advocates…, he, and his credentials and knowledge) in
subsequent themes.
(16) Student 7
Ideational Theme Rheme
Gregory Stock is a business man, scientist, and one of the most predominant
figures around the global world regarding genetic engineering.
He <T-R> is a director of the program on medicine, technology, and he is
belongs to the society at UCLA‘s school program of medicine.
Gregory Stock <T-R> is the author of the best-selling book Redesigning Humans.
Based on that book, he wrote the article ―Choosing our Genes‖ which appeared in
the Futurist Magazine in July-August 2002.
(17) Student 1
Textual
Theme
Ideational Theme Rheme
Stock also shows that he has knowledge of his
argument‘s context by sharing his expertise
in genetic engineering with the readers.
His credentials <T-R> speak for his years of dedication in genetic
sciences, which includes his position as the
director of the Program on Medicine,
Technology, and Society at UCLA and being
widely recognized as one of the prominent
speakers for genetic evolution.
Since Stock advocates that
genetic engineering would only
improve humans‘ lives, <T-R>
he believes it is only logical to promote its
development rather than impede it.
He <T-R> also shares his knowledge and expertise
about genetic engineering and the increased
progress of scientists‘ work worldwide,
which the United States should also be a part
of (Stock 666).
Hence, his credentials and knowledge
in genetic engineering <T-R>
substantially supports his claim and
refutations.
30
Zig-zag progression, when an element in the rheme of a clause is introduced into
the theme of the following clause, was also identified in the student texts. When the
information in the rheme was reintroduced into the following theme, it was coded as an
instance of zig-zag progression <Z-Z>. Example 18 presents an occurrence of zig-zag
progression. Information in the rheme (issues people will face in the future) is
reintroduced in the following theme with a demonstrative and noun (These issues) and
was counted as one instance of zig-zig progression.
(18) Student 2
Ideational
Theme
Rheme
The Futurist is a journal targeting such readers who are concerned about issues
people will face in the future. <Z-Z>
These issues are various, ranging from environmental problems to ethical and
social subjects.
Multiple-rheme patterns, when the theme of one clause introduces a number of
different pieces of information which are made theme in subsequent clauses, was also
measured. The number of sentences contributing to the multiple-rheme pattern was
counted. Example 19 presents an example of the multiple-rheme pattern in a paragraph.
The rheme in the first sentence (two reasons to support his claim) introduces a piece of
information which is picked up again in subsequent sentences (First, Second). Three
instances of multiple-rheme <M-R> were counted in example 19.
The multiple-rheme pattern was also measured across paragraphs. Example 20
illustrates three phrases contributing to the multiple-rheme pattern. In the first sentence
various reasons provides the thematic content of subsequent sentences across paragraphs
(His main reason and Another reason Stock expresses).
As with the themes, thematic progression was first tallied for each student and
then for each group as a whole. After thematic progression was coded and tallied,
percentages were calculated by comparing the number of instances of theme reiteration,
zig-zag and multiple-rheme progressions with the total number of sentences.
31
(19) Student 3
Textual
Theme
Ideational Theme Rheme
In his article, Stock gives two reasons <M-R> to support
his claim.
First,
<M-R>
he suggests that genetic engineering will
prevent diseases.
In the article, Stock refers to some recent studies that
suggest that Down syndrome children have
a great percentage in decrease in
occurrence of many cancers.
Stock argues that there is likelihood that ―the
trisomy 21 in children with Down
syndrome may be protective against
cancer‖ (663).
Identifying what genes ―are
responsible for the protection
against cancer‖, and ―placing
them on an artificial
chromosome‖, and ―adding it to
an embryo‖
might ―reduce the occurrence of cancer,‖
according to Stock (663).
Second,
<M-R>
he also suggests that genetic engineering will
enhance the ―physical or mental well-
being of children‖ (664).
For
instance,
Stock argues that genetic engineering
interventions may ―improve a child‘s
beauty, intelligence, strength, altruism, and
other qualities‖ (664).
(20) Student 1
Ideational Theme Rheme
¶ 1 Stock also presents various reasons <M-R> to the readers why
people should not be afraid of genetic engineering.
His main reason
<M-R>
is that genetic engineering is the solution to the prevention of
many diseases….
¶ 2 Another reason
Stock expresses
<M-R>
is the human desire to enhance oneself….
32
In sum, the theme-rheme analysis will include the following categorizations for
theme types and thematic progression:
THEME TYPES:
Ideational -- unmarked <UM>
-- marked <M>
Textual <TX>
Interpersonal <IN>
Each marked theme will be categorized as one of the following types of marked forms.
MARKED THEMES
Circumstantial Adjunct <CA>
Subordinating Clause <SC>
Attributive Clause <AC>
Also, each different textual theme will be counted. In addition, the kind of thematic
progression used will be analyzed.
THEMATIC PROGRESSION
Theme Reiteration <T-R>
Zig Zag <Z-Z>
Multiple Rheme <M-R>
33
CHAPTER 4
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
This chapter reports on the results of the theme-rheme analysis of the high and
low scoring undergraduate papers. The first section of this chapter will compare the
theme choices of the high and low scoring groups. The second section will analyze the
thematic patterns over longer stretches of discourse in both groups of texts. The final
section in this chapter will give a summary of the findings.
THEME TYPES
The analysis of theme and rheme patterns in the student texts allows us to identify
the level of coherence of student writing based on the effective ordering of constituents in
texts given their purpose and context. In the present study, theme and rheme choices were
analyzed for a total of 209 sentences in the high scoring student texts, and 156 sentences
in the low scoring texts. Table 1 shows the proportion of theme types (unmarked and
marked ideational themes, textual themes, and interpersonal themes) in the high and low
scoring papers. In the following subsections, I will report the frequency of each theme
type and provide examples from the student texts which illustrate how themes are used.
Table 1. Theme Types
High Scoring Papers Low Scoring Papers
# % # %
Ideational–unmarked (UM) 148 71% 135 87%
marked (M) 61 29% 21 13%
Textual (TX) 56 27% 25 16%
Interpersonal (IN) 0 0% 0 0%
Total # sentences 209 156
Unmarked Ideational Themes
Unmarked themes are more common than marked themes in both high and low
scoring papers. However, as Table 1 illustrates, unmarked themes are more frequent in
the low scoring group (87%) in comparison to the high scoring group (71%). In the low
34
group, a large proportion of the unmarked themes are personal pronouns (e.g. he) or brief
nominal groups (e.g. Gregory Stock), which are characteristic of conversation (Eggins,
2004; Schleppegrell, 2004). In contrast, the unmarked themes in the high group also
included expanded nominal structures, including embedded clauses and nominalization,
which characterize academic discourse (Eggins, 2004; Schleppegrell, 2004). These
findings are in line with Schleppegrell (2004), who argues that transitioning from
informal spoken discourse to academic written discourse poses a challenge for students
entering academic discourse communities. In informal spoken texts, pronouns and
conjunctions tend to predominate in theme position and new information is built up in
clause rhemes while in academic discourses, the organization is more hierarchical with
themes condensing given information into dense clause structures so that further
comment can be made in the rheme (Eggins, 2004; Schleppegrell, 2004).
Examples 21 and 22 reveal how the low scoring papers differ from the high
scoring papers in their use of unmarked themes. In Student 7‘s text*, a low scoring text,
Gregory Stock, Stock, the author, or he is the unmarked theme in 57% of the ideational
themes in contrast to Student 2‘s text, a high scoring text, where the author or the
pronoun referent constitutes 30% of the ideational themes. In example 21, when student 7
is evaluating Stock in terms of whether he knows the context of the argument, Stock and
he are used as unmarked ideational theme throughout the entire paragraph. The repeated
use of the same unmarked theme constitutes the theme reiteration pattern, which will be
discussed more fully below in the sub-section ―Theme Reiteration.‖
In contrast to Student 7, in example 22, Student 2 employs a dense nominal
structure, the criticisms posed to the development of germinal choice technology, in
addition to Stock as unmarked theme. As Student 2 discusses some of the criticisms
against genetic engineering in the previous two paragraphs, the reduced relative clause in
the theme, posed to the development of germinal choice technology, allows Student 2 to
recapitulate prior discourse. The compacting of information in the theme, characteristic
* As mentioned in Chapter 3 the texts in the high group are labeled Students 1-4 and the texts in the
low group Students 5-8. In addition, the texts are numbered in order according to their scores, with Student
1‘s text having the highest score, and Student 8‘s essay the lowest score.
35
of academic genres, creates a more complex text and contributes to the coherence of
Student 2‘s text.
(21) Student 7
¶ Textual
Theme
Ideational
Theme
Rheme
¶ 8 Stock <UM> is well aware of genetic engineering technology
and he knows that this technology will be new
medicine to treat illnesses.
He <UM> <T-
R>
is very knowledgeable about how genetic
engineering will have better progress in the near
future.
He <UM> <T-
R>
gives a lot of examples of the progress of genetic
engineering technology and support the new
progress.
However, he <UM> <T-R> is not mentioned how research of genetic
engineering technology is supported.
He <UM> <T-
R>
assures that genetic engineering technology will be
treatments illnesses that human beings suffer.
(22) Student 2
¶ Textual
Theme
Ideational Theme Rheme
¶
8
Finally, a mature reasoner
<UM>
knows the argument‘s context.
Stock <UM> is an expert in a field of biotechnology,
therefore is very familiar and knowledgeable
with the topic.
However, the criticisms posed
to the development
of germinal choice
technology <UM>
often come from ethical standpoints.
Stock <UM> <T-R> is not familiar with fields such as human rights
and religions, at least not enough to effectively
respond to criticism.
The analysis of unmarked themes found that successful texts have the capacity to
introduce abstract notions about texts in theme position; on the other hand, less successful
writers tend to repeat the article details instead of using examples in service of an
argument (Christie & Dreyfus, 2007). In example 21, Student 7 evaluates the author in
terms of knowing the context; however, having Stock or he begin as the point of
departure makes it difficult for the reader to identify the main idea of the paragraph. In
36
contrast, Student 2‘s use of unmarked themes in example 22 more effectively
thematicizes relevant information given the context. The first theme, a mature reasoner,
which is given information, is followed by new information and the main idea of the
paragraph (i.e. whether Stock knows the argument‘s context). The following sentences
illustrate how Stock meets the criteria of mature reasoning. The extended nominal theme,
the criticisms posed to the development of germinal choice technology, condenses given
information into an abstract idea that is further commented upon in the rheme and the
following sentence. Comparing the two paragraphs illustrates how in successful papers,
more extended and abstract nominal groups as unmarked theme contribute to text
coherence by introducing abstract ideas and making the main idea clear to the reader.
Example 23 also illustrates the way more coherent texts employ dense and
extended nominal structures in theme position. Information in the rhemes, have his
audiences in mind and to connect with different people and different point of view, is
recast in subsequent themes, An author who has audience in mind and Readers who do
not agree on Stock’s point of view, as nominal groups with embedded relative clauses. In
addition, these expanded nominal groups condense information that reflects the focus of
discussion, namely whether Stock argues with his audience in mind.
(23) Student 4
¶ Ideational Theme Rheme
¶
8
Stock <UM> does not have his audiences in mind <Z-Z> because
the article does not have interaction between
audiences. <Z-Z>
The entire article
<UM>
is made of Stock‘s argument based on his point of
view.
An author who has
audience in mind <UM>
makes effort to connect with different people and
different point of view (14). <Z-Z>
Readers who do not
agree on Stock’s point
of view <UM>
may feel the article not convincing because their
question was failed to be covered.
Nominalization is also employed as unmarked theme in the high scoring papers to
create dense nominal groups in themes. Nominalization, the process of a verb, adjective,
or other part of speech being expressed as a noun phrase, allows the compacting of
information in a theme that would otherwise be expressed in a clause (Harvey, 1993, as
cited in Schleppegrell, 2004). Nominalization is a resource of grammatical metaphor
37
where ―meanings are construed in new ways that enable the abstraction, technicality, and
development of arguments that characterize advanced literacy‖ (Schleppegrell, 2004, p.
72). Comparing how the high and low scoring texts discuss Stock‘s reasons illustrates the
difference in use of nominalization. In example 24, Student 5 from the low group uses a
clause to explain how Stock supported his claim, Stock reasons that this claim is true…,
with Stock as the point of departure of the message. In the high group, as illustrated in
examples 25 and 26, nominalization is employed; the notion expressed in a clause by
Student 5 is expressed in nominal groups, his main reason and Stock’s reasons for his
claim, in the high scoring texts. Having the point of departure as a nominalization is
effective because the theme encapsulates the purpose of the sentence, as the task requires
students to discuss the reasons Stock gives for his claim. This construction allows for the
compacting of information, characteristic of academic discourse.
(24) Student 5
Ideational Theme Rheme
Stock <UM> reasons that this claim is true simply because it currently
being developed by scientists worldwide.
(25) Student 1
Ideational Theme Rheme
His main reason <UM> is that genetic engineering is the solution to the prevention
of many diseases.
(26) Student 4
Ideational Theme Rheme
Stock’s reasons for his
claim <UM>
come from various points of views, one of them being
embryo screening, a procedure that is similar to genetic
engineering but is not yet directly altering genes, has been
in use for more than a decade (663).
The analysis of unmarked themes reveals that the lack of coherence of a text can
be attributed to the predominance of simple subject themes, such as proper nouns and
pronouns, and the lack of dense and complex nominal groups which connect discourse
and comment on abstract ideas relevant to the topic. Some of the same patterns are seen
in the use of marked themes, which will be discussed in the following section.
38
Marked Ideational Themes
While unmarked themes are more common in the low scoring papers, marked
themes occur more frequently in the high scoring group (29%) than the low scoring group
(13%), as shown in Table 1. This finding is consistent with those from previous research,
which showed marked themes occurring frequently in academic discourse and successful
student writing (Christie & Dreyfus, 2007; Eggins, 2004).
The subcategorization of marked themes shows that the high scoring group uses
more of a variety of marked themes, whereas the low group primarily employs
circumstantial adjuncts. As seen in Table 2, circumstantial adjunct is the dominant type
of marked theme in the low scoring papers (76%). In comparison, the high scoring papers
use subordinating clauses (33%) and attributive clauses (3%) in addition to circumstantial
adjuncts (64%). A further examination of how the marked themes are employed in the
texts reveals that the high scoring group uses marked themes more strategically to add
coherence to the texts in comparison to the low scoring group.
Table 2. Marked Themes
High Scoring Papers Low Scoring Papers
# % # %
Circumstantial Adjunct
(CA)
39 64% 16 76%
Subordinating Clause (SC) 20 33% 5 24%
Attributive Clause (AC) 2 3% 0 0%
61 21
A closer analysis of the marked themes in the high and low groups found that the
texts in the low group primarily employ circumstantial adjuncts in reference to the article
(―Choosing Our Genes‖) under discussion. The three circumstantial adjuncts, In the
article, In “Choosing Our Genes,” and Along the article, constitute 50% of the
circumstantial adjuncts in the low scoring papers and 26% of the circumstantial adjuncts
in the high scoring papers. Example 27 illustrates this use of circumstantial adjuncts in
the low scoring papers.
39
(27) Student 5
Ideational Theme Rheme
In this article <M-CA> Stock discusses the future if genetic engineering continues
and how it will be beneficial for all human beings.
In contrast, in the high scoring group, different types of marked themes are
employed to comment on more abstract ideas to indicate the more specific topic of
discussion and to link ideas throughout the text, as is the case for unmarked themes
discussed in the previous section. In academic discourse, marked ideational themes can
contribute to the coherence of a text by allowing certain ideas to become prominent
without being the subject or actor of a clause (Christie & Dreyfus, 2007; Eggins, 2004).
In example 28, a student from the high scoring group chooses marked themes, in
particular circumstantial adjuncts, as a strategy to add coherence and emphasis to his text.
In the beginning of the paper, the students are required to give some biographical
information about Gregory Stock. Instead of beginning the sentence with Stock, Student 4
writes As a biophysicist and later As an entrepreneur of a biotech company to place
emphasis on the more specific topic of discussion—Stock‘s biographical information.
The circumstantial adjunct foregrounds the specific topic of discussion in a more
effective way rather than simply having Stock as the theme.
(28) Student 4
¶ Theme Rheme
¶ 1 The author, Gregory Stock,
<UM>
is a well known figure in the field of
bioscience.
As a biophysicist, <M-CA> he has written bestselling book Redesign
Humans, and serves as the director of
Program on Medicine, Technology, and
Society at UCLA (663).
As an entrepreneur of a biotech
company himself, <M-CA>
Stock clearly stands in a favorable position to
genetic engineering (Signum).
Later in Student 4‘s essay, he strategically uses the same circumstantial adjunct to
refer to what he mentions previously (a discourse old item) in order to support his claim
that Stock is a mature reasoner. This is shown in example 29. Thus, Student 4‘s choice of
having parallel marked themes recur in four sentences makes the text more coherent by
40
emphasizing appropriate constituents given the particular prompt requirements and
creating links with discourse old information.
(29) Student 4
¶ Ideational Theme Rheme
¶ 5 Stock meets the criteria of well-informed mature reasoner.
As an active
biophysicist, <M-CA>
he constantly researches and gathers latest
information related to his field of study.
¶ 6 As a scientist <M-CA> Stock is very knowledgeable in his field and also has
access to enormous resource.
The present study also found that marked themes can contribute to text coherence
when employed in conjunction with the zig-zag pattern, which is consistent with previous
studies (Christie & Dreyfus, 2007; Eggins, 2004). Skillful use of marked themes can add
coherence to a text‘s organization (Christie & Dreyfus, 2007; Eggins, 2004). In the high
scoring group, marked themes are used strategically to link new sentences to previous
information.
In example 30, Student 3 takes information from the rheme of the first sentence, is
not a mature reasoner, and then reformulates that information into the theme of the
following sentence with a subordinate clause, To be a mature reasoner. In the rheme of
the second sentence, the student identifies the criteria of mature reasoning, and then
reformulates that information in the marked theme of the third sentence with the student‘s
evaluation of Stock, While Stock is well informed, and argues with his audience in mind,
and knows his arguments’ contexts. Example 30 also reveals the way high scoring texts
choose to foreground the topic of the paper (i.e. whether Stock is a mature reasoner),
another factor contributing to the coherence of the text.
(30) Student 3
Ideational Theme Rheme
Gregory Stock is not a mature reasoner. <Z-Z>
To be a mature reasoner <M-SC> a person has to meet the following criteria: the
person has to be well informed, be self-critical,
argue with his audience in mind, and know
his arguments’ context. <Z-Z>
While Stock is well informed, and
argues with his audience in mind,
and knows his arguments’
contexts, <M-SC>
he is not self-critical.
41
Example 31 also illustrates the way marked themes are used to link new sentences
to previous information and to contribute to paragraph cohesion. Student 1 takes
information from the rheme of the first sentence and then uses a subordinate clause to
reformulate that information into the theme of the next sentence. This creates a sense of
unfolding of information and connects the two sentences. Overall, the marked
subordinate clauses in thematic position co-occurring with zig-zag progression connects
ideas and contributes to the coherence of the text.
(31) Student 1
Ideational Theme Rheme
He educates his readers from a different point of view. <Z-Z>
After presenting
the opposing
view, <M-SC>
Stock immediately follows up with his refutations to reassure his
readers that genetic engineering will only add greater benefits than
negativity to society.
Interpersonal Themes
The thematic analysis found no interpersonal themes in either the high or low
scoring papers. As discussed in Chapter 3, the interpersonal meaning in a text realizes the
tenor of a discourse, which reflects the relationship between the reader and the writer and
the judgments of the writer. This finding is not surprising given that in academic and
expository writing the interpersonal mood may not be situated in the theme position
(Eggins, 2004; Schleppegrell, 2004). Furthermore, the students were instructed to try to
sound more objective and academic and less conversational. In Eggins‘ (2004, p. 322)
comparison of informal spoken texts and formal written texts, she notes that the non-
thematization of modality creates ―authority and distance‖ in a text, since the author‘s
stance is not the point of departure of the message. This study found that although
interpersonal meaning is not expressed in the theme position, the author‘s stance is
expressed in the rheme in other forms, such as with non-thematic modal finites (e.g. may)
or modal adjuncts (e.g. unfortunately). Example 32 illustrates how interpersonal meaning
is realized in the rheme as a modal adjunct, likely, to create authority and make the text
sound more objective in a high scoring text.
(32) Student 1
Ideational Theme Rheme
As higher educated
readers, <M-CA>
they are likely aware of Stock‘s business involvement and
deduce his self-interest in genetic engineering.
42
Along the same lines, Schleppegrell (2004, p. 58) notes that in academic contexts
the interpersonal component differs from that in informal interactional contexts in that the
writer is ―typically expected to project a noninteracting and distanced relationship with
the listener/reader‖ and to express his or her stance in more implicit and subtler ways.
Example 33 illustrates how high scoring papers draw on ―academic register resources‖ to
express their point of view implicitly (Schleppegrell, 2004, p. 59). In example 33, Student
2 uses the marked subordinate clause Although Stock provides many examples to express
her opinion on Stock‘s strengths and the independent clause and modal adjunct often in
the rheme to express her view on the weaknesses of Stock‘s argument.
(33) Student 2
Ideational
Theme
Rheme
Although Stock
provides many
examples,
<M-SC>
the evidence he provides is often weak and not credible.
Some of the other grammatical resources that express an authoritative stance
valued in academic and expository writing are nominal terms and impersonal
constructions (Schleppegrell, 2004). In academic registers, the expression of stance is
most effective when arguments and positions are named (Schleppegrell, 2004). In the
present study, nominal structures that name arguments, The strengths of his argument,
Stock’s argument, and his argument, appear in the concluding paragraphs of some of the
students‘ texts, as shown in examples 34 and 35. In the rhemes, the students make use of
other interpersonal resources, such as quantifiers (a large amount), adjectives (one-sided,
effective), adverbs (necessarily, effectively), and verbs (tends).
(34) Student 1
Ideational
Theme
Rheme
The strengths
of his
argument
exceed his weaknesses because he is able to provide substantial
supporting evidence for his reasons, although he does not argue with
his readers in mind at times.
43
(35) Student 2
Textual Theme Ideational Theme Rheme
In conclusion, Stock’s
argument
provides a large amount of information coming
from his expertise, but they do not necessarily
support his claim effectively.
Nonetheless, his argument tends to be very one-sided and does not respond
to the different viewpoints in an effective
manner; therefore, Stock is not a mature reasoner.
In addition to nominal groups that name arguments, Schleppegrell (2004) argues
that the use of impersonal constructions can allow writers to express their views in a way
that appears objective. In the present study, there are two instances of attributive clauses
(i.e. impersonal constructions) in the high group, examples 36 and 37. Rather than saying
I presume that or I think it is important, the students use the impersonal constructions It is
presumable and It is important to sound objective when expressing their views
(Schleppegrell, 2004).
(36) Student 3
Textual
Theme
Ideational
Theme
Rheme
It is
presumable
that <M-AC>
Stock‘s educated audience would agree with his
viewpoint in the article and find it to be effective due to
the benefits that genetic engineering could offer.
However, his article could have been more powerful if….
(37) Student 4
Ideational Theme Rheme
It is important that <M-
AC>
the arguer knows the state of the argument.
In short, while interpersonal themes are not present in the student texts,
interpersonal meaning is expressed through other grammatical resources in ways that
make the texts sound more objective and academic. It should be noted, however, that the
above is not a complete analysis of interpersonal meaning expressed in these texts but
provides some indication of such meaning.
44
Textual Themes
The results of the study found that the high group uses textual themes (27%) more
often than the low group (16%), as indicated in Table 1. In addition to frequency, the
higher group uses greater variety of textual themes than the low group, as shown in Table
3. These results are in line with the research of Vande Kopple (1991) who found that a
text‘s incoherence can be the result of a lack of textual themes and Schleppegrell (2004)
whose study indicated that a limited set of conjunctions is characteristic of spoken
discourses (e.g. but and because) in contrast to academic genres, which require a wider
variety of conjunctions (e.g. however and nevertheless).
Table 3. Textual Themes in the Student Texts
High Scoring Papers Low Scoring Papers
# of different
<TX>
total used # of different
<TX>
total used
Student 1 13 23 Student 5 9 9
Student 2 12 17 Student 6 1 1
Student 3 7 13 Student 7 4 11
Student 4 3 3 Student 8 3 4
The repeated use of the same textual themes and low frequency of textual themes
suggests that the students in the low group do not have a variety of textual themes at their
disposal to incorporate into their essays. The minimal use of textual themes in the low
scoring group is exemplified by Student 6‘s essay, which employs only one textual
theme, For example, in the entire text. In Student 7‘s text the same theme is used
repeatedly. Out of the eleven textual themes in the text, one textual theme, For example,
appears in seven instances, which is over 60% of the total textual themes in the essay.
Student 8‘s essay only uses four textual themes in the essay. Student 5, which is the
highest scoring text in the low scoring group, illustrates the ability to employ textual
themes more frequently and with greater variety than the other students in the low group
with nine different textual themes occurring in the text.
45
Example 38 shows an example of repeated use of the same textual theme. Student
7 uses For example in the second sentence to signal that he is providing an example of
the concrete evidence Stock provides. The following theme provides another evidence
and in the last sentence the textual theme, For example, is used somewhat inappropriately
as he is further elaborating on the previous clause, the opportunity to choose gender,
rather than providing an example. The use of textual theme in this paragraph suggests
that Student 7 believes that For example is used whenever you provide textual evidence
to support an argument.
(38) Student 7
¶ Textual
Theme
Ideational Theme Rheme
¶ 5 Gregory Stock is a mature reasoner because he is well informed.
He gives concrete evidence of genetic choice
technology that he makes his argument stronger.
For
example,
in ―A Democratizing
Technology?‖
Stock says germinal choice technology will have
the ability to reduce illnesses and increase IQ.
Another evidence
that Stock mentions
is that people will have the opportunity to choose
gender.
For
example,
he explains in ―an unwelcome choice‖ that parents
will likely be able to make choices of sex selection
and also choose the IQ of their children (pg 665).
In the high group, more textual themes are employed in the texts, which
contributes to the cohesion and coherence of the texts. Student 1 uses 13 different textual
themes, Student 2 uses 12 different textual themes, and Student 3 uses 7 different ones.
This indicates the high scoring students likely have more vocabulary and connecting
devices at their disposal to link and mark the logical relationships between the parts of
their texts than the low scoring students. Examples 39 and 40 illustrate how the textual
themes are effectively used to mark the relationships between ideas in the texts in the
high scoring texts. In example 39, Student 1 ends a paragraph with Hence in order to sum
up how the information the student provided in the paragraph proves that Stock is well
informed. In example 40, the textual theme marks the relationship between the two
sentences. The first sentence explains what Stock does not do and Rather signals what
Stock does instead.
46
(39) Student 1
Textual
Theme
Ideational Theme Rheme
Hence, his credentials and knowledge
in genetic engineering
substantially supports his claim and
refutations.
(40) Student 2
Textual
Theme
Ideational Theme Rheme
Stock acknowledges there are other points of view, but he does
not engage in trying to understand their views.
Rather, he gets away by sliding the subject into something else.
Student 1 and Student 2 use textual themes the most of all the students (43%) and
they contribute to the coherence of their papers. In Student 2‘s essay, the textual themes
are often employed to create multiple-rheme patterns, which make up 28% of Student 2‘s
essay. As illustrated in example 41, textual themes create cohesion in this particular
paragraph because they indicate that besides the initial main claim, two other minor
claims made by Stock will follow.
Student 2 also uses textual themes in conjunction with the multiple-rheme pattern
across paragraphs to organize the entire second part of the essay. Example 42 provides
the start of each paragraph in the second part of the essay. Student 2 uses textual themes
effectively so that the reader has a sense of the entire organization of the second part of
the essay and can predict what is coming next. In addition, she consistently maintains
topical focus through careful choice of the ideational theme, a mature reasoner. Then,
finally in the last paragraph, the student uses in conclusion to signal this would be the last
paragraph and that she is summing up the evaluation of Stock.
When Stock and he often appear as ideational theme, textual themes make the
texts more coherent by signaling the relationships between ideas in the texts. Student 5‘s
text, which as mentioned earlier is one of the highest scoring in the low group, employs
textual themes to link sentences and to create cohesion and coherence in the essay, as
illustrated in example 43. The purpose of paragraph 4 is to analyze the organization of
Stock‘s article and describe the author‘s rhetorical strategy throughout the text. Student 5
effectively employs textual themes, Then and Lastly, as well as an unmarked theme,
47
(41) Student 2
Textual Theme Ideational Theme Rheme
Stock’s main
claim <M-R>
is that the new germinal choice technology will
be developed inevitably, regardless of the
current prohibition in place.
He argues that the technology is not as radical as it
seems, since embryo screening is already in
practice.
Second,
<M-R>
benefits such as
disease prevention,
are greater than the possible disadvantages.
Finally,
<M-R>
even if the US
bans the
development,
the technology would be developed somewhere
else, he argues (Stock, 666).
(42) Student 2
¶ Textual
Theme
Ideational
Theme
Rheme
¶ 5 Stock is not a mature reasoner.
A mature
reasoner
needs to present information that is supported by
evidence.
¶ 6 Second,
<M-R>
a mature
reasoner
is self-critical and open to constructive criticism,
meaning that he or she understands the criticisms in a
fair manner, and if necessary, is willing to accept
criticisms.
¶ 7 Third,
<M-R>
mature
reasoner
argues with their audiences in mind, meaning that he
or she makes a claim that is also clear to the people
with different points of view.
¶ 8 Finally,
<M-R>
a mature
reasoner
knows the argument‘s context.
¶ 9 In
conclusion,
Stock‘s
argument
provides a large amount of information coming from
his expertise, but they do not necessarily support his
claim effectively.
48
(43) Student 5
¶ Textual
Theme
Ideational
Theme
Rheme
¶ 4 Stock organized the article in a clear manner where he
separated in different sections <M-R> what he was
going to talk about.
The first
section
<UM>
<M-R>
was focused on the goals of having germinal choice,
where he explains that the initial goal of germinal
choice is to prevent disease.
After <M-
R> talking
about the
goals <M-
SC>
he goes on and explained about extending lifespan and
how people should spend money preventing instead of
treating illnesses.
This is demonstrated when he writes, “ Much more money is
being spent to find treatments for diseases of aging than
to understand the underlying process that may be
responsible for a wide variety of age-related diseases,
such as cancer, heart disease, Alzheimer’s, arthritis, and
diabetes” (664).
Then
<M-R>
he talks about how this choice is unwelcome and how
people are frightened to death.
Lastly,
<M-R>
he explains in the last two sections his refutations and the
opponents’ point of view.
He tries to convince everyone that it would be a good thing
to do, but he does not discussed about the poor, how
will they will be able to afford for this new technology?
The first section, and marked theme, After talking about his goals, as she guides the
reader through the organization of the entire text. Similar to Student 2‘s text, Student 5‘s
textuses textual themes and the multiple-rheme pattern to organize the text so that the text
flows in a predictable way for the reader to follow.
Although textual themes add cohesion and coherence to Student 5‘s essay overall,
when they are employed ungrammatically, the text flow is disrupted. In example 44, the
first textual theme, First of all, indicates that Student 5 will give the first reason why the
writer believes that Stock is well-informed. The textual theme in the second sentence, As
well as, signals that a further reason will be given. While these textual themes link the
ideas between the sentences, the textual themes are incorporated in the text
49
ungrammatically. In the second sentence, the subordinate clause is not followed by an
independent clause, leaving the rheme empty and making the sentence a fragment. In the
third sentence, the use of the textual theme is also ungrammatical. It is infelicitous for As
well as to appear at the beginning of a sentence followed by a clause. This example
illustrates how in one of the more coherent texts in the low group, an attempt is made to
use more textual themes to link ideas, though control over their usage may be
problematic.
(44) Student 5
¶ Textual
Theme
Ideational Theme Rheme
¶ 4 Gregory Stock is a mature reasoner in the sense that he is
well informed about genetic engineering.
First of all, because he had written
books about related topics,
such as the best selling
Redesigning Humans.
As well as he is the owner of a biotechnology company.
He demonstrates his knowledge on the topic
when he said, “sex selection is legal in the
United States, but illegal in Britain and a
number of other countries” (664).
By his citing we are able to know that he is well
informed and aware of legislative aspects
of genetic engineering and related topics.
The higher presence of textual themes in the high scoring texts than the low
scoring texts suggests that textual themes contribute to the coherence of texts by making
connections between clauses and sentences.
THEMATIC PROGRESSION
The analysis of thematic progression allows us to identify theme and rheme
patterns over longer stretches of discourse. How thematic elements succeed each other
can contribute to or detract from the coherence of a text given their purpose and context.
Table 4 shows the results of the analysis of three patterns of thematic progression, theme
reiteration, the zig-zag pattern, and the multiple-rheme pattern, among the high and low
scoring papers. In the following subsections, I will report the quantitative and qualitative
results of the analysis for each type of thematic progression.
50
Theme Reiteration
According to Table 4, the theme reiteration patterns appear in 92 instances in the
high scoring texts and 68 instances in the low scoring texts. When analyzed in proportion
to the number of sentences in each group, the pattern appears equally often (44%) in both
the high and low scoring groups. However, this study found that the theme reiteration
pattern can make a text coherent or incoherent depending on how the pattern is employed
in the texts.
Table 4. Thematic Progression
High Scoring Papers Low Scoring Papers
# % # %
Theme Reiteration (T-R) 92 44% 68 44%
Zig Zag (Z-Z) 64 31% 34 22%
Multiple Rheme (M-R) 37 18% 13 8%
Theme reiteration, where the same theme is reiterated regularly, contributes to
text cohesion and coherence because a clear focus is maintained (Eggins, 2004).
However, when the same theme appears repeatedly, the text becomes difficult to follow
and seems to lack development (Christie & Dreyfus, 2007; Schleppegrell, 2004; Vande
Kopple, 1991; Wang, 2007). When the theme never changes, the point of departure of a
message remains constant. The result is the new information introduced in the rhemes is
never followed up or expanded on in subsequent themes, which can make a text appear to
lack development (Eggins, 2004).
The present study found that the repeated use of simple themes (e.g. Stock or he)
occurs more frequently in the low scoring texts, an example of which is provided in
example 45. In paragraph 5, Student 6‘s intent is to evaluate Stock‘s argument, in
particular its strengths, and every theme in paragraph 5 consists of Stock or he. The
recurrence of the key participant Stock as the point of departure makes the text appear
like a list. The rhemes all give examples of Stock‘s strengths but none of that new
51
information is developed in the subsequent themes. As a result, the student‘s evaluation
of Stock appears to lack development and the sentences seem disconnected.
In addition, as mentioned in the discussion of unmarked themes, the recurrence of
Stock and he instead of abstract ideas in the low scoring papers makes the main idea of
the paragraph difficult to identify. In example 45 the only indication that the topic of the
paragraph is Stock‘s strengths is the noun phrase a good job in the rheme of the first
sentence. If the main idea of the paragraph, Stock’s strengths, were placed in the theme,
the reader would have a clearer idea that the new information in the rhemes is related to
Stock‘s strengths.
(45) Student 6
¶ Ideational Theme Rheme
¶ 5 Stock did a good job of supporting his claim that we should not
ban genetic engineering.
He <UM> <T-
R>
appeals to our emotions by explaining that genetic
engineering might prevent unborn babies from having
incurable hereditary diseases, such as cystic fibrosis.
He <UM> <T-
R>
argues from logical statistics to show that genes determine
how likely it is a person will have a disease.
He <UM> <T-
R>
refers to recent studies to show that children who have
Down Syndrome are almost 90% less likely to develop
many cancers than those without the bad gene that causes
Down Syndrome (Stock, 663).
Stock <UM>
<T-R>
writes that genetic engineering can tell which genes are
bad, in order to prevent disease, and may be it will be able
to fix genes that are bad: ―What if we could identify which
of the genes on that chromosome are responsible for this
protection from cancer? Geneticist might take a set of
those genes and place them . . . but without all the
problems brought by the duplication of the other genes on
chromosome 21‖ (Stock, 663).
Even though theme reiteration occurs as frequently in the high scoring texts as the
low scoring texts (44%), theme reiteration is exploited with greater complexity in the
high scoring texts. The theme Stock is often repeated in subsequent themes in longer
nominal groups. This has the effect of keeping the text focused while avoiding simple
repetition (Eggins, 2004). Example 46 illustrates this more complex use of theme
reiteration in a high scoring text. In contrast to example 45, in this example Student 1
52
uses nominalization, the strengths of his argument, to express the topic of discussion in
addition to making a link to the previous rheme. In the first rheme, Student 1 writes that
Stock presented his argument well and this is followed up in the theme of the next
sentence with the strengths of his argument.
(46) Student 1
Textual
Theme
Ideational
Theme
Rheme
Overall, Stock <UM> presents his argument well <Z-Z> in focus of his claim
that genetic engineering will continue to evolve despite
intervention and regulation, and people should embrace this
technology as it will bring greater good to mankind.
The strengths
of his
argument
<UM> <T-R>
exceed his weaknesses because he is able to provide
substantial supporting evidence for his reasons, although he
does not argue with his readers in mind at times.
But he <UM>
<T-R>
consistently presents refutations to the opposing view of
genetic engineering.
As a
result,
he <UM>
<T-R>
is likely to be successful in presenting a convincing
argument to his intended audience.
The more effective use of theme reiteration is also shown in example 47. The first
theme is Gregory Stock, which appears again as the following theme, but in combination
with other elements, As part of his job. This keeps the author as the focus but follows up
on the information in the previous rheme, biophysicist, best selling author, biotech
entrepreneur, and the former director. Again in the last sentence, Student 3 employs a
more extended nominal theme, the articles published in the magazine, to build on the
discussion of The Futurist, which is the magazine. The recurrence of themes in
combination with other elements results in texts that are more developed, complex, and
coherent.
(47) Student 3
¶ Ideational Theme Rheme
¶ 1 Gregory Stock <UM>
is a biophysicist, best selling author, biotech
entrepreneur, and the former director of the
Program on Medicine, Technology and Society at
UCLA‘s School of Medicine. <Z-Z>
As part of his job,
<M> <T-R>
Stock explores future critical technologies which,
according to him, would have great impact on
humanity‘s future.
53
Stock <UM>
<T-R>
is the author of the book titled, ―Redesigning
Humans: Choosing Our Genes, Changing Our
Future.‖ <Z-Z>
An article based on
this book called
―Choosing Our
Genes‖ <UM>
was published in The Futurist (July-August 2002).
The Futurist
<UM>
is a magazine published by the World Future Society.
<Z-Z>
The magazine <UM>
is written for a highly educated audience such as
scientists, doctors, businessmen, ecologist, biologists,
and college students among others.
The Futurist
<UM> <T-R>
―takes no stand on what the future will or should be
like‖ (wfs.org).
The articles
published in the
magazine <UM>
<T-R>
are written by professionals in a broad range of
subjects: ―medicine, education, business, economics,
environment and resources, creativity, and much
more‖ (wfs.org).
Zig-Zag Pattern
The study found that the zig-zag pattern of thematic progression occurs more
frequently in the high scoring texts (31%) than the low scoring texts (22%), as shown in
Table 4. The zig-zag pattern, where information in the rheme is reintroduced into the
following theme, creates links between sentences and paragraphs in the texts. The fact
that this tool for making texts more cohesive and coherent is more common in the high
scoring texts is consistent with previous research. Studies have found that more
successful academic student writers employ cross-referential links between the rheme of
one clause to the theme of the following clause to create cohesion and coherence in a text
(Christie & Dreyfus, 2007; Eggins, 2004; Schleppegrell, 2004; Wang, 2007). This
process involves picking up information in the rheme of one clause, and incorporating it
into the theme of the following clause in denser clause structures, such as nominalizations
or extended nominal groups (Christie & Dreyfus, 2007; Eggins, 2004; Schleppegrell,
2004; Wang, 2007).
The analysis of zig-zag patterns in the high scoring group shows that the zig-zag
pattern frequently occurs with extended themes and nominalizations to create cohesion
and a sense of development in the texts. In example 48, the marked theme in the second
sentence, With this technology fairly available to everyone in the society, is a
54
nominalization of the information in the previous clause, everyone is able to access its
services. This pattern allows connections between ideas and development of arguments to
be clearly expressed to the reader.
(48) Student 1
Textual
Theme
Ideational Theme Rheme
Hence, why not allow genetic sciences to progress so that
everyone is able to access its services. <Z-Z>
With this technology
fairly available to
everyone in the society,
<M-CA>
genetic engineering will regard as a democratic
ideal solution.
The zig-zag pattern together with nominalization also occurs in Student 2‘s text.
In example 49, nominalization and marked themes are employed to link and develop
ideas across two sentences. The information from the rheme of sentence 1, some people
worry about loss of diversity and whether deaf parents should be allowed to make their
children deaf, is incorporated in the theme of the following sentence in a marked
subordinate clause construction, Although the two subjects seem related. This information
is recast again in the rheme of the second clause in nominalizations, a concern regarding
demographic diversity and a concern regarding reproduction of deaf community. This
example illustrates how Student 2 is able to condense information and recast it in
subsequent themes and rhemes to advance her argument.
(49) Student 2
Textual
Theme
Ideational Theme Rheme
For
instance,
in paragraph fourteen, he states, ―some people worry about loss of
diversity,” but then turns the subject into a
rather ethical question: whether deaf parents
should be allowed to make their children deaf.
<Z-Z>
Although the two
subjects seem related,
<M-SC>
a concern regarding demographic diversity and
a concern regarding reproduction of deaf
community are totally different topics.
The study also found that the zig-zag progression is also employed to create links
between information across paragraphs in the high scoring texts. Examples 50 and 51
show the students‘ use of the zig-zag pattern to create cohesion and coherence in their
55
essays. In example 50, Student 4 uses the zig-zag pattern and nominalization to link the
rheme of the last sentence of the tenth paragraph in the paper, allows readers relatively
easy to follow the content without being lost, to the theme of the first sentence of
paragraph 11, The reader-friendly structure. The nominalization of the information in the
previous rheme allows the student to make a connection between the two paragraphs.
Example 51 illustrates how a student employs zig-zag progression across three
paragraphs. The marked theme in the ninth paragraph in the paper, Aside from well-
informed and knowledgeable, makes reference to the main idea of the previous
paragraphs and then introduces new information on how the argument will advance,
Stock demonstrates that he is open to constructive criticism. The result is that the
argument progressively develops, with the reader being reminded of the connections
between paragraphs.
(50) Student 4
¶ Ideational Theme Rheme
¶
10
This kind of
structure
allows readers relatively easy to follow the content
without being lost in the middle. <Z-Z>
¶
11
The reader-
friendly structure
<UM>
also attracts more audiences.
(51) Student 1
¶ Ideational Theme Rheme
¶ 7 Stock depicts that he is well-informed by providing scientific
evidence and presenting legal policies.
¶ 8 Stock also shows that he has knowledge of his argument‘s context
by sharing his expertise in genetic engineering with the
readers.
¶ 9 Aside from well-
informed and
knowledgeable,
<M-CA>
Stock demonstrates that he is open to constructive criticism.
The zig-zag pattern also appears in the low scoring texts (22%) though the
linguistic features which link clauses differ from the high group. Extended nominal
groups and nominalizations rarely appear in the low scoring texts. In some of the low
scoring texts, demonstrative pronouns are used to make reference to previous clauses.
Schleppegrell (2004, p. 64) similarly found that deictic expressions such as this or that
56
―used endophorically to make links between segments of a text‖ can be a resource for
cohesion in academic writing. Examples 52 and 53 illustrate the students‘ use of the
demonstrative pronoun this to connect sentences. In addition, in example 53 Student 5
uses the marked theme By his citing to refer to the citation in the previous rheme. While
these anaphoric devices create cohesion, dense nominal and marked themes carrying
given information are rarely found in the low scoring texts.
(52) Student 6
Ideational Theme Rheme
The strongest point made by
Stock
is that he tells the reader what he thinks will
happen, even if people do not want it to happen.
<Z-Z>
This <UM> means they must decide what to do when they
cannot stop genetic engineering.
(53) Student 5
Ideational
Theme
Rheme
Stock showed, for the most part, a sincere effort to understand and connect
with other points of views because he presented opposition but I think he
did not do it enough. <Z-Z>
This <UM> is show when Stock said, ― The differences will not so much be between
the wealthy and the poor in one generation, but between one generation
and the next‖ (666).
He demonstrates his knowledge on the topic when he said, ―sex selection is
legal in the United States, but illegal in Britain and a number of other
countries‖ (664). <Z-Z>
By his citing
<M-CA>
we are able to know that he is well informed and aware of legislative
aspects of genetic engineering and related topics.
Overall, the study found that the texts in the high group create zig-zag patterns
through the use of dense and extended themes while the low scoring texts frequently link
sentences with anaphoric devices (e.g. this).
Multiple-Rheme Pattern
As Table 4 indicates, the multiple-rheme pattern occurs more often in the high
scoring texts (18%) than the low scoring texts (8%). The multiple-rheme pattern, which is
when the theme of one clause introduces a number of different pieces of information
made theme in subsequent clauses, organizes a text in a way that makes it easy for the
57
reader to predict what is coming next in a paragraph and across multiple paragraphs.
According to Eggins (2004, p. 326), the multiple-rheme pattern provides the ―underlying
organizing principle for a text‖ which differs from the other types of thematic progression
(theme reiteration and the zig-zag pattern) which are ―used for elaborating on each of the
main thematic points.‖
Examples 54, 55, and 56 illustrate how students in the high group employ the
multiple-rheme pattern within single paragraphs. In example 54, Student 3 begins by
saying that Stock gives two reasons to support his claim. This informs the readers to
expect what follows, which is signaled by the textual themes First and Second. As
mentioned in the section ―Textual Themes,‖ the multiple-rheme pattern is often realized
through the use of textual themes.
(54) Student 3
Textual Theme Ideational Theme Rheme
In his article, Stock gives two reasons <M-R> to
support his claim.
First, <M-R> he suggests that genetic engineering will
prevent diseases.
In the article, Stock refers to some recent studies that
suggest that Down syndrome children
have a great percentage in decrease in
occurrence of many cancers.
Stock argues that there is likelihood that ―the
trisomy 21 in children with Down
syndrome may be protective against
cancer‖ (663).
Identifying what genes
―are responsible for the
protection against cancer‖,
and ―placing them on an
artificial chromosome‖,
and ―adding it to an
embryo‖
might ―reduce the occurrence of
cancer,‖ according to Stock (663).
Second, <M-R> he also suggests that genetic engineering
will enhance the ―physical or mental
well-being of children‖ (664).
For instance, Stock argues that genetic engineering
interventions may ―improve a child‘s
beauty, intelligence, strength, altruism,
and other qualities‖ (664).
58
In example 55, Student 1 begins the paragraph with a topic sentence indicating
that Stock‘s strengths will be discussed. The multiple-rheme pattern occurs when the
following themes signal when another strength is being introduced (One of his strengths
and In addition). The multiple-rheme pattern organizes the text in a way that creates
expectations for the reader as to what information will follow in the paragraph.
(55) Student 1
Textual
Theme
Ideational Theme Rheme
Aside from the
weaknesses of Stock‘s
article,
he also portrays strengths that made his
argument strong. <M-R>
One of his strengths
<M-R>
is his authority figure as a scientist, professor,
and an expert in genetic engineering that
explains and justifies technical scientific terms
to the readers.
In addition,
<M-R>
his vast knowledge in
this field
supported his refutations to the opposing view
are also convincing to the readers.
Example 56 illustrates how Student 2 employs the multiple-rheme pattern in the
paragraph discussing the organization of Stock‘s article. In this section, students are
asked to analyze how Stock organized his article, referring to groups of paragraphs. The
prompt also requires that in this section the students be specific and refer to actual
passages. In example 56, Student 2 begins by informing the reader of the topic of the
paragraph, Stock organizes the article in a very effective way. The next sentence explains
how the article is organized in a general way, First, he introduces the germinal choice
technology, and later he discusses the debate and issues surrounding it. The textual
theme, Specifically, in addition to the marked themes, from paragraph one to four and
From paragraph twelve to sixteen, signal the sections of the text Student 2 will discuss.
The multiple-rheme pattern allows Student 2 to address the prompt explicitly and make
the organization of the paragraph clear to the reader.
(56) Student 2
Textual
Theme
Ideational Theme Rheme
Stock organizes the article in a very effective way.
<M-R>
59
First,
<M-R>
he introduces the germinal choice technology, and
later he discusses the debate and issues
surrounding it.
Specifically, from paragraph one
to four, <M-R>
he defines and explains the technology, and from
paragraph five to eleven, he presents the goals of
it: combating diseases and antiaging.
From paragraph
twelve to sixteen,
<M-R>
he introduces people‘s concerns, such as possible
loss of diversity in human population, and he
attempts to ensure that the technology will be
beneficial.
From paragraph
seventeen to twenty,
<M-R>
he emphasizes the inevitable development of the
technology and attacks the US policy.
From paragraph 21
to 25, <M-R>
he introduces counterarguments: possible
inequality between the rich and poor, and the issue
of humanity.
Finally,
<M-R>
Stock concludes the essay by refuting the opposition,
stating that humans are still undergoing the
evolution process.
The article is overall organized in a manner that is easy to
understand.
The readers can follow his argument even if they are
completely unfamiliar with the issue, since Stock
starts the essay by explaining what the germinal
choice technology is.
In the high scoring texts, the multiple-rheme pattern also occurs across multiple
paragraphs, as shown in examples 57 and 58. Student 2 and Student 3 both employ the
multiple-rheme pattern to organize the second part of their essays. As mentioned in the
section ―Textual Themes,‖ Student 2 uses both textual themes and the multiple-rheme
pattern to organize the essay. Student 2 begins paragraph 5 with the topic of part 2, Stock
is not a mature reasoner, and then starts each paragraph with one of the four criteria of
mature reasoning. The textual themes signal to the reader that another criteria of mature
reasoning will be discussed. This pattern makes it easy for the reader to follow the
organization of the second part of the essay.
The multiple-rheme pattern also appears in the second part of Student 3‘s essay,
as shown in example 58. Paragraph 4 first provides background information to the reader
on the criteria of mature reasoning and then gives an evaluation of how Stock meets these
criteria, While Stock is well informed, and argues with his audience in mind, and knows
60
his arguments’ contexts, he is not self-critical. The following four paragraphs begin with
one of the criteria of mature reasoning as topic sentence. The multiple-rheme pattern
allows the reader to predict what would come next, what the main idea of each paragraph
is, and how it contributes to the student‘s argument.
(57) Student 2
¶ Textual
Theme
Ideational
Theme
Rheme
¶ 5 Stock is not a mature reasoner.
A mature
reasoner
needs to present information that is supported by
evidence.
¶ 6 Second,
<M-R>
a mature
reasoner
is self-critical and open to constructive criticism,
meaning that he or she understands the criticisms in a fair
manner, and if necessary, is willing to accept criticisms.
¶ 7 Third,
<M-R>
mature
reasoner
argues with their audiences in mind, meaning that he or
she makes a claim that is also clear to the people with
different points of view.
¶ 8 Finally,
<M-R>
a mature
reasoner knows the argument’s context.
¶ 9 In
conclusion,
Stock‘s
argument
provides a large amount of information coming from his
expertise, but they do not necessarily support his claim
effectively.
(58) Student 3
¶ Textual
Theme
Ideational Theme Rheme
¶ 4 Gregory Stock is not a mature reasoner.
To be a mature reasoner a person has to meet the following criteria: the
person has to be well informed, be self-critical,
argue with his audience in mind, and know his
arguments‘ context.
While Stock is well
informed, and argues
with his audience in
mind, and knows his
arguments’ contexts,
he is not self-critical. <M-R>
¶ 5 Stock is well informed. <M-R>
¶ 6 Stock is not self-critical. <M-R>
¶ 7 Stock argues with his audience in mind. <M-R>
¶ 8 Finally, Stock knows his arguments’ context. <M-R>
61
SUMMARY
Overall, the analysis of theme and rheme choices in the high and low scoring texts
reveals that theme and rheme choices can affect the coherence of a text. The analysis of
unmarked themes indicates that the high scoring papers employ denser and more complex
nominal groups which establish connections between different parts of discourse and
reflect the focus of the assignment. In contrast, the low scoring papers frequently employ
the author as unmarked theme, which weakens the coherence of the texts.
Comparing the marked themes in the high and low groups reveals that coherence
is achieved in the high scoring texts through the strategic use of something other than the
grammatical subject. The marked themes create links to earlier stages of the text
(discourse old information) and make the departure of the message more abstract ideas
related to the topic of the paper assignment. On the other hand, the low scoring papers
primarily rely on circumstantial adjuncts to refer to the article, which, like the overuse of
the unmarked theme Stock or he, weakens the coherence of the text.
The study found no interpersonal themes, which is not surprising given that in
academic discourse interpersonal meaning tends to be expressed through other
grammatical resources in the rheme. As for textual themes, the high scoring texts use a
greater variety of textual themes to create cohesion in the texts in comparison to the low
scoring papers. In addition, textual themes often coincide with the multiple-rheme pattern
as a means of organizing texts.
The analysis of thematic progression also reveals differences between the two
groups. As for the theme reiteration pattern, in the low scoring group, the repetition of the
same simple theme makes the texts appear undeveloped and disconnected. In contrast, the
high scoring texts tend to employ the same theme in combination with other elements in
extended and complex themes, which makes the ideas in the texts more developed and
coherent.
The zig-zag pattern, which appears more frequently in the high scoring texts than
the low scoring texts, is employed through different grammatical resources in the two
groups. In the high group, the zig-zag patterns are often accompanied by extended themes
and nominalization to create cohesion and a sense of development in their texts. The
effect of this construction is that the argument is progressively developed as each clause
62
expands the discussion with the connections between the clauses made explicit. In
contrast, in the low group, the zig-zag patterns are often realized with demonstrative
pronouns (e.g. this) used to refer to previous clauses.
As with the zig-zag pattern, the multiple-rheme pattern occurs more often in the
high scoring texts than the low scoring texts. The analysis found that this method of
thematic progression can organize a text in a way that allows the reader to predict what
will follow both within and across paragraphs.
In summary, the theme-rheme framework, which captures the textual
metafunction of discourse, is an effective analytical framework for understanding the
construction of coherence in student writing. Evaluating theme and rheme choices reveals
how the arrangement of ideational, interpersonal, and textual meanings can contribute to
or detract from a text‘s coherence.
63
CHAPTER 5
THEME-RHEME TEACHING MATERIALS
Following the results of this study, this chapter presents classroom activities that
introduce students to the grammar of theme-rheme in order to improve the coherence of
their writing. The following lesson draws on the present study and previously mentioned
research and provides a model of how the theme-rheme analytical framework can be
incorporated into an academic writing curriculum. The lesson described in this chapter is
intended for an undergraduate ESL academic reading and writing course; however, it can
be adapted for other levels and contexts.
INTRODUCTION
As mentioned in Chapter 1, while coherence has been considered fundamental to
the success of an academic paper, ESL writing instruction appears to lack a systematic
way of teaching coherence (Lee, 2002; Witte & Faigely, 1981). Instruction tends to focus
on ―local‖ coherence problems related to mechanical and grammatical errors or cohesive
devices despite the fact that ―global coherence,‖ which looks at the coherence of a text as
a whole, needs to be addressed in the ESL classroom in a systematic way (Bamberg,
1983; Lee, 2002; Schleppegrell, 2009; Witte & Faigely, 1981). The findings of this study
and previous research suggest that SFL, with its emphasis on meaning and function, and
theme-rheme, the grammar which identifies the lexico-grammatical elements of the
textual metafunction, provide an effective framework for identifying coherence in student
texts (Bloor & Bloor, 1992; Christie & Dreyfus, 2007; Eggins, 2004; Schleppegrell,
2004, 2009; Vande Kopple, 1991; Wang, 2007). As a result, it has been suggested that
the grammar of theme-rheme can be incorporated into writing instruction (Bloor & Bloor,
1992; Christie & Dreyfus, 2007; Schleppegrell, 2004, 2009; Vande Kopple, 1991; Wang,
2007). The following lesson has a sequence of activities which first develop students‘
meta-awareness of coherence and theme and rheme, and then allow students to apply it to
their writing to improve its coherence.
64
THE THEME-RHEME LESSON
The lesson described in this chapter is an example of a theme-rheme lesson which
can be used during the revision stage of the writing process. Schleppegrell (2009)
suggested that composition instructors help students analyze their texts in terms of
thematic structure and progression after students have written their first drafts and before
sentence-level editing. In this way, students can improve the way information flows and
meaning is developed in their texts before focusing on grammatical errors. The activities
in this lesson offer students opportunities to analyze student texts and authentic texts in
addition to their own writing. The texts in the lesson were taken from this study so that
the students could see models of the particular genre they are expected to produce. For
the authentic text, I chose ―Choosing Our Genes‖ by Gregory Stock (2009), which is the
article the students analyze and evaluate for the writing assignment. The students would
already be familiar with the text and could focus on the theme-rheme analysis and not
have the additional task of understanding the text. Texts from different genres can be
used for the lesson depending on the particular context and population of students.
The lesson to follow is divided into five sections: 1) introduction to theme-rheme,
2) analysis of authentic and model texts, 3) introduction to thematic patterns, 4) analysis
of theme patterns in student texts, and 5) application to the students‘ writing. First, the
students are introduced to the notion of coherence and the grammar of theme-rheme. This
is followed by activities which allow students to analyze the theme and rheme structure
of sentences followed by paragraphs. The same process is repeated for theme-rheme
patterns: first, students are introduced to the grammar and then activities follow which
allow them to identify and analyze these patterns in texts. Finally, the lesson ends with
the students peer reviewing each other‘s essays for thematic structuring and then
analyzing their own texts. The lesson will be described below with the pedagogical
rationale behind the activities. The complete student lesson and a teacher‘s guide are
found in Appendix C.
Introduction to Coherence and Theme-Rheme
The lesson begins with Part 1, a warm-up activity which asks students to read two
excerpts of student writing from the present study, one which received a high grade and
65
the other a low grade. Guided questions follow which ask students to compare the texts in
terms of how they begin sentences and how well connections are made between
sentences. This activity precedes the introduction to theme-rheme in order to activate
their schemata by drawing their attention to how sentences begin and how connections
between sentences can affect the coherence of a text.
Following the warm-up, Part 2 provides students with an explanation of
coherence and its importance in writing. Then, a grammar box is presented with
grammatical explanations of theme and rheme and the different types of themes (textual,
ideational, and interpersonal). All explanations are accompanied with examples. Lee
(2000, 2002) found that developing students‘ meta-awareness of coherence can help
students revise the discourse level of their texts and improve the overall coherence of
their writing. Studies have also suggested that teaching students the notions of theme and
rheme can expand students‘ range of grammatical options for meaning-making that lead
to more effective writing (Schleppegrell, 2004, 2009; Vande Kopple, 1991; Wang 2007).
Part 2 of this lesson explains these concepts to students in a simplified grammar reference
box, which will later serve as a reference when they analyze texts for theme and rheme
structure and coherence.
Analysis of Authentic and Model Texts
Part 3 provides students with the opportunity to practice identifying the theme,
rheme, and various theme types in single sentences. The purpose of the activity is for
students to consolidate the knowledge they acquired in Part 2 before attempting to
analyze longer texts. In Part 4, students do a theme-rheme analysis of the two student
texts they read in Part 1. The goal of this activity is for students to analyze the theme-
rheme patterns in small texts before they start analyzing longer texts. In addition, this
activity gives students the opportunity to learn how theme and rheme choices can affect
the success of a text, given that they are comparing a low scoring text to a high scoring
one. Research has shown that comparing a successful text to an unsuccessful one can
illustrate which theme choices and organization are valued in a particular genre (Christie
& Dreyfus, 2007). Vande Kopple (1991, p. 327) recommended that students become
aware of the reasons for which they choose themes and how clauses fit together in a text
66
for the particular context since many students often ―select ideational themes
capriciously‖ and ―produce a string of clauses that lack a consistent focal point.‖
Given that the texts chosen for this activity were taken from the present study,
they illustrate which theme structures are valued in this genre and contribute to text
coherence. Therefore, in Part 3 teachers should highlight how the themes in the
successful text have some complex nominal groups which reflect the topic of the
paragraph and connect ideas between sentences (Schleppegrell, 2004, 2009). Instructors
should also emphasize the important role textual themes can play when used
appropriately to connect ideas between sentences (Schleppegrell, 2004; Vande Kopple,
1991). Instructors should point out that the low scoring text has the same repeated theme
which can create confusion on the part of the reader because the topic of the paragraph is
not clear in the themes and there is minimal connection between sentences (Christie &
Deryfus, 2007; Schleppegrell, 2004; Wang, 2007).
Part 5 is a scramble activity in which the themes have been cut up into strips. The
rhemes are provided in the order they appear in the original text and the students are
asked to decide where the themes belong. The rhemes can be scrambled as well to make
the task more challenging. An authentic text was chosen for this activity in order to give
students exposure to the theme-rheme patterns in another genre and increase their
knowledge of how coherence is created in various texts. Vande Kopple (1991)
recommended that an activity with scrambled ideational themes may help those students
who struggle with consistency in ideational themes. Part 5 teaches students that, in
coherent texts, ideational themes develop rhemes and focus logically and consistently on
related things in order for there to be topic development. In the activity, the teacher
should ask students how they chose where to place the scrambled themes and how
coherence is achieved in the text.
Introduction to Theme-Rheme Patterns
Part 6 introduces students to three types of theme-rheme patterns. Like Part 2, a
grammar reference box is provided with explanations of the patterns accompanied by
examples, which are student samples from the present study. In this way, students see the
patterns in the target writing genre for this particular course. Alongside the description of
67
the patterns, information is provided on how they can detract from or contribute to text
coherence. Theme reiteration can make a text difficult to follow or appear to lack topic
development in academic student writing, as found in previous research (Christie &
Dreyfus, 2007; Eggins, 2004; Schleppegrell, 2004; Vande Kopple, 1991; Wang, 2007)
and in the present study. The theme pattern most valued is zig-zag in which the
connections between ideas are explicit and dense nominal structures recapitulate old
information in the theme (Christie & Dreyfus, 2007; Eggins, 2004; Schleppegrell, 2004;
Wang, 2007). The multiple-rheme pattern can also provide a text with coherence by
providing an organizational pattern which indicates to the reader what will follow in a
text (Christie & Dreyfus, 2007; Eggins, 2004). The grammar reference box in Part 6 also
discusses how control of information structure, with old information preceding new
information, is also an important element in text coherence (Bloor & Bloor, 1992; Wang,
2007).
Analysis of Theme Patterns in Student Texts
Part 7 asks students to identify the theme-rheme patterns in three short texts,
which are student writings from the present study. This activity gives students the
opportunity to apply the knowledge of theme-rheme patterns they acquired in Part 6 and
practice identifying theme-rheme patterns in short texts before they attempt to analyze
longer texts.
In Part 8, students apply the grammar they learned in Part 2 and Part 6—theme,
rheme, theme types, and theme patterns—to a student model text. The particular text
chosen for this activity is the student model text which RWS 281 students are given as an
example of a high scoring text. Since analyzing a text can be overwhelming and time
consuming, the teacher can divide the essay into sections for groups of 3 to 4 students to
analyze. The identification of the thematic structure of the text should be accompanied by
a discussion on how the information flows to make the text coherent. Christie and
Dreyfus (2007) advocate a genre-based pedagogy, in which teachers identify target
genres and deconstruct those genre models for theme and thematic progression with their
students. A discussion of thematic elements can help students understand how the
68
meaning and purpose of a text unfolds when these elements are effectively arranged
(Christie & Dreyfus, 2007).
The model text provided in Part 8 includes the elements of a successful essay in
this particular genre, which were discussed in the results section of this study. These
elements include a variety of textual themes, complex structures in the theme (e.g.
subordinate clauses, dense nominal groups, and nominalization), and a combination of
theme reiteration and zig-zag progression. Wang (2007, p. 167) found that when students
do not properly control how information moves from theme to rheme, ―there is no clear
signpost directing the reader, who therefore cannot easily follow the progression of an
idea or argument.‖ Analyzing how coherence is created through the progression of
themes and rhemes in a successful text can provide a model for students to improve the
coherence of their own writing.
Application to the Students’ Writing
The theme-rheme lesson culminates in Part 9 and 10 where students take their
meta-knowledge of text coherence and theme and rheme structuring and apply it to their
own writing. In Part 9, students analyze the themes and rhemes of another student‘s text
as a peer review activity. The task also requires students to identify any theme patterns,
which they mark with abbreviations (T-R, Z-Z, and M-R). Each student chooses one
paragraph they feel is incoherent for another student to analyze. Rewriting the paragraph
in a chart will provide the students with a graphic image of how information is
developed. Vande Kopple (1991) suggested that students who have difficulty with
coherence in their writing would benefit from charting the ideational themes in their texts
because this type of activity often reveals the discontinuity in their theme and rheme
choices.
After charting the paragraph, students write a paragraph offering suggestions to
the other student on how some changes in the theme and rheme structure can improve the
text. To ensure that the peer review is successful, students should be held accountable for
giving feedback by having teachers reading, responding to, and grading peer responses
(Ferris & Hedgcock, 2005; Leki, 1990; Mittan, 1989). As a follow up, students are also
required to attach a paragraph to their final drafts in which they explain what suggestions
69
from the peer review were incorporated into the final drafts of their essay (Ferris &
Hedgcock, 2005). This will help students to think critically about the responses they have
received from their classmates.
In Part 10, students do a theme-rheme analysis of the first draft of their second
writing assignment. At this point in the lesson, students have had practice with this type
of analysis and will be better prepared to analyze their own texts. The students will also
write a paragraph, like in Part 9, describing the strengths and weaknesses of their theme
choices and making suggestions for improvement. As in the previous activity, the
students‘ analyses and paragraphs should be read by the teachers, who can comment and
make further suggestions for improvement. Schleppegrell (2009) suggested that leading
students through a theme-rheme analysis of their own texts can shed light on how well
their ideas are focused and developed and how effectively connections are established
between ideas.
CONCLUSION
All of the activities in this lesson are designed to build students‘ meta-knowledge
of coherence and theme-rheme in order to give students more grammatical resources to
improve the coherence of their writing. Furthermore, students become aware of how
information and ideas should flow in a text so that it can be easily understood by the
reader. In addition, students learn about which theme and rheme structures are valued in
the target genre and other academic genres, such as complex nominal groups and zig-zag
progression. Finally, students are given opportunities to apply this knowledge to improve
their own writing.
70
CHAPTER 6
CONCLUSIONS
This study investigated the potential role the theme-rheme framework can play in
assisting ESL undergraduates to improve the coherence of their writing. The study sought
to investigate whether certain theme and rheme choices can affect text coherence and
whether patterns of these choices could be identified in successful and less successful
papers. Eight student texts, four successful and coherent essays and four less successful
and less coherent texts, were analyzed for theme types (ideational, interpersonal, and
textual themes) and theme patterns (theme reiteration, zig-zag pattern, and multiple-
rheme pattern).
The quantitative and qualitative analyses revealed theme patterns particular to
each group. High scoring coherent texts use both unmarked and marked themes
consisting of dense and complex nominal groups. These themes are frequently used with
the zig-zag and theme reiteration patterns, which establish connections between different
parts of discourse and reflect the focus of the assignment (Christie & Dreyfus, 2007;
Schleppegrell, 2004). In addition, successful student essays employ a wide variety and
number of textual themes (Schleppegrell, 2004; Vande Kopple, 1991), which make the
connections between sentences explicit and also help organize a text through multiple-
rheme patterning. On the other hand, low scoring papers frequently overuse unmarked
themes of simple nominal groups or pronouns (Christie & Dreyfus, 2007; Schleppegrell,
2004) and tend to use theme reiteration in a way that makes the text difficult to follow
and appear to lack development (Christie & Dreyfus, 2007; Schleppegrell, 2004; Vande
Kopple, 1991; Wang, 2007).
This study contributes to the body of research in this area by confirming certain
theme-rheme patterns of successful and unsuccessful undergraduate writing through both
qualitative and quantitative analysis. Based on the results, it can be concluded that the
theme-rheme framework is a useful tool for identifying coherence difficulties in ESL
student writing. These findings have implications for ESL writing instruction. Previous
71
studies have discussed the potential of the theme-rheme framework to help students with
their writing and this study presents teaching materials based on the grammar of theme-
rheme which can be incorporated into an ESL writing curriculum. The lesson is designed
to raise students‘ meta-awareness of coherence and teach theme-rheme as a tool to
improve the text flow and coherence of their writing. Though the lesson is tailored for a
particular undergraduate ESL academic writing course, the lesson can serve as a model of
how to incorporate theme-rheme instruction into any ESL writing classroom.
While this study has useful results and implications for ESL instruction, there are
several limitations. First, the study was limited in size and scope. An analysis of a larger
sample of student writing would have strengthened the findings and potentially yielded
additional results. Another limitation is that the theme-rheme framework may not capture
all of the elements of text coherence. According to Lee (2000, 2002), six factors
characterize coherence, of which theme-rheme patterns are only one element. Despite this
limitation, the study‘s analysis of student texts suggests that the effective use of theme-
rheme can help students improve the coherence of their writing and the teaching
materials in Chapter 5 offer a model of how this grammar can be taught to students.
This study has attempted to add to the research base of theme-rheme pedagogy,
but more research and attention is needed to examine the potential benefits of theme-
rheme as a tool in the ESL classroom. First, future studies can compare more student
texts and also compare the theme and rheme choices across different genres expected of
students in undergraduate courses. Secondly, future research can study the effects of
theme-rheme instruction with pre- and post-writing to examine whether this particular
type of instruction improves the coherence of student writing. Cheng (2008) and Ho
(2009) have conducted similar studies to investigate the effectiveness of genre-based
pedagogies informed by SFL, but to my knowledge no studies have focused solely on the
effectiveness of theme-rheme instruction.
To conclude, there are many important attributes of successful
undergraduate writing but coherence is one of the most fundamental. When a student
produces a text difficult for a reader to follow, the success of their writing is undermined
regardless of the merit of their ideas and other positive elements of their writing.
Sentence- and word-level grammatical errors can detract from a text‘s coherence, but
72
discourse-level errors also weaken the readability of a text. However, making these
discourse-level problems explicit to students has been problematic for teachers. SFL, and
in particular the theme-rheme framework, can be used by both teachers and learners to
identify discourse level errors. The theme-rheme framework provides students with a
grammatical resource to make conscious theme and rheme choices that improve the
coherence of their texts by making the connections between ideas clear, allowing for
topic development, and giving sentences a clear focus. Overall, SFL and the theme-rheme
system provide ESL students with the language resources to produce the type of writing
that allows them to be successful in their academic communities.
73
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RWS 281 - - Academic Reading and Writing
Texts: Gregory Stock, ―Choosing Our Genes‖
Paper #1 - Evaluating an argument: this paper is a minimum of three pages.
Part One:
Explain the rhetorical context, including who the author is and his point of view, as well as
the intended audience as you infer it from clues outside and inside the text. Describe what
you see as the claim and reason. Comment on the organization, referring to groups of
paragraphs and the role they play in the argument. Be specific and refer to actual passages.
Part Two: Evaluate the argument. How effective might it have been for its target audience? Focus
on the text of the argument, but discuss its strengths and weaknesses. Your point is not
simply to agree or disagree with the author; instead, show your understanding of the qualities
of mature reasoners (see pages 11-14).
Four Criteria for Mature Reasoning:
Mature reasoners are well informed
Mature reasoners are self-critical and open to constructive criticism
Mature reasoners argue with their audiences or readers in mind
Mature reasoners know their arguments‘ contexts
Successful essays will:
Have a well developed section on ―rhetorical context‖;
Have a description of the intended audience that goes beyond a superficial statement;
Explain the claim and reason;
Detail the text‘s organization and speculate on why the author used that organization;
Use the criteria for mature reasoning to evaluate the text‘s effectiveness for its
intended audience.
79
Excellent (5) Good (5/4) Satisfactory (4/3) Inadequate (3/2) Failing (2/1)
Thesis: A controlling
idea responding to the
assignment and
developed in a
thoughtful and
creative manner.
Thesis answers
question and shows
genuine involvement
with material.
A controlling idea
which responds to the
assignment in a
multi-paragraph, if
formulaic, paper.
The controlling idea
is too general or too
narrow. Thesis
promises one paper,
body delivers
another.
The controlling
idea is unclear or
doesn‘t answer
the question.
Organization:
Overall structure and
paragraph
organization are
particularly effective
or subtle and organic.
Overall structure is
clear. Thought
process easy to
follow. Paragraph
information is well
ordered and detailed.
Overall structure is
clear. Paragraph
order and content
connect to thesis.
Paragraph
information is well
ordered and detailed.
Weak organization
due to unclear order
of paragraphs or off-
topic information.
Paragraphs are overly
general or
incoherently ordered
Weak or little
evident
organization.
Paragraphs are
either
underdeveloped or
long and
meandering.
Content: Paper
shows sophisticated
understanding of the
material and careful
thought in
development and
choice of support.
Strong analysis in
well-developed
paragraphs, based on
assigned readings.
Examples are well
chosen to illustrate
argument.
Competent analysis
with good examples,
illustrating a
satisfactory
understanding of the
assigned reading.
Inadequate paragraph
development with
inaccurate or minimal
use of information in
assigned reading.
Use of
information is
insufficient,
inaccurate or
illogical; or,
writing is simply a
series of
disconnected
summaries.
Transitions:
Transitions signal
changes in thought
process throughout
text. Use of
metalanguage.
Transitions provide
coherence between
ideas in paragraphs
and sentences. Use of
metalanguage.
Adequate use of
transitions to signal
changes in thought
process between
paragraphs and some
sentences.
Minimal or
inappropriate use of
transitions.
Relationships
between ideas left up
to the reader.
Frequently
lacking
transitions.
Transitions are
elementary,
jarring, or
inappropriate.
Intro/Conclusion:
Informative and
interesting intro that
fits the topic.
Conclusion crucial to
paper‘s impact.
Informative intro.
Conclusion
appropriate for paper.
Possible intro/concl
tie-in.
Introduction is
appropriate.
Conclusion ends
paper somewhat
mechanically.
Intro is abrupt and
uninformative.
Conclusion either
abrupt or out of
synch with the rest of
the paper.
Either little or no
introduction or
conclusion OR
one or the other is
off topic. Intro or
concl detract from
paper.
Sentence Control:
Sentences are
information dense,
and varied in both
length and structure.
Appropriate for
audience.
Sophisticated, varied
and interesting.
Includes appositives,
parallel structure, and
effective use of
active/passive voices.
Complete sentences
with frequent use of
subordination,
coordination, and
parallel structure.
Too many simple
sentences; run-ons,
fragments, comma-
splices; repetitive
sentences; unclear
order of words;
inaccurate pronouns.
Many simple or
incoherent
sentences.
Diction: Mature and
consistently effective
word choice and tone.
Mature and
consistently effective
word choice and
tone.
Appropriate choice of
words and
expressions,
especially vocabulary
of the course and the
text.
Inaccurate use of
words. Repetitive use
of words. Use of
words that are overly
general.
Frequent misuse
of common words
and phrases.
Mechanical Issues:
Virtually no
grammar,
punctuation, or
mechanics errors.
Infrequent grammar
and mechanics errors.
Some, but not many,
grammar and
mechanics errors.
Frequent and varied
errors cause
confusion and
interfere with
reader‘s
understanding.
Many major
grammar,
punctuation, and
mechanics errors.
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THEME-RHEME LESSON
Part 1. Warm-up
The two paragraphs below were written by two RWS students. In both paragraphs, the
students are evaluating Stock’s article for whether he knows the argument’s context.
Compare the two texts and answer the questions that follow. Discuss your answers with
another student.
Student 1
Stock also shows that he has knowledge of his argument‘s context by sharing his expertise in
genetic engineering with the readers. His credentials speak for his years of dedication in genetic
sciences, which include his position as the director of the Program on Medicine, Technology, and
Society at UCLA and being widely recognized as one of the prominent speakers for genetic evolution
(Speakers Platform Keynote Speakers Bureau). Since Stock advocates that genetic engineering
would only improve humans‘ lives, he believes it is only logical to promote its development rather
than impede it. He also shares his knowledge and expertise about genetic engineering and the
increased progress of scientists‘ work worldwide, which the United States should also be a part of
(Stock 666). Hence, his credentials and knowledge in genetic engineering substantially support his
claim and refutations.
Student 2
Stock is well aware of genetic engineering technology and he knows that this technology will
be used to treat illnesses. He is very knowledgeable about how genetic engineering will have better
progress in the near future. He gives a lot of examples of the progress of genetic engineering
technology and supports the new progress. However, he does not mention how research of genetic
engineering technology is supported. He assures the reader that genetic engineering technology will
treat illnesses that human beings suffer from.
Questions:
1. Which text do you think is easier to understand and why?
2. How does Student 1 begin his or her sentences? Student 2? How do they differ?
3. In which text are the connections between the sentences clearer? Give an example.
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Teacher’s Guide: The purpose of this activity is to draw students‘ attention to how theme
choices can affect the coherence of the text before introducing the terms theme and rheme.
Read the directions aloud to the students. Then, have the students read the text and answer
the questions in pairs or small groups.
Answer Key: (answers can vary)
1. Student 1‘s text is more successful. One idea follows the other and the text flows
smoothly.
In Student 2‘s text, ideas are not developed and ideas are not clearly connected. For example,
Student 2 argues that Stock does not explain how ―research of genetic engineering is
supported.‖ However, the following sentence does not clearly explain how this is the case.
Also, in Student 2‘s text there is no clear topic sentence at the beginning of the paragraph in
contrast to Student 1‘s text.
2. Student 2 begins each sentence with ―Stock‖ or ―he‖(except for one case when the student
uses ―however‖). This makes the text appear monotonous and lacking in development.
Student 1 begins each sentence differently. However, the way each sentence begins is not
random; they link to previous ideas in the paragraph. For example, in the last sentence
Student 1 makes reference to what he or she had discussed previously in the paragraph (―his
credentials and knowledge in genetic engineering‖).
3. The connections between sentences are more obvious in Student 1‘s text. For example, in
the first sentence the writer mentions Stock‘s ―expertise‖ which is expanded on in the second
sentence (―His credentials speak for his years of dedication in genetic sciences…‖).
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Part 2. Introduction to coherence and theme-rheme
The success of an essay or paper can depend on different factors, such as grammatical
accuracy and the validity or relevance of the content. Another very important factor is
whether the text can be easily understood, commonly referred to as coherence. Being aware
or conscious of how information is arranged and what is included or excluded can make your
paper or essay successful and clear to the reader. Charting the theme and rheme in texts can
help you arrange your ideas and information more effectively. Theme and rheme are
explained in the box below:
Theme & Rheme
The theme is the point of departure of a message and indicates what the sentence is going to be
about. The theme is usually the grammatical subject of the sentence, which may be a proper noun
(e.g. Gregory Stock), pronoun (e.g. He, She), or noun phrase (e.g. One of the reasons, Population
growth).
The rheme is everything that follows the theme. The rheme usually develops whatever is the theme.
Examples:
A mature reasoner is someone who argues with his or her audience in mind.
Theme Rheme
Rising unemployment rates have put a strain on the economy.
Theme Rheme
Sometimes, sentences do not begin with the grammatical subject of the sentence. The theme can be a
prepositional phrase, adverb of time, or subordinate clause.
In the beginning, all committee members gathered to discuss the issue.
Theme Rheme
According to a report in the New York Times, Apple is developing a smaller and cheaper iPhone.
Theme Rheme
Yesterday a decision was finally made.
Theme Rheme
Although studies have proven that smoking causes cancer, many people continue to smoke.
Theme Rheme
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Themes Types
Sentence can also begin with transition words, such as For example, To sum up, Moreover, to make
a connection to the previous sentence. These are called textual themes. The themes discussed
previously—the grammatical subject, prepositional phrases, adverbs, and subordinate clauses—are
called ideational themes.
Example:
Textual Theme Ideational Theme Rheme
The government has enacted strict gun laws.
Nevertheless, it continues to be very easy for people to purchase firearms.
Sentences may also have interpersonal themes though they are not as common in academic
writing.
Interpersonal themes express the writer‘s attitude and can include Personally, In my opinion,
(Un)fortunately.
Example:
Interpersonal Theme Ideational Theme Rheme
Unfortunately, the United States has rejected the Kyoto Protocol despite the fact
they are one of the biggest producers of
greenhouse gases.
*All sentences must have an ideational theme, while textual and interpersonal themes are optional.
Teacher’s Guide: Read the introduction to part 2 aloud to the class. Emphasize the
importance of coherence in a text. Explain to students that one method of analyzing the
coherence of a text is to look at theme and rheme. Review the grammar box with the
students, explaining each term and the examples which follow.
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Part 3. Identifying theme and rheme
Identify the theme and rheme in the sentences below by underlining the theme. Also,
determine whether the themes are ideational, textual, or interpersonal.
1. Martin Luther King was an influential civil right‘s advocate and inspirational speaker.
2. The article first explains the problem and then offers a solution.
3. Moreover, the World Health Organization has conducted extensive studies on the subject
of media violence.
4. Throughout the article, Rhodes provides statistical evidence to support his claims.
5. Fortunately, people are starting to realize the damage being done to the environment.
6. The evidence Rhodes provides to support his claim strengthens his claim.
7. Although the author is well-informed, he is not self-critical.
8. Since 2008, the unemployment rate has been rising.
Teacher’s Guide: The purpose of this activity is for students to practice identifying the
various types of themes and rhemes.
Read the instructions aloud to the class. Model the first item with the class. After students
complete the activity, they should compare their answers with another student. Then, review
the answers with the class.
Answer Key:
ID=Ideational, TX = Textual, IN = Interpersonal
1. Martin Luther King (ID) was an influential civil right‘s advocate and inspirational speaker.
2. The article (ID) first explains the problem and then offers a solution.
3. Moreover, (TX) the World Health Organization (ID) has conducted extensive studies on
the subject of media violence.
4. Throughout the article, (ID) Rhodes provides statistical evidence to support his claims.
5. Fortunately, (IN) people (ID) are starting to realize the damage being done to the
environment.
6. The evidence Rhodes provides to support his claim (ID) strengthens his argument.
7. Although the author is well-informed, (ID) he is not self-critical.
8. Since 2008, (ID) the unemployment rate has been rising.
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Part 4. Comparing theme and rheme in student texts
Identify the themes and rhemes in the two student texts in Part 1. Make a note of which
themes are ideational, interpersonal, and textual. How do the theme and rheme choices make
one text more successful than the other?
Teacher’s Guide: The aim of this activity is for students to apply the knowledge they have
learned about theme and rheme to a genre they will be expected to produce. In addition,
asking students to compare a coherent and less coherent text will make them more aware of
what types of themes are valued in this genre.
Read the instructions out loud. Have students work in pairs or small groups. Highlight how
the theme choices in Student 1‘s paragraph are longer nominal groups, reflect more closely
the main idea of the paragraph, and connect ideas between sentences (see Discussion below).
Answer Key:
Theme-rheme analysis: Student 1
Stock (ID) also shows that he has knowledge of his argument‘s context by sharing his
expertise in genetic engineering with the readers. His credentials (ID) speak for his years of
dedication in genetic sciences, which include his position as the director of the Program on Medicine,
Technology, and Society at UCLA and being widely recognized as one of the prominent speakers
for genetic evolution (Speakers Platform Keynote Speakers Bureau). Since Stock advocates that
genetic engineering would only improve humans’ lives, (ID) he believes it is only logical to
promote its development rather than impede it. He (ID) also shares his knowledge and expertise
about genetic engineering and the increased progress of scientists‘ work worldwide, which the United
States should also be a part of (Stock 666). Hence, (TX) his credentials and knowledge in genetic
engineering (ID) substantially support his claim and refutations.
Student 2
Stock (ID) is well aware of genetic engineering technology and he knows that this technology
will be used to treat illnesses. He (ID) is very knowledgeable about how genetic engineering will have
better progress in the near future. He (ID) gives a lot of examples of the progress of genetic
engineering technology and supports the new progress. However, (TX) he (ID) does not mention how
research of genetic engineering technology is supported. He (ID) assures the reader that genetic
engineering technology will treat illnesses that human beings suffer from.
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Discussion:
Student 2 uses the same ideational theme (Stock & he) repeatedly. There is one
textual theme (However) to transition from discussing his strengths to his weaknesses.
In contrast, Student 1‘s themes vary and are longer (Stock, his credentials, Since
Stock advocates…, he, his credentials and knowledge…).
Looking at the ideational themes, it is clear that the writer wants to discuss Stock‘s
knowledge, beliefs, and expertise. On the other hand, Student 2 does not make the
focus obvious enough given that every theme is Stock or he.
Another difference between the two texts is that the themes in Student 2‘s text
connect ideas between sentences (see words in bold and the arrows).
88
Part 5. Scrambled Themes
Below is an excerpt of Gregory Stock’s article “Choosing Our Genes” in which the theme of
each sentence has been omitted. Your instructor will provide you with the original themes in
random order. Using the rhemes as a guide, place the themes in the appropriate boxes in the
chart. Underline the key words in the themes and/or rhemes that helped you decide the order.
Be prepared to explain how you chose where to place the themes.
Theme Rheme
¶ refers to a whole realm of technologies by which
parents influence the genetic constitutions of their
children at the time of their conception.
would be to correct genes.
is not a particularly radical departure, since it would
have exactly the same effect as could be
accomplished by screening multiple embryos and
picking one with the desired genes.
is being done now in preimplantation genetic
diagnosis.
has been in use for more than a decade, but what can
be tested for is going to become increasingly
sophisticated in the next five to 10 years.
the kinds of decisions that parents can make will
become much more complex.
¶
will be germline interventions-alterations to the egg,
sperm, or more likely the first cell of an embryo.
are being done already in animal systems, but using
approaches that don't have the safety or reliability
that would be required in human beings.
Themes: (cut into strips)
Germinal Choice Technology The simplest such
intervention
It In fact, such embryo screening
Such technology And as these technologies
mature,
Farther into
the future
These procedures
89
Teacher’s Guide: The aim of this activity is to give students exposure to the theme and
rheme structures in an authentic text. Also, the scramble activity should help students
understand the reasons for using the various kinds of themes, and how clauses fit together in
a text in a particular context.
Read the instructions aloud to the students. Explain that they should decide where the themes
belong in the text. Elicit responses from the students as to how they decided where the
themes belong. Highlight any key words that indicate where the themes belong and
contribute to the coherence and cohesion of the text (see bold). Also, ask students what the
pronouns or any other reference words refer to. To make the activity more difficult, the
rhemes could also be scrambled. The paragraph symbols (¶) in the chart indicate the
beginning of a new paragraph.
Answer Key:
Germinal choice technology refers to a whole realm of technologies by which
parents influence the genetic constitutions of their children at the time of their
conception. The simplest such intervention would be to correct genes. It is not a particularly
radical departure, since it would have exactly the same effect as could be accomplished by
screening multiple embryos and picking one with the desired genes. In fact, such
embryo screening is being done now in preimplantation genetic diagnosis. Such technology
has been in use for more than a decade, but what can be tested for is going to become
increasingly sophisticated in the next five to 10 years. And as these technologies mature,
the kinds of decisions that parents can make will become much more complex.
Farther into the future will be germline interventions-alterations to the egg,
sperm, or more likely the first cell of an embryo. These procedures are being done already in
animal systems, but using approaches that don't have the safety or reliability that would be
required in human beings.
Notes: The author develops the text by connecting ideas between themes and rhemes. For
example, in sentence 3 ―screening multiple embryos and picking one with desired genes‖ is
incorporated into the following theme ―such embryo screening.‖ Stock uses the words ―such‖
and ―these‖ to make connections to previous theme and rhemes. These patterns allow the
connections between sentences to be visible and obvious. This also occurs between
paragraphs. Stock ends paragraph 3 by making predictions on the progress of these
technologies in ―the next five to 10 years‖ and then begins paragraph 4 indicating what he
thinks will happen ―farther into the future.‖ This makes the text organized and easy for the
reader to follow.
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Part 6. Introduction to theme-rheme patterns
As seen in the previous activities, the organization of themes and rhemes in a text can make a
text more or less successful. There are three types of theme-rheme patterns that appear across
multiple sentences and paragraphs.
Theme-rheme patterns:
1. Theme reiteration
Theme reiteration occurs when the same theme appears repeatedly in a text. This pattern can make a
text difficult for the reader to follow because every sentence begins the same way. Theme reiteration
may give the impression that the topic lacks development because each sentence begins the same
way.
Example:
In his article, “Choosing Our Genes,” Stock claims that genetic engineering will improve the health
of children so it should not be banned. He believes we will have the technology to change humans
genetically. He thinks we will use this science. He thinks we should look toward the future and make
decisions about how this knowledge should be used. Stock contends that technological advances will
allow scientists to identify, isolate, and modify our genes.
2. Zig-zag pattern
A text uses the zig-zag pattern when information in a preceding rheme appears in the following
theme. Academic texts often use this pattern to connect ideas between sentences and paragraphs and
to develop ideas. Notice that the information in the themes contain somewhat long and complex noun
phrases, which appear frequently in academic writing.
Examples:
An author who has his or her audience in mind makes an effort to connect with different people and
different points of view (14). Readers who do not agree on Stock’s point of view may feel that the
article is not convincing because their questions failed to be addressed.
¶3 This kind of structure allows the readers to follow the content relatively easily without getting
lost in the middle.
¶4 The reader-friendly structure also attracts more audiences.
3. Multiple-rheme pattern
The multiple-rheme pattern occurs when the rheme (or sometimes theme) of one clause introduces a
number of different pieces of information, each of which is made theme in later clauses in a
paragraph or an entire text.
Example:
Aside from the weaknesses of Stock’s article, he also portrays strengths that made his argument
strong. One of his strengths is his authority figure as a scientist, professor, and an expert in genetic
engineering that explains and justifies technical scientific terms to the readers. In addition, his vast
knowledge in this field supported his refutations to the opposing view and helped convince his
readers.
*Old & New Information
In texts, the theme is often old information which is familiar to the reader. The rheme is usually new
information that develops the old information in the theme. Keeping this in mind can help you write
essays that flow well and are easy for the reader to understand.
91
Teacher’s Guide: Read the introduction to part 6 aloud to the class. Emphasize the
importance of how the organization of themes and rhemes in larger bodies of text can affect
the coherence of a text. Explain to students that there are patterns of theme-rheme
organization which are more valued in academic writing. Review the grammar box with the
students, explaining each pattern and the examples which follow. When discussing old and
new information, the instructor may use the examples under ―zig-zag pattern‖ and ―multiple-
rheme pattern‖ to help students understand the concept.
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Part 7. Identifying theme-rheme patterns
Which theme pattern do texts 1-3 display? Explain how the theme patterns make the texts
more or less coherent. Compare your answers with your partner.
1. The Futurist is a journal targeting such readers who are concerned about issues people will
face in the future. These issues are various, ranging from environmental problems to ethical
and social subjects.
2. Stock did a good job of supporting his claim that we should not ban genetic engineering.
He appeals to our emotions by explaining that genetic engineering might prevent unborn
babies from having incurable hereditary diseases, such as cystic fibrosis. He argues from
logical statistics to show that genes determine how likely it is a person will have a disease.
3. In his article, Stock gives two reasons to support his claim. First, he suggests that genetic
engineering will prevent diseases…. Second, he also suggests that genetic engineering will
enhance the ―physical or mental well-being of children‖ (664).
Teacher’s Guide
The purpose of activity 7 is for students to practice identifying the various types of theme-
rheme patterns.
Read the instructions aloud to the class. Then, ask students to compare their answers with
another student and discuss how the patterns make the texts more or less coherent.
Answer Key:
1. Zig-zag pattern
2. Theme reiteration
3. Multiple-rheme pattern
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Part 8. Theme-rheme analysis of student model essay
Do a theme-rheme analysis of sections of a student model essay. Underline the themes and
identify any of the three theme-rheme patterns. Be prepared to explain how the theme-
rheme structure contributes to the development of ideas and text flow. Also, underline key
words in the theme and rheme that contribute to the text organization. The teacher will assign
a section of the essay for your group to analyze.
Rhetorical Analysis of “Hollow Claims about Fantasy Violence”
Part One
―Hollow Claims about Fantasy Violence‖ was written by Richard Rhodes, on
September 17, 2000, in The New York Times. Rhodes is an American journalist, historian,
and author of fiction and non-fiction books, articles, and essays. He graduated from Yale
University and has won awards for his work, The Making of the Atomic Bomb. He also wrote
a book called Why They Kill, in which he gives interviews with convicted murderers.
In ―Hollow Claims,‖ Rhodes questions both sides of the issue of media violence and
its affect on children. For example, Rhodes asks, ―But is there really a link between
entertainment and violent behavior?‖ (185). Then he tells how some researchers think it is
true that entertainment does cause violent behavior: ―The American Medical Association, the
American Psychological Association, the American Academy of Pediatrics and the National
Institute of Mental Health all say yes‖ (185). However, he also gives the alternate viewpoint
and says, ―In fact, no direct, causal link between exposure to mock violence in the media and
subsequent violent behavior has ever been demonstrated‖ (185). He gives both viewpoints on
the issue, but he agrees that media violence does not cause violent behavior in children. Mr.
Rhodes claims, ―But violence isn‘t learned from mock violence. There is good evidence--
causal evidence, not correlational--that it‘s learned in personal violent encounters, beginning
with the brutalization of children by their parents or their peers‖ (185). Kids do not learn
violence from entertainment; they learn violence from personal experience.
Mr. Rhodes audience is The New York Times readers. According to The New York
Times, they have a readership of 1.7 million across the United States and their readers are
people whose annual median income is $140,000; 76% of their readership has college
degrees. Rhodes audience may also be people who are cynical about politicians. He says,
―politicians can‘t resist blaming the media for violence‖ because politicians know that the
94
First Amendment won‘t be amended to stop media from broadcasting violence. Hence,
politicians won‘t ever have to do anything about childhood violence because they can use the
media as an excuse. He also says that if politicians can blame the media, they won‘t have to
restrict gun use in the United States (187). Rhodes‘ audience would be people who agree
with his idea of politicians because he does not offer any evidence to prove that politicians
might act this way; in other words, he assumes that everyone knows politicians act this way.
Paragraphs one and two introduce the topic of entertainment and violence in our
society and question whether entertainment really is the cause of childhood violence.
Paragraphs three to eleven present research studies and evidence showing both sides of the
argument over media violence and childhood violence. Showing research from opposing
viewpoints helps the reader to understand the issue and to see that the research often
contradicts itself. When Rhodes finally indicates that even after all this research, we don‘t
have a good idea if media violence causes childhood violence, the reader is ready to stop
spending money on research, as he suggests.
Part Two
Richard Rhodes is a mature reasoner because he argues with his audience and readers
in mind. For example at the beginning of his essay, he presents the reader with a question. It
seems like he is trying to find an answer to the question, just like the reader would like to
find an answer to the question. Since his audience is New York Times readers, they are
probably looking into their newspapers to help them answer questions, so this
question/answer format is something they would be familiar with.
Rhodes also is well informed about his topic. He gives us evidence for both sides of
the argument. In fact, the majority of his editorial is a description of various research projects
done on the effect of media violence on children. The studies are from well known
universities and organizations, so it seems that Rhodes has done a lot of investigating to find
out whether media violence is connected to childhood violence.
After reading the argument, though, it is easy to tell that Rhodes doesn‘t think there is
a connection and we are wasting our money on research. Even though Rhodes seems well
informed, he does not seem like he is open to alternative points of view. He provides the
research information in such a way that each report is contradicted by the next report. His
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purpose in giving the research information is not to educate, but to show that the money we
spend on research is a waste. Therefore, Rhodes doesn‘t fulfill the mature reasoner criteria of
―open to constructive criticism.‖ He clearly believes that childhood violence is learned only
from personal experience and he does not seem to be open to giving credit to alternative
viewpoints.
Rhodes does meet the mature reasoner criteria of ―knowing his argument‘s context.‖
He is able to discuss violence at various times in history and in various places around the
world. In fact, his best argument is when he explains about the Middle Ages. He says,
History alone should call such a link into question. Private violence has been
declining in the West since the media-barren late Middle Ages, when homicide
rates are estimated to have been 10 times what they are […] today. (185)
This evidence (there are violent times in our history that we cannot blame on the media)
seems like common sense, and he would not have included it if he did not know some history
about the topic.
Overall, Rhodes‘ argument does a good job of showing how research is not solving
the problem of childhood violence. His argument would be stronger if he included more
evidence to show that children learn violence from personal experience. He assumes that his
readers will agree with this statement. Because he does not offer evidence that children learn
violence from experience, it isn‘t obvious that the research money he believes is ―wasted‖
should be spent on mental health centers and emergency room records of child abuse. He
would have had a more persuasive argument if he had spent more time preparing the reader
to accept his assumption that violence is learned from experience. However, he meets many
of the ―mature reasoner criteria‖ and his argument would be easy to understand and agree
with if the reader already believes that media violence and childhood violence are
unconnected.
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Teacher’s Guide
The purpose of the activity is for students to be exposed to theme and rheme structures in the
genre they are expected to produce.
Before students are divided into groups, analyze the theme and rheme patterns in the first
paragraph as a whole class activity. Highlight how information flows in the text to make it
coherent.
Answer Key: (theme-rheme analysis of paragraph 1)
T-R = Theme reiteration, Z-Z = Zig-zag pattern, M-R = Multiple-rheme pattern
―Hollow Claims about Fantasy Violence‖ was written by Richard Rhodes, on
September 17, 2000, in The New York Times. (Z-Z) Rhodes is an American journalist,
historian, and author of fiction and non-fiction books, articles, and essays. (T-R) He
graduated from Yale University and has won awards for his work, The Making of the Atomic
Bomb. (T-R) He also wrote a book called Why They Kill, in which he gives interviews with
convicted murderers.
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Part 9. Charting theme-rheme as peer review
Exchange the first draft of your essay on Gregory Stock with your partner. First choose one
paragraph you feel needs revision. Your partner will chart the theme and rhemes of that
paragraph and identify theme patterns (T-R = Theme reiteration, Z-Z = Zig-zag pattern, M-R
= Multiple-rheme pattern). Then, your partner will write a short paragraph offering
suggestions on how some changes to your theme and rheme structure can improve the text.
You will do the same for your partner‘s text.
Paragraph # _____
Interpersonal
Theme
Textual
Theme
Ideational Theme Rheme
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Teacher’s Guide: The purpose of the peer review is to apply the theme-rheme framework to
improve the coherence of the students‘ writing.
Read the instructions aloud to the class. Pair up students and give them time in class to
complete the activity. Alternatively, the assignment can be done for homework. In order to
hold students accountable for their peer reviews, the teacher should read and respond to the
peer responses and then a photocopy can be made to be given to the peer reviewer. Also, you
may want to assign grades on the peer responses to ensure the activity is taken seriously. As a
follow-up, ask the students to write a short paragraphing explaining what suggestions from
the peer review were incorporated into the final draft of their essays. This will help students
to think critically about the responses they have received from their classmates.
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Part 10. Applying theme-rheme in individual texts
Do a theme-rheme analysis of the first draft of your essay. Underline the themes and identify
what type of theme it is (textual, interpersonal, or ideational). In addition, identify the theme-
rheme patterns you used (T-R = Theme reiteration, Z-Z = Zig-zag pattern, M-R = Multiple-
rheme pattern). Write a paragraph explaining the strengths of your theme-rheme choices and
also the weaknesses. Make suggestions for improvement. Attach the paragraph to your draft.
Teacher’s Guide: This activity can be done for the second writing assignment. At this point,
given that the students have been introduced to the theme-rheme framework and have
analyzed other texts, they will be better prepared to analyze their own theme and rheme
choices.
Read the instructions aloud to the class. If necessary, show students an example of how to do
the analysis and an example of a paragraph explaining the strengths and weaknesses of a text.
Assign the activity for homework.
Read the students‘ analyses and paragraphs and make any further suggestions they may have
overlooked.
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