dissertation on factors affecting training transfer
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Dissertation
On
“ Factors Affecting Transfer of Training”In education sector
UNDER GUIDENCE OF SUBMITTED BY
Mrs. Vijit Chaturvedi Deepti Joshi
09 MBA 017
SESSION 2009-11
LINGAYAS UNIVERSITY FARIDABAD
(HARYANA)
CONTENTS
Introduction Theoretical background of the topic
Industry profile
Research objectives Problem statement Significance of the study Objective of the study Review of literature Scope of the study Limitations of the study
Research methodology Research design Sampling plan Data collection
Analysis and interpretation Conclusion and recommendation Appendix
Copy of questionnaire Bibliography
INTRODUCTION
Training and development is an expensive investment for most organisations. It is fair to say that
employer’s aim to ensure that investments in training provide maximum returns. Unfortunately,
the extent to which transfer of skills learned in training are applied to the workplace have been
shown to be somewhat limited(Baldwin & Ford 1988; Broad & Newstrom 1992).
In a knowledge economy, knowledge sharing is becoming increasingly important. There is also
grounds well of support for the notion that the return on investment of training expenditure is
dependent on transfer of training occurring. Public sector organisations have been criticised for
their lack of accountability for these factors but this is now changing. For instance, in
Malaysia, although a study of government registered training providers demonstrated the use of
formal evaluation techniques, the author nevertheless recommended further improvements
(Hashim 2001). The researcher called for a greater focus on transfer of training outcomes in
Malaysian public sector education programs. On a wider scale, the concept of transfer of training
has attracted the attention of many training researchers and human resource development (HRD)
practitioners, particularly in terms of how transfer may be enhanced (Wexley & Latham 1991;
Holton, 1996; Holton, Bates & Ruona 2000). Training may be defined as a planned learning
experience designed to bring about permanent change in an individual’s knowledge, attitudes, or
skills (Campbell, Dunnette, Lawler & Weick 1970). In particular, organisations rely on learned
knowledge and skills being applied to the job. To a large extent, this behaviour constitutes a
transfer of training.
It has also been described as the maintenance of those skills, knowledge and attitudes over a
certain period of time (Baldwin & Ford 1988). In an HRD context, transfer of training represents
a core element transforming learning into individual performance (Holton 1996).In order to
improve transfer of training, it is important for organisations to not only understand the factors
that affect transfer, but also to ensure that the organisation’s training evaluation model takes
account of these factors. In a contemporary workplace dependent on knowledge management
and the optimal application of skills by a leaner, more educated workforce, organisations need to
turn to effective ways to ensure that knowledge generation and transfer are not overlooked. One
of those ways is to design a training program
that utilise the benefits of knowledge sharing. This paper outlines a research strategy to measure
the elements, which contribute to transfer of training by combining the LTSI, a model used to
examine factors affecting transfer of training (Holton, Bates & Ruona 2000) and TPB, a theory
which predicts trainees behavioural intentions and actual behaviour of sharing the learned
knowledge, skills and attitudes in the workplace (Ajzen 1991).
By doing so, this research proposal will extend existing knowledge of transfer of training and
provide trainers with an additional mechanism for evaluating successful workplace training
programs, initially in the context of the Idian service sector but, we predict, with generalisable
results for wider application.
The evolution of the transfer of training concept
Transfer of training is defined first, as the degree to which trainees apply the knowledge, skills
and attitudes gained in training to their job (Wexley & Latham 1991). Second, transfer of
training is measured by the maintenance of the skills, knowledge and attitudes over a certain
period of time (Baldwin & Ford 1988). Rouiller and Goldstein (1993) expanded the research on
transfer of training to include the concept of a ‘transfer climate’ consisting of situations and
consequences that either inhibit or help to facilitate the transfer of what has been learned in
training into a job situation. They suggested four types of ‘situational’ cues: goal cues, social
cues, task cues,and self-control cues. These cues remind trainees of what they have learned, or at
least provide an opportunity for them to use what they have learned. In contrast, ‘consequence’
cues were described as on-the-job outcomes which affect the extent to which training is
transferred. The four consequence cues comprise positive feedback, negative feedback,
punishment, and no feedback.
According to Holton, Bates, Seyler & Carvalho (1997), accurately measuring transfer of training
climate is important because it can help HRD move beyond the question of whether training
works, to analysing why training works. Therefore, having a valid and reliable measure of
transfer climate could help identify not only when an organisation is ready for a training
intervention, but also when individuals, groups and departments are ready for such an
intervention.
Another key factor identified by Holton et al. (1997) was the ‘opportunity to use’ which
described the extent to which trainees learn to obtain resources that enable them to use their new
skills on the job. Their study suggested that trainees perceive transfer climate according to
referents to the organisation (for example supervisor, peer, task or self) rather than according to
the psychological cues (goal cues, social cues), as proposed earlier by Rouiller and Goldstein
(1993). The factor analysis in Holton et al’s. (1997) study extracted 9 transfer climate constructs.
These constructs were Peer Support, Supervisor Support, Openness to Change, Personal
Outcomes Positive, Personal Outcomes Negative, Supervisor Sanctions, Content Validity,
Transfer Design and Opportunity to Use. In 2000, Holton et al expanded their work by
introducing the concept of a ‘transfer system’ which they defi ned as all factors in the person,
training, and organisation that infl uence transfer of learning to job performance. For example,
motivation to transfer is one of the factors affecting transfer but is not a transfer climate
construct. Therefore, the concept of transfer system is broader than transfer climate used by
Rouiller and Goldstein (1993).
Holton et al. (2000) used the earlier HRD Research and Evaluation Model (Holton 1996) as their
conceptual framework. In that framework, three primary training outcomes were defi ned. These
outcomes were learning, individual performance and organisational results, defi ned respectively,
as achievement of the learning outcomes desired in an HRD intervention; change in individual
performance as a result of the learning being applied on the job; and results at the organisational
level as a consequence of the change in individual performance (Holton 1996, p.9). The term
‘individual performance’ is used in the model instead of ‘behaviour’ in the Kirkpatrick (1994)
model because it is a broader construct and a more appropriate descriptor of HRD objectives.
The authors fi rst sought to incorporate the nine transfer climate constructs identifi ed in Holton
et al. (1997) study into the framework. They then searched the literature on transfer of training
to identify 7 other constructs that had not been previously tested in Holton et al’s. (1997) study
but which, they believed, would fi t into the model. The 7 additional constructs comprised:
performance self effi cacy (Gist 1987), expectancy related constructs (transfer effort performance
and performance outcomes), personal capacity for transfer (Ford, Quinones, Sego & Sorra 1992),
feedback-performance coaching, learner readiness (Knowles, Holton & Swanson 1998), and
general motivation to transfer.
What is transfer of training?
“Positive transfer of training is defined as the degree to which trainees effectively apply the
knowledge, skills and attitudes gained in a training context to the job (Newstrom 1984,
Wexley and Latham 1981).
Transfer of training therefore, is more than a function of original learning in a training
program (Atkinson 1972, Fleishman 1953).For transfer to have occurred, learned
behaviour must be generalised to the job context and maintained over a period of time on
the job.”
It is useful to think about evaluation of training with two levels of outcome, training outcomes
and transfer outcomes. Baldwin and Ford (1988) define training outcomes as the amount of
original learning that occurs during a training program, and the retention of that material after the
training is competed. Training outcomes are generally gathered during or immediately after
training. Transfer outcomes however, are typically assessed by measuring how trained skills
have been maintained and generalised by the trainee after being on the job for some time
(Baldwin and Ford 1988).
There has been much research and thinking in the area of ‘transfer of training’, documented
mainly in psychology and human resource management journals. In addition, a number of
comprehensive reviews of the topic have been published in the past 10 to 15 years, including
Salas and Cannon-Bowers (2001), Ford and Weissbein (1997), Tannenbaum and Yukl (1992),
and Baldwin and Ford (1988). This body of knowledge has been particularly useful in exploring
the potential factors to affect transfer of training into the workplace.
RESEARCH OBJECTIVES
PROBLEM STATEMENT
It is estimated millions of rupees are spent annually on training and development by
organisations around the world. More to the point though, what are the returns from that
spending? Researchers have concluded that much organisational training fails to transfer to the
work setting (Goldstein 1986, Wexley and Latham 1981).
SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY
In today’s competitive era, every organization fights for its survival. Every organization selects
its employees in order to achieve some goals, the employees of the organization should be
capable enough so that they can achieve the goals efficiently and effectively. To achieve this,
organization adopts the tools of T&D programmes so that they become capable and efficient
for working of the organization, when a company is investing so much amount of money in
providing training then they want to know whether the training is effective or not, and if not
upto the mark then what factors are behind the failure of training, so the study of factors
affecting training is significant universally.
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
What is transfer of training?
“Positive transfer of training is defined as the degree to which trainees effectively apply the
knowledge, skills and attitudes gained in a training context to the job (Newstrom 1984,
Wexley and Latham 1981). Transfer of training therefore, is more than a function of
original learning in a training program (Atkinson 1972, Fleishman 1953). For transfer to
have occurred, learned behaviour must be generalised to the job context and maintained
over a period of time on the job.”
(Baldwin and Ford 1988)
It is useful to think about evaluation of training with two levels of outcome, training outcomes
and transfer outcomes. Baldwin and Ford (1988) define training outcomes as the amount of
original learning that occurs during a training program, and the retention of that material after the
training is competed. Training outcomes are generally gathered during or immediately after
training. Transfer outcomes however, are typically assessed by measuring how trained skills
have been maintained and generalised by the trainee after being on the job for some time
(Baldwin and Ford 1988).
There has been much research and thinking in the area of ‘transfer of training’, documented
mainly in psychology and human resource management journals. In addition, a number of
comprehensive reviews of the topic have been published in the past 10 to 15 years, including
Salas and Cannon-Bowers (2001), Ford and Weissbein (1997), Tannenbaum and Yukl (1992),
and Baldwin and Ford (1988). This body of knowledge has been particularly useful in exploring
the potential factors to affect transfer of training into the workplace, as presented below.
Factors affecting transfer of training
According to a broad range of literature (discussed in detail below), the factors that affect
training transfer outcomes can be grouped into three broad areas:
1. Training design
2. Individual trainee characteristics
3. Environment and context in which training and transfer takes place.
All three areas can influence transfer outcomes directly. In addition, transfer environment and
context often impact indirectly on transfer outcomes through trainee characteristics. The three
areas will be used as a broad structure, within which to context the details of the review, as
follows:
Training design
The training design factors which affect transfer of training, can be grouped into four areas of
literature: Learning principles, Developments in cognitive psychology, Guidelines for increasing
training effect and Adult learning theory.
Learning principles
“A large proportion of the empirical research on transfer has concentred on improving the design
of training programs through the incorporation of learning principles. Research has centred on
four basic principles: identical elements, teaching of general principles, stimulus variability, and
various conditions of practice.”
Baldwin and Ford (1988)
Identical elements refer to having identical stimulus and response elements in training and
transfer settings, and research has shown incorporating these elements increases retention of both
motor (Gagne et al 1950) and verbal (Duncan and Underwood 1951) behaviours.
General principles refer to teaching the general rules and theoretical principles that underpin
training content, rather than just applicable skills. This approach has been found to enhance
trainee’s analysis and problem solving skills in the topic area, thus facilitating transfer (McGhee
and Thayer 1961).
Stimulus variability refers to using a variety of relevant training stimuli, for example several
different examples rather than one repeatedly. The trainee is more likely to see applicability of a
concept to a new situation, and therefore transfer is also more likely (Ellis 1965).
Conditions of practice refer to a number of training design issues. Should training be divided
into segments? Evidence suggests segmented training is generally retained longer than material
learned as one mass (Naylor and Briggs 1963). Should practice be incorporated in parts at a time
or as a whole? Evidence suggests practice as a whole is advantageous when: intelligence of
learner is high, training is segmented, or when training material is high in task organisation but
low in task complexity (Naylor and Briggs 1963). Feedback to trainees is also a key condition of
practice, with timing and specificity of feedback shown to be critical variables (Wexley and
Thornton 1972). ‘Overlearning’ refers to process of providing trainees with continued practice
beyond the point where task has been performed successfully (McGee and Thayer 1961). The
greater the overlearning, the greater the retention of material.
In their 10-year training review, Salas and Canon-Bowers (2001) refer to research involving the
manipulation of specific conditions of practice. Findings were documented on the positive
effects of overlearning on retention (Driskell et al 1992), the benefits of collaborative learning
(Shebiliske et al 1992, 1998), the conditions under which team training works, and different
approaches to arranging practice sessions (Goettl et al 1996, Schmidt and Bjork 1992).
Baldwin and Ford (1988) and Ford and Weissbein (1997) however, discuss the limitations of the
traditional design parameters. The main concern is that while robust, the majority of studies
were carried out for relatively simple motor (involving or relating to movement of muscles) and
memory skills. The question arose whether the results could be generalised to the much more
complex and systems-based skills required by many learners and organisations today. Perhaps in
response to this need, the late 1980s and 1990s saw significant developments in the field of
cognitive psychology.
Developments in cognitive psychology
The dictionary defines cognition is ‘the mental process of knowing, including aspects such as
awareness, perception, reasoning and judgement.’ Cognitive approaches are especially useful for
guiding the design of training for tasks involving cognitive processes, such as monitoring,
problem solving and decision making (Tannenbaum and Yukl 1992). Several insights into
training design from cognitive research are described by Howell and Cooke (1989).
Guidelines for effective training design
After the rather ‘heavy’ psychological research into transfer of training, it was refreshing to see a
more simple and holistic set of guidelines for effective training design (Campbell 1988). These
guidelines include five elements:
The instructional events that comprise the training method should be consistent with the
cognitive, physical or psychomotor processes that lead to mastery, guiding the learner to the
most appropriate encoding operations for storing information in memory.
The learner should be induced to produce the capability actively, ie practice behaviours,
recall information from memory, and apply principles when doing a task.
All available sources of relevant feedback should be used, and feedback should be accurate,
timely and constructive.
The instructional processes should enhance trainee self-efficacy (the belief one can perform
specific tasks and behaviours) and trainee expectations that the training will be successful,
and lead to valued outcomes.
Training methods should be adapted to differences in aptitudes and prior knowledge.
Salas and Canon-Bowers (2001) simplified the key elements even further, suggesting that the
most effective instructional strategies are created around four basic principles:
Present relevant information or concepts to be learned.
Demonstrate the knowledge, skills or attitudes to be learned.
Create opportunities to practice.
Provide feedback during and after practice.
On the surface, these principles perhaps focus more on training outcomes, while Campbell’s
guidelines above seem targeted at transfer outcomes?
Some elements of these key principles and guidelines, such as relevant information and adapting
to prior knowledge of the trainee, overlap into another more ‘humanist’ body of literature, that of
adult leaning theory.
Individual trainee characteristics
Numerous studies have found individual trainee differences can determine the amount of
information learned during training, and transferred to the job. These effects have been shown to
be independent from training design factors (Fleishman and Mumford 1989). The following four
individual characteristics are discussed below: Cognitive ability, Self-efficacy, Goal orientation
and Motivation.
Cognitive ability
Cognitive ability relates directly to general intelligence. A large body of research (including Ree
et al 1995, Ree and Earles 1991, Randel et al 1992) indicates that cognitive ability is a strong
predictor of learning and training performance. Generally, the higher an individual’s cognitive
ability, the more successful they will be in learning and training. They have higher self-efficacy
(see below) and higher performance and skill acquisition.
Salas and Cannon-Bowers (2001) raise the caution that high training performance does not
necessarily transfer to better performance on the job. Other factors such as motivation to apply,
and actual job requirements will also affect transfer outcomes.
Cognitive ability is inherent, not something which can be changed. It might be useful though, to
design specific training approaches for those with lower/ higher cognitive ability?
Self-efficacy
Self-efficacy is an individual’s belief that they can perform specific tasks and behaviours (Salas
and Cannon-Bowers 2001). Gist and Mitchell (1992) define it slightly differently, as an
individual’s expectations for their future level of performance on a task. It is well established
(including Cole and Latham 1997, Ford et al 1998, Mathieu et al 1993, Martocchio 1994,
Quinones 1995) that self-efficacy enhances learning outcomes and performance, whether an
individual has it already, or acquires it during training.
The implications for transfer outcomes are summarised by Bramley (1996). He explains that
individuals who are low in self-efficacy have difficulty coping with environmental demands.
They imagine potential difficulties are more formidable than is actually the case, and dwell on
personal deficiencies. People who are strong in self-efficacy focus on the demands of a
situation, and treat obstacles as challenges.
Bramley goes on to offer strategies to help increase self-efficacy. As much of the issue is about
being able to predict and manage perceived threats, learning skills to master the situation that
feels threatening, and practicing these in a safe environment helps to improve self-efficacy. It is
also useful during training to provide a wide range of experiences on what is being learned, so
learning can be applied to situations that don’t quite fit.
Bramley also suggests several post-training strategies. Self-efficacy increases when experience
fails to support fears, so interspersing training with job experience, and setting up systems to
ensure support and reward for application are both beneficial interventions. Part of the support
system should be supervisor’s involvement and understanding, with goals and specific measures
of progress set. Feedback systems are also important.
Goal orientation
Dweck and Leggett (1988) discuss two classes of goal orientation:
‘Mastery (or learning) goal orientation’, where individuals seek to develop competence by
acquiring new skills and mastering novel situations.
‘Performance goal orientation’, where individuals pursue assurances of their own
competence by seeking good performance evaluations and avoiding negative ones.
Although more research is needed, recent studies have demonstrated goal orientation does
influence learning outcomes and performance. Mastery goal orientation was shown to be
positively related to self-efficacy (Phillips and Gully (1997), and to metacognitive activity in
training (Ford et al 1988). Also, Fisher and Ford (1998) found mastery to be a strong predictor
of knowledge-based learning outcomes.
Motivation
Motivation is typically defined as variability in behaviour not attributable to individual
differences or strong situational coercion, and can affect whether or not a trainee chooses to
attend training, expend effort during training, or apply trained skills in the workplace (Baldwin
and Ford, 1988). Mumford et al (1988) revealed trainee characteristics such as aptitude and
motivational levels were among the most consistent predictors of trainee performance, stronger
even than course content variables.
Recently, several studies have confirmed that trainee’s motivation to attend training and to learn,
affects their level of skill acquisition, retention, and willingness to transfer learning to the
workplace (Martocchio and Webster 1992, Mathieu et al 1992, Quinones 1995, Tannenbaum and
Yukl 1992). Many factors are thought to have an influence on motivation, including cognitive
ability, self-efficacy, age, and anxiety of the individual, as well as a situational conditions such
as organisation, peers, and supervisors (Colquitt et al 2000). A deeper understanding of how
these factors affect motivation, and how they might interact with each other, is a useful direction
for future research (Salas and Cannon-Bowers 2001).
Environment and context in which the transfer takes place
Much research and review surrounds the potential impact of environmental and contextual
factors on transfer of training. It is easy to become bogged down in the literature, as a number of
authors have presented slightly different theories in the subject area, with many overlapping
factors and links. The review below groups the literature into nine general areas: Organisational
context, Organisational climate, Situational cues and consequences, Social support,
Organisational learning environment, Opportunity to perform, Skill decay over time, Near and
far transfer of training and Multi-level and multi-dimensional transfer.
Organisational context
Quinones (1997) integrates number of studies examining the role of contextual influences, such
as participation, framing of training, and organisational climate, on training effectiveness. A key
feature of the discussion is the central role played by individual trainee characteristics, such as
motivation and self-efficacy, in linking contextual factors to training effectiveness.
Participation refers to the level of involvement trainees have in training decisions. A review by
Wagner and Gooding (1987) states the benefits of participation as being increased decision
acceptance, commitment, motivation and productivity. In particular, a number of studies have
been carried out around the issue of choice (Mathieu et al 1993, Baldwin et al 1991, Hicks and
Klimoski 1987); should trainees be allowed to decide for themselves whether or not they attend
training? In general, positive links have been found between a trainee choosing to attend and
motivation, self-efficacy, and learning.
Framing is the context created by the information an organisation provides about a training
program. This could be information about content and outcomes, leading to particular
expectations. It could also be something about the wording or framing of the message that
conveys a subtle (or not so subtle) threat to some people, for example a perceived threat to job
security. Tannenbaum at al (1991) found that high levels of training fulfilment were associated
with increased training motivation, self-efficacy and organisational commitment, their training
fulfilment measure incorporating expectations of content, perceptions of actual content and
desired content. This finding suggests organisations should be active in ensuring training content
matches expectations. It also highlights the need for organisations to think hard about the
information they communicate to trainees. Quinones (1997) suggests the most important aspect
of framing is for organisations to be aware of how information can be perceived and interpreted.
The final area of influence on organisational context discussed by Quinones (1997) is
organisational climate. This broad area has generated much research in recent years, and is
summarised in the next section.
Organisational climate
Organisational climate refers to a range of characteristics of an organisation, such as policies,
reward systems and managerial behaviour, to which employees attach meaning on the basis of
their own values, beliefs, needs and other individual characteristics (Tracey et al 1995).
Schneider and Reichers (1983) define climate as perceptions of the environment that evolve out
of interaction among organisational members. An organisational climate is said to exist when a
group of individuals share a common perception of the work context (Joyce and Slocum 1984).
An example of this is the positive correlation shown between social support and motivation to
learn (Noe and Wilks 1993) and between social support and trainee self-efficacy (Maurer and
Tarulli 1994). Other studies proved a positive relationship between an ‘updating’ climate (one
that encourages updating of technical knowledge and skills and personal growth) and attendance
and interest in training, seminars and professional meetings.
Situational cues and consequences
The additional concept of organisational transfer climate was introduced by Roullier and
Goldstein (1993); defined as situations and consequences that inhibited or helped trainees apply
the skills gained in training to a job setting. Tracey et al 1995 examined the transfer climates of
supermarkets, and found managerial trainees in more positive transfer climates showed the
largest increases in performance after attending a 3-day training seminar on basic supervisory
skills. There is some evidence to suggest the organisational transfer climate affects transfer
outcomes through it’s effect on individual trainee characteristics Quinone (1997).
Roullier and Goldstein (1993) suggest the transfer climate consists of two components,
situational cues and consequences. Both cues and consequences act as reminders for trainees to
use their training on their return to the job. Situational cues refer to the extent to which aspects
of a situation encourage an employee to use what has been learned in training. Specific cues
proposed by Roullier and Goldstein are goal cues, social cues, task and structural cues, and self
control cues. Consequences refer to the degree to which employees are rewarded for applying
what has been learned in training, and includes positive feedback, negative feedback, punishment
and no feedback (Roullier and Goldstein 1993).
Social support
According to Noe (1986) a supportive social context is one in which employees believe others
will provide them with the opportunities and reinforcement for practicing skills and using
knowledge acquired in training. Social support includes all levels of management, supervisors,
peers, subordinates and other trainees. It plays a central role in transfer of training, in the form
of situational cues and consequences, and also in pre-training motivation. The more positive the
social interactions, the more likely it is that trainees will apply trained behaviours and skills
(Roullier and Goldstein 1993).
In a specific example, Brinkerhoff and Montessino (1995) explored the impact of two
management interventions, a pre-training expectations discussion and an after-training follow up
discussion. Results clearly showed increased transfer of training in the group who had these
interventions. In a more recent example, Smith-Jentsch et al (2001) demonstrated positive
transfer effects through team leader support.
Organisational learning environment
Tannenbaum (1997) discusses a theory close to organisational context/ organisational transfer
climate, the continuous learning work environment. Tannenbaum presents the characteristics of
a positive continuous learning environment as:
Individuals are aware of the ‘big picture’.
Individuals are assigned tasks where they can apply what they have learned, and also where
they can be stretched and challenged.
Mistakes are tolerated during learning and early application, when individuals are trying new
skills.
Individuals are accountable for learning, and performance expectations are high enough to
necessitate continuous personal growth.
Situational constraints to learning and performance are identified and minimised.
New ideas are valued and encouraged.
Supervisors and co-workers provide support, allowing individuals to learn and attempt to
implement new ideas.
Policies and practices support the effective use of training.
In a small study, Tannenbaum (1997) examined the continuous learning environments of seven
companies, and found that the companies with the strongest learning environment also exhibited
the strongest overall organisational performance. This is consistent with prior research
demonstrating organisations that apply more progressive human resource practices, are on
average superior performers (Kravetz 1988).
Opportunity to perform
The opportunity is the extent to which a trainee is provided with, or actively obtains work
experiences relevant to the tasks for which they were trained (Ford et al 1992). Ford et al (1992)
cited a review by Ford et al (1991), in which three measures of opportunity to perform were
identified. The most direct measure is breadth, or the number of different trained tasks used on
the job. The second measure is activity level, or the number of times each trained task is used on
the job. This is useful as the more times a task is performed, the more likely it is that
performance will improve. The third is task type, or the difficulty of the trained tasks performed
on the job. Ford et al (1992) suggests these three measures provide a multi-dimensional
perspective to the opportunity to perform.
Ford et al (1992) also documents factors affecting opportunity to perform. These are
organisational, such as which department and function individuals are assigned to, work context,
and individual characteristics. Work context in particular links closely to the organisational
transfer climate elements discussed above, involving supervisor attitudes, workgroup support,
and the pace of work flow in the workgroup. More detailed research into some of the factors
affecting opportunity to perform was carried out by Quinones et al (1995).
Skill decay over time
Skill decay refers to the loss or decay of trained or acquired skills (or knowledge) after periods of
non-use (Arthur et al 1998). A comprehensive analysis of the literature by Arthur et al (1998)
indicates substantial skill loss over time with non-practice or non-use, citing seven main
influencing factors.
Length of retention interval
Degree of overlearning
Task characteristics
Methods for testing for original learning and retention
Conditions of retrieval
Instructional strategies or training methods
Individual differences.
Near and far transfer of training
Bramley (1996) briefly discusses another pertinent concept, that of near and far transfer of
training. Near transfer is where the job situation is accurately specified and can be simulated in
training. Far transfer is where the requirement is to apply learning in a variety of situations.
For near transfer, Bramely (1996) cites that training design and support should emphasise:
Maximising identical elements between training and job (Adams 1987)
High psychological fidelity, where trainees perceive the training situation to be very like on
the job (Goldstein 1993)
Overlearning procedures (Goldstein 1993)
For far transfer, Bramley cites:
Teaching general principles (McGhee and Thayer 1961)
Teaching in a variety of relevant situations (Baldwin and Ford 1988)
Application of learning to new situations both during the training and afterward, with
encouragement from trainers and others (Goldstein 1993)
The possible implications of near and far transfer are interesting, as Bramley (1996) notes that
maximising near transfer is likely to hinder far transfer, and vice versa. He suggests it is
necessary to identify the type of transfer intended before designing the training.
Multi-dimensional and multi-level transfer
More recently, two studies have looked at the gaps in transfer of training research. Yelon and
Ford (1999) analysed 18 transfer research studies from 1990-1996, as reviewed by Ford and
Weissbein (1997). Yelon and Ford found that by far the majority of studies were about workers
performing closed skills (where circumstances for use and performance are standard) under
supervision. The next most often studied category was workers supervised while performing
open skills (adaptable, creative, not one right way to perform, eg problem solving or
communicating). There was a very small group of studies about closed skills without
supervision, and no work on autonomous workers performing open skills. As a result, Yelon and
Ford (1999) proposed a multi-dimensional model of transfer that considers the possible
interactions between these elements.
Evaluating training effectiveness
It is important to note that evaluation of training effectiveness is not the focus of this research,
and will not be included in the literature review. Traditionally, evaluating training effectiveness
is about assessing the results and impacts of training. Transfer of training research is focused
more on the factors and processes that help and hinder transfer getting to the desired outcomes.
The Learning Transfer System Inventory (LTSI)
According to Holton, Bates and Ruona (2000), organisations wishing to enhance the ROI from
training need to understand the factors that affect transfer of training and then intervene to
remove the factors which inhibit transfer. Indeed, the authors argued that the first step to
improving transfer is to accurately diagnose the inhibiting factors. In their 2000 study titled
“Development of a Generalised Learning Transfer System Inventory”, they introduced the
concept of transfer system which encompassed factors in the person, training and organisation
that influence transfer of learning to job performance.
Figure 1.1 The LTSI Conceptual Evaluation Model
The LTSI conceptual evaluation model used to develop the LTSI is depicted in Figure 1.1 Three
primary training outcomes were defined in this model. These outcomes were: learning;
individual performance; and organisational results. Learning was defined as: achievement of the
learning outcomes desired in an intervention; change in individual performance as a result of the
learning being applied on the job; and results at the organisational level as a consequence of the
change in individual performance (Holton 1996:9).
In comparison with Kirkpatrick’s (1994) training evaluation model, three primary differences are
of note. First, there is an absence of reaction as a training outcome in the LTSI. Holton, Bates
and Ruona (2000) argued that reactions should be removed from evaluation models citing
several studies which indicated that reactions had no significant relationship with learning
(Alliger and Janak 1989; Dixon 1990; Noe & Schmitt 1986; Warr & Bunce1995).
For example, Warr and Bunce (1995) divided reactions into three components (enjoyment,
usefulness and perceived difficulty) and they found no significant correlation between any of
them and learning outcomes.
Second, individual performance is used instead of behaviour in the Kirkpatrick(1994) model
because Holton et al. (2000) claimed that individual performance is a broader construct than
behaviour change and a more appropriate descriptor of HRD objectives. And third, the LTSI
conceptual model is arguably a more comprehensive model than the Kirkpatrick (1994) model
because it accounts for the impact of motivation, environmental and ability/enabling elements.
The evolution of the LTSI into its present form occurred across the late 1990s. Following the
development of Holton’s (1996) conceptual evaluation model (Figure1.1), a study by Holton,
Bates, Seyler and Carvalho’s (1997) identified a number of climate variables which affect
transfer of training. In this 1997 study, the authors found that trainees perceived transfer climate
according to referents to their organisation (for example supervisor, peer/task, or self) and the
factor analysis in this study extracted seven transfer climate constructs. These constructs are
detailed in Table 1.1 and listed below:
supervisor support (a supervisor’s reinforcement of use of training on the job);
opportunity to use (trainees are provided with resources enabling them touse training on
the job);
peer support (peers support use of learning to the job).
supervisor sanctions (perception of negative responses from supervisors when applying
skills learned in training);
personal outcomes-positive (applying training on the job leads to positive outcomes for
trainees);
personal outcomes-negative (applying training on the job leads to negative outcomes for
trainees); and
openness to change (prevailing group norms discourage the use of skills and knowledge
acquired in training)
Further, factor analysis from the data also suggested two further transfer design constructs:
content validity (trainees judge training content to accurately reflect job requirements) and
transfer design (training has been designed to provide ability to transfer learning to the job and
instructions match job requirements). The authors then searched the literature on transfer of
training to identify seven other constructs that had not been previously tested in Holton et al.’s
(1997) study but which they believed, would fit into the conceptual model. The seven additional
variables comprise performance-self efficacy (the belief that trainees are able to change their
performance when they want to) (Gist 1989; Gist et al. 1989;
Gist et al. 1991); two expectancy related variables: transfer effort-performance expectations and
performance-outcomes expectations (expectation that effort devoted to transferring learning will
lead to changes in job performance and outcomes respectively) (Bates & Holton 1999; Noe &
Schmitt 1986); personal capacity for transfer (trainees make the changes required to transfer
learning to the job) (Ford, Quinones, Sego & Sorra 1992); feedback (formal and informal
indicators about an individual’s job performance); learner readiness (trainees prepared to
participate in training) (Knowles, Holton & Swanson 1998); and motivation to transfer (trainees’
desire to use the knowledge and skills mastered in the training program on the job)(Noe 1986;
Noe & Schmitt 1986). Figure 1.2 shows how the sixteen variables fit into the conceptual model .
Figure 1.2 The Learning Transfer System Inventory (LTSI)
Source: Holton, EF III, Bates, RA & Ruona WEA 2000, ‘The development of a generalised learningtransfer system inventory,’ Human Resource Development Quarterly, vol.11, no.4, p.339.
Figure 1.2 shows how the LTSI accounts for the impact of primary variables such as
environmental, ability and motivational variables. The LTSI indicates that motivation to transfer
is influenced by secondary variables such as performance-self efficacy and learner readiness.
Holton et al. (2000) refer to the variables affecting an individual’s performance in the LTSI as a
transfer system, which they defined as all the factors in the person, training and organisation that
influence transfer of learning to job performance. In other words, they argued that transfer must
occur before learning can lead to individual job performance. Table 2.1 below details the
definitions of the variables as depicted in the LTSI.
Table 2.1: The 16 factors of the LTSI which affect transfer of training
No
.
Variables Definition
1 Learner Readiness
Extent to which trainees are prepared to enter and participate in training.
2 Motivation toTransfer
Trainees’ desire to use the knowledge and skills mastered in the training program on the job.
3 Peer Support Extent to which peers reinforce and support use of learning to the job.
4 Supervisor Support
Extent to which supervisors/managers support and reinforce use of training on the job.
5 Personal Outcomes positive
Degree to which applying training on the job leads to outcomes that is positive for the trainees.
6 Personal Outcomes negative
Extent to which individuals believe that not applying skills and knowledge learned in training will lead to negative personal outcomes.
7 Supervisor Sanctions
Extent to which individuals perceive negative responses from supervisors/managers when applying skills learned in training.
8 Content Validity
Extent to which trainees judge training content to accurately reflect job requirements
9 Transfer Design
Degree to which (1) training has been designed and delivered to give trainees the ability to transfer learning to the job (2) training instructions matchjob requirements.
10 Personal Capacity to Transfer
Extent to which individuals have the time, energy and mental space in their work lives to make changes required to transfer learning to the job.
11 Opportunity To Use
Extent to which trainees are provided with or obtain resources and tasks on the job enabling them to use training on the job.
12 Performance SelfEfficacy
Trainee’s general belief that they are able to change their performance when they want to.
13 Transfer Effort-PerformanceExpectations
Expectation that effort devoted to transferring learning will lead to changes in job performance
14 Performance-OutcomesExpectations
Expectation that changes in job performance will lead to valued outcomes.
15 Feedback Formal and informal indicators from an organisation about an individual’s job performance
16 Openness to Change
Extent to which prevailing group norms are perceived by trainees’ to resist or discourage the use of skills and knowledge acquired in training.
Source: Holton, EF III, Bates, RA & Ruona WEA 2000, ‘The development of a generalised learningtransfer system inventory,’ Human Resource Development Quarterly, vol.11, no.4, pp.344-346.
Several studies have successfully used the LTSI model to validate the factors affecting transfer
of training (Chen 2003; Donovan et al. 2001; Holton et al. 2003;Yamnill 2001). For example,
Chen (2003) found that the LTSI was valid in Taiwan and Yamnill (2001) validated it in
Thailand. The LTSI model has also been claimedto be influential in measuring training
effectiveness (Donovan et. al. 2001).
Although the LTSI model included motivation to transfer as one of the variables that could affect
individual performance, the model only specified two secondary influence variables (learner
readiness and performance-self efficacy) that could influence motivation to transfer. In order to
gain an in-depth understanding of the direct and indirect effect on motivation to transfer, this
chapter now moves to discuss the Human Resource Development Evaluation Research and
Measurement Model (the HRD model) (Holton 1996). This model, according to Holton (1996)
should be used for research purposes in investigating motivation to transfer training.
Summary
What stood out from the literature?
Research into transfer of training is a large and active field.
Much of the prior research into transfer of training has utilised education, knowledge, skills
and understanding of psychological research practices.
There is a difference between training outcomes and transfer outcomes.
There are many factors affecting transfer of training, the main three areas being training
design, individual trainee characteristics, and the environment and context in which transfer
takes place.
Many of these factors are interlinked, particularly through individual trainee characteristics.
The main points of discussion within each of the three broad areas affecting transfer of
training were:
1.Training design 2.Individual trainee
characteristics
3.Environment and context in which
transfer takes place
Learning principles
Developments in cognitive
research
Guidelines for effective
training
Cognitive ability
Self-efficacy
Goal orientation
Motivation
Organisational context and climate
Situational cues and consequences
Social support
Organisational learning environment
Opportunity to perform
Skill decay over time
Near and far transfer of training
Multi-level and multi-dimensional transfer
OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY
To know the reasons behind failure of training programmes.
To know the various factors which affects transfer of training.
To know whether these factors are controllable or not.
To keep in consideration the factors affecting transfer of training for future training
purposes.
SCOPE OF THE STUDY
There are so many factors which affects training transfer. If those factors can be determined
before training scheduled then it is easy for the organization to ensure all the benefits of
training, and their purpose of giving training can be solved.
By this study organizations came to know those factors which affects training transfer and they
can work on those factors and ensure 100% outcomes from training.
LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY
Time duration for the completion of project was less.
Respondents were not willing to fill questionnaire because questionnaire is not filled
face to face.
Most of the employees were reluctant in giving the personal information while filling
the questionnaire.
The factors which affects transfer of training are so many and it is not possible for me
to cover all those factors.
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
RESEARCH DESIGN
Exploratory study.
SAMPLING PLAN
Convenience sampling.
DATA COLLECTION
PRIMARY DATA:-Questionnaire and Interviews .
SECONDARY DATA:- internet and journals.
ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION
Q1. Do you think behaviour of trainer had impact on training transfer.
Neither agree nor disagree
14%
agree86%
% of responses
According to the responses of faculty members behavior of trainer largely affects training
transfer . 86% of the respondents are agreed that behavior of trainer affects training transfer and
14% respondents are neither agree nor disagree.
Q2. Do you think knowledge of trainer had impact on training transfer.
neither agree nor disagree43%
strongly agree57%
% of responses
According to the responses of faculty members knowledge of trainer largely affects training
transfer . 57% of the respondents are agreed that knowledge of trainer affects training transfer
and 43% respondents are neither agree nor disagree with this statement.
Q3. Do you think Trainer’s personality had impact on training transfer.
agree86%
strongly agree14%
% of responses
According to the responses of faculty members personality of trainer largely affects training
transfer . 86% of the respondents are agreed that personality of trainer affects training transfer
and 14% respondents are strongly agree.
Q4. Do you think communication skills of trainer had impact on training transfer.
agree86%
strongly agree14%
% of responses
According to the responses of faculty members communication skills of trainer largely affects
training transfer . 86% of the respondents are agreed that communication skills of trainer affects
training transfer and 14% respondents are strongly agree.
Q5. Do you think involvement of trainees affects transfer of training.
agree57%
strongly agree43%
% of responses
According to the responses of faculty members involvement of trainees largely affects training
transfer . 57% of the respondents are agreed that involvement of trainees affects training transfer
and 43% respondents are strongly agree.
Q6. Do you think venue of training affects transfer of training .
disagree29%
neither agree nor disagree
14%
agree57%
% of responses
According to the responses of faculty members venue of training largely affects training transfer
. 57% of the respondents are agreed that venue of training affects training transfer and 14%
respondents are neither agree nor disagree and 29% of respondents are not agree with this
statement.
Q7. Do you think style or method adopted in conducting training affects transfer of training.
disagree29%
neither agree nor disagree
14%
agree57%
% of responses
According to the responses of faculty members style or method adopted in conducting training
largely affects training transfer . 57% of the respondents are agreed that style or method adopted
in conducting training affects training transfer and 14% respondents are neither agree nor
disagree and 29% of respondents are not agree with this statement.
Q8. Do you think aids available during training affects transfer of training.
neither agree nor disagree57%
agree29%
strongly agree14%
% of responses
According to the responses of faculty members(respondents ) aids available during training
doesn’t affect much in training transfer . Only 29% of the respondents are agreed that training
aids available during training affects training transfer and 14% respondents are strongly agree
with this statement and 57% of respondents are neither agree nor disagree.
Q9.Do you think time duration of training affects transfer of training.
agree57%
strongly agree43%
% of responses
According to the responses duration of training largely affects training transfer . 57% of the
respondents are agreed that duration of training affects training transfer and 43% respondents
are strongly agree with this statement.
Q10. Do you think projected benefits of training affects transfer of training.
neither agree nor disagree43%
agree57%
% of responses
According to the respondents projected benefits of training programme largely affects training
transfer . 57% of the respondents are agreed that projected benefits of training affects training
transfer and 43% respondents are neither agreenor disagree with this statement.
Q11. Do you think relationship with colleagues affects transfer of training.
neither agree nor disagree43%
agree29%
strongly agree29%
% of responses
According to the responses relationship with colleagues largely affects training transfer . Only
29% of the respondents are agreed that relationship with colleagues affects training transfer and
29% respondents are strongly agree with this statement and 43% of respondents are neither
agree nor disagree.
Q12. Do you think past experience with colleagues (if any) affects transfer of training.
disagree43%
neither agree nor disagree29%
strongly agree29%
% of responses
According to the responses past experience with colleagues doesn’t affect training transfer .
Only 29% of the respondents are strongly agreed that past experience with colleagues affects
training transfer and 28% respondents are neither agree nor disagree with this statement and
43% of respondents are disagree with this statement.
Q13. Do you think appropriateness of classroom (sitting arrangement and ventilation etc.) affects training transfer.
neither agree nor disagree
14%
agree57%
strongly agree29%
% of responses
According to the responses appropriateness of classroom largely affects training transfer . 57%
of the respondents are agreed that appropriateness of classroom affects training transfer and 29%
respondents are strongly agree with this statement and 14% of respondents are neither agree nor
disagree.
Q14. Do you think conveyance facilities provided had impact on training transfer.
disagree14%
agree57%
strongly agree29%
% of responses
According to the responses conveyance facilities provided largely affects training transfer . 57%
of the respondents are agreed that conveyance facilities provided affects training transfer and
29% respondents are strongly agree with this statement and 14% of respondents are disagree
with this statement.
Q15. Do you think recommendations to attend training affects it’s effectiveness.
strongly disagree
14%
disagree14%
neither agree nor disagree57%
agree14%
% of responses
According to the responses recommendations to attend training doesn’t affect training transfer .
Only 14% of the respondents are agreed that recommendations to attend training affects training
transfer and 57% respondents are neither agree nor disagree with this statement and 14% of
respondents are disagree with this statement and 15% of the respondents are strongly disagree
with this statement.
Q16. Do you think the knowledge gap between trainees affects training effectiveness.
neither agree nor disagree
14%
agree57%
strongly agree29%
% of responses
According to the responses knowledge gap between trainees largely affects training transfer .
57% of the respondents are agreed that knowledge gap between trainees affects training transfer
and 29% respondents are strongly agree with this statement and 14% of respondents are neither
agree nor disagree with this statement.
Q17. Do you think motivation from superior/management had impact on training transfer.
agree57%
strongly agree43%
% of responses
According to the responses motivation from superior/management largely affects training
transfer . 57% of the respondents are agreed that duration of training affects training transfer and
43% respondents are strongly agree with this statement.
Q18. Do you think refreshment provided during training affects training effectiveness to some extent.
disagree14%
neither agree nor disagree29%
agree14%
strongly agree43%
% of responses
According to the responses refreshment provided during training largely affects training
transfer . 43% of the respondents are strongly agreed that refreshment provided during training
affects training transfer and 14% respondents are agreed with this statement and 29% of
respondents are neither agree nor disagree and 14% of respondents are disagree this statement
that refreshment doesn’t have any correlation with training effectiveness.
Q19. Do you think past experience of training affects training transfer.
neither agree nor disagree29%
agree71%
% of responses
According to the responses past experience of training largely affects training transfer . 71% of
the respondents are agreed that past experience of training affects training transfer and 29%
respondents are neither agree nor disagree with this statement.
Q20. Do you think your fitness had impact on training transfer.
neither agree nor disagree
14%
agree43%
strongly agree43%
% of responses
According to the responses fitness of trainees largely affects training transfer . 43% of the
respondents are agreed that fitness affects training transfer and 43% respondents are strongly
agree with this statement and .14% of respondents are neither agree nor disagree.
Q21. Do you think perception about other trainee & trainer affects training effectiveness.
neither agree nor disagree57%
agree43%
% of responses
According to the responses perception about other trainee & trainer doesn’t affect training
transfer much. 43% of the respondents are agreed that perception about other trainee & trainer
had impact on training transfer and 57% respondents are neither agree nor disagree with this
statement.
Q22. Do you think content/ topic of training affects training transfer.
disagree14%
neither agree nor disagree
14%
agree29%
strongly agree43%
% of responses
According to the responses content/ topic of training largely affects training transfer . 43% of the
respondents are strongly agreed that content/ topic of training affects training transfer and 29%
respondents are agreed with this statement and 14% of respondents are neither agree nor disagree
and 14% of respondents are disagree with this statement.
Q23. Any other factor which affect training transfer in your opinion.
In the response of this question most of the respondents said that there are no other factors
excluding mentioned factors which affects training transfer . But in case of few respondents they
concluded few other factor and those factors are:
Respondents said that if the relationship with trainer is friendly then it will be easier for
them to adapt training.
Few respondents said that there should be some reward system in the training
programme, trainees should be rewarded with promotions or other kind of benefits
( monetary) if they perform well during training.
Few respondents added that age difference between trainer should not be more than 10
years, if the trainer belong to their age group it will be easier for them to adapt training.
Respondents added that if trainer helps in problem solving of trainees training transfer is
assured to some extent.
One of the respondent added that there should be some kind of entertainment between the
class.
Few respondents added that if there is proper motivation from trainer then effectiveness
of training can be improved.
One of the respondent added that if there is a provision of test after completion of
training programme then it will be beneficial in terms of training transfer.
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
“Transfer of training is defined as the degree to which trainees effectively apply the knowledge,
skills and attitudes gained in a training context to the job.
Transfer of training therefore, is more than a function of original learning in a training
program .For transfer to have occurred, learned behaviour must be generalised to the job context
and maintained over a period of time on the job.”
There are so many factors which affects training transfer but broadly there are few categories of
these factors eg. Training design , Individual trainee characteristics, Environment and context in
which transfer takes place. These factors changes in every individual’s case, one factor may
affect training transfer in one individual’s case and may be the same factor doesn’t have any
impact on other individual. The main thing is that there are so many factors and we can’t
consider all those factors so we should only consider controllable factors ,we should work on
those factors which we can control to ensure maximum level of training transfer.
APPENDIX
Questionnaire
On factors affecting transfer of training
Please underline the number (1, 2, 3, 4 or 5) that most closely reflects your opinion about the training program.
1 - Strongly disagree 2 - Disagree 3 - Neither agree nor disagree 4 - Agree 5 - Strongly agree
1. Do you think behaviour of trainer had impact on training transfer.
1 2 3 4 5
2. Do you think knowledge of trainer had impact on training transfer.
1 2 3 4 5
3. Do you think Trainer’s personality had impact on training transfer.
1 2 3 4 5
4. Do you think communication skills of trainer had impact on training transfer. 1 2 3 4 5
5. Do you think involvement of trainees affects transfer of training.1 2 3 4 5
6. Do you think venue of training affects transfer of training .1 2 3 4 5
7. Do you think style or method adopted in conducting training affects transfer of training.1 2 3 4 5
8. Do you think aids available during training affects transfer of training.1 2 3 4 5
9. Do you think time duration of training affects transfer of training.1 2 3 4 5
10. Do you think projected benefits of training affects transfer of training.1 2 3 4 5
11. Do you think relationship with colleagues affects transfer of training.1 2 3 4 5
12. Do you think past experience with colleagues (if any) affects transfer of training. 1 2 3 4 5
13. Do you think appropriateness of classroom (sitting arrangement and ventilation etc.) affects training transfer.
1 2 3 4 5
14. Do you think conveyance facilities provided had impact on training transfer.1 2 3 4 5
15. Do you think recommendations to attend training affects it’s effectiveness. 1 2 3 4 5
16. Do you think the knowledge gap between trainees affects training effectiveness.1 2 3 4 5
17. Do you think motivation from superior/management had impact on training transfer.1 2 3 4 5
18. Do you think refreshment provided during training affects training effective to some extent. 1 2 3 4 5
19. Do you think past experience of training affects training transfer.1 2 3 4 5
20. Do you think your fitness had impact on training transfer.1 2 3 4 5
21. Do you think perception about other trainee & trainer affects training effectiveness. 1 2 3 4 5
22. Do you think content/ topic of training affects training transfer.1 2 3 4 5
23. Any other factor which affect training transfer in your opinion.
………………………………………………………………...
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