dorothy canfield fisher, progressive education reform, and...

KarenA.Keely NEHSeminaronPhilosophersofEducation,July2017

DorothyCanfieldFisher,ProgressiveEducationReform,andUnderstoodBetsy

Asachild,Ilovednovelsofschoolsdonewellandschoolsdonebadly.The

progressiveschoolinLouisaMayAlcott’sLittleMen,thecruelheadmistressintheupscale

boardingschoolinFrancesHodgsonBurnett’sALittlePrincess,thehypocrisyoftheschool

supervisorinCharlotteBronte’sJaneEyre,allmademecry,althoughfordifferentreasons.

ButmyfavoritewasDorothyCanfieldFisher’sUnderstoodBetsy,inwhichanervous,pale,

alwaysfrightenedchildmovesfromthecitytosmall-townVermontand,overthecourseof

ayear,becomesstrong,confident,empathetic,andself-reliant.MaybebecauseIwasa

rathernervouschildmyself,onewhoconsistentlydidverypoorlyinschool,IlovedBetsy’s

newschool,whichgavehermasteryovercoursematerial,friendsandcommunity,and

plentyoftimeoutsideofschooltolearnhowtomakebutterandreadaloudandplaywith

farmanimals.Betsywasbecomingfullyherselfatnineyearsold,whileIwasquaking

wheneverthephonerang,worriedthatitwasmyteachercallinghometotalkaboutmy

failures.(AndIwasrightaboutthateveryfewweeks.)

Asanadult,interestedinprogressivereformsandnowaneducatormyself,Ihad

heardthatUnderstoodBetsywasFisher’sdidacticpresentationofMontessoripedagogies,

inthesamewaythatLouisaMayAlcottshowcasedthepedagogicalideasofherfather,

BronsonAlcott,inLittleMen.Interested,Ireadthenovelagain(thankstoafriendwhohad

heardmetalkaboutthebookandwhoboughtmeacopywhentheUniversityPressofNew

England’sre-releaseditin1999)…andIdidn’treallyseetheMontessoriconnection,tobe

honest.ButIwasdelightedtobereunitedwiththenovel,whichI’venowrereadatleast

Keely,p.2

everyotheryearinthepast18years,alwayscryinginthesamespots.(ObviouslyI’ma

weepysortofreader.)

HavingnowreadsomeofMariaMontessori,JohnDewey,andothereducational

reformersthissummer,Iseewhattheproblemis:Scholarshavetakentwofacts–that

FisherwroteacoupleofbooksaboutMontessorischoolingandthatthereisanunusual

schoolinUnderstoodBetsy–andhavesloppilyputthosefactstogethertodecidethatthe

novelmustobviouslybeafictionalpresentationofMontessorimethodology.Andsince,

afterall,it’sjustachildren’snovel,theyhaven’tworriedmuchaboutwhetherthis

pigeonholingisparticularlyaccurate.Turnsout,it’snot.

AsI’llargueinthisessay,FisherwasindeedanadmirerofMontessorieducation,

evencallingit“anewreligionwhichwearecalledupontohelpbringintotheworld,”1but

shefeltfreetoreviseandexpandonitandtojoinittogetherwithothereducational

theoriesthatshealsofoundcompelling.(Similarthingshavehappenedtomanyreligions.)

Aswithmanywomanwriters,Fisherhasbeenneglectedbycritics,whotendtodiminish

herworkbydismissingitasmiddle-brow,didactic,and–horrorofhorrors!–popular.In

thisessay,Ifocusononenovelandonewindowonthatnovel–UnderstoodBetsythrough

thelensofprogressiveeducationreform–butFisherisowedadebtofattentionfromthe

wideraudienceofreaders,reformers,andwriters.2

1Fisher,MontessoriforParentsviii.2Interestingly,Fisherisinthenewsagainthissummer,althoughnotinthewaysheorIwouldlike.TheVermontBoardofLibrariesisdebatingwhethertodrophernamefromtheDorothyCanfieldFisherChildren’sBookAward,establishedin1957andawardedannuallytoanewlypublishedbookbyavoteofVermontschoolchildren.Fisherhasbeenaccusedofconnectiontotheeugenicsmovementinthestate,whichresultedinthevoluntarysterilizationofatleast250“feeble-minded”citizensofthestatebetween1933and1960.Fisher,whowasquiteaVermontbooster,wasinvolvedintheVermontCommissiononCountryLife(VCCL),especiallytheCommitteeonTraditionandIdeals,whichemphasized

Keely,p.3

DorothyCanfieldFisherwasaninterestedobserverofandthenparticipantin

educationfromyouthduetoherfather,JamesHulmeCanfield.3Hewasaprofessorof

politicaleconomyandsociologyattheUniversityofKansaswhenshewasborn;hethen

becamechancellorattheUniversityofNebraska(whereateenagedDorothybecame

friendswithWillaCather,whowasastudentthere),followedbybecomingpresidentofthe

OhioStateUniversity,whereDorothygraduatedin1999;finally,takingabreakfrom

administration,hebecamealibrarianatColumbiaUniversity.Shethusgrewupinan

academichousehold,onethatincludedsummersatherfather’srelatives’houseinVermont

andongoingconversationsaboutquestionsofeducation.ShewrotetoMiddleburyCollege

presidentPaulD.Moodyin1923,forexample,weighingininfavorofco-educationand

tourismandsecond-home-ownershipinVermont.AnothersubcommitteeoftheVCCL,however,waschargedwithensuringthatVermont“stock”wasnotbeingdegraded.FisherjoinedtheVCCLexecutivecommitteein1932,ayearafterthestatelegislatureapprovedthesterilizationlaw.Therehasbeenheateddebatethisspringandsummeroverwhetherthereisa“smokinggun”connectingFishertoexpliciteugenicsideals.TheLibraryBoardwassupposedtoannounceitsrecommendationtoStateLibraryScottMurphyonJuly11butthendelayedthatannouncementuntilOctober10.(Madigan,“QuestionsRaised”;Walsh,“VermontConsiders”;Madigan,“BoardofLibrariesdelays”;Walsh,“LibraryBoardDelays.”)

IfIwerejoininginthediscussion(andImayindeedwritealettertoLibrarianMurphy),IwouldpointtoFisher’s1946statementthatbiologistshavemadeclear“thatthegenesthroughwhichbiologicalhumaninheritanceistransmittedcometogetherinsuchwildlyprofusevarietythattheircombinationsaregoverned,apparently,assolelybychanceasisthecombinationofgrainsofsandinanyhandfulonepicksupfromaseasidebeach.…Inotherwords,eachhumanbeingis,atbirth,amassofcomplexpotentialities,unpredictableinanyindividualinstance.”Suchisnotthelanguageofaeugenicist.Fisher,AmericanPortraits19.3IdaH.Washington’sDorothyCanfieldFisheristhestandardbiographyoftheauthor;theonlyotherbiography,TheLadyfromVermont,isbyElizabethYates.MarkJ.MadiganhasalsopublishedanexcellentselectionofFisher’sletters,KeepingFiresNightandDay,whichincludesachronologyofFisher’slife(xvii-xx).

Keely,p.4

noting,“Iamofcoursefamiliarwithallthatcanbesaidonbothsidesofthequestion,

havingbeenbroughtuponthediscussionofitallmylife.”4

ShealsohadtheexperienceofEuropeaneducation,spendingayearinFrench

schoolswhileherartistmother,FlaviaA.CampCanfield,studiedinParis;later,Dorothy

studiedFrenchattheSorbonneinhermid-20s.SheearnedaPh.D.inFrenchliterature

fromColumbiaUniversityin1904butturneddownajoboffertobeanassistantprofessor

atWesternReserveUniversityinClevelandbecauseshewantedtostayclosertoher

parents.Instead,sheacceptedanadministrativepositionattheexperimentalHoraceMann

SchoolinNewYork,seeingfirst-handwhatprogressiveeducationlookedlikedaytoday.

In1906,sheco-wroteatextbook,ElementaryComposition,withGeorgeR.

Carpenter,arhetoricprofessoratColumbiaUniversity,butthereafterturnedherwriterly

attentiontofictionandnonfiction.ShemarriedfellowwriterJohnFisherin1907,andthe

couplemovedtoherfamily’shouseinArlington,Vermont,whereshehadspentsummers

andwhichshehadinherited.Althoughshemovedawayfromworkinginschoolsand

publishingtextbooksherself,hereducationworkcontinuedfortherestofherlife,

includingherserviceontheVermontStateBoardofEducation(shewasthefirstwoman

everappointedtotheboard),herpromotionofandexpertiseinadulteducation,her

powerfulroleontheboardofselectionoftheBook-of-the-MonthClub(wheresheserved

astheonlywomanfor25years),andherworkontheboardsoftrusteesofGoddard

CollegeandHowardUniversity.

Asignificanthighlightinthatlonghistoryofinterestandgrowingexpertisein

educationisFisher’s1911triptoRome,whereshemetwithDr.MariaMontessoriand

4May31,1923,lettertoMoody,inMadigan,Mark,105.

Keely,p.5

observedthechildreninMontessori’sCasadeiBambini.ShewastravelingtoEuropewith

herhusbandandtheirinfantdaughterandagreedtodoafavorforpublisherWilliam

Morrow,whowasgoingtoshortlybepublishingatranslationfromtheItalianofMaria

Montessori’sbookonhereducationaltheoriesandmethods;MorrowaskedFishertocall

onMontessoritodiscussoneofthechaptersinthebook.5Fisherwasprofoundlyaffected

andimpressedbywhatshesawandmadeseveralvisitstotheschool;uponherreturnto

theStates,shefrequentlyfoundherselfansweringquestionsfrominterestedparentsabout

theMontessorimethod,suchthatshewrotefirstonebookandthenanotheronthesubject:

AMontessoriMother(1912;reprintedin1965asMontessoriforParents)andAMontessori

ManualforTeachersandParents(1913).

Fisherdidnot,asisoftenerroneouslyclaimed,introduceMontessoritotheUnited

States.Infact,McClure’sMagazineinMay1911publishedalongcoverstoryonMontessori,

callingher“aneducationalwonder-worker.”ByOctoberofthatyear,McClure’shad

receivedsomanylettersfromreadersthatitannouncedaforthcomingseriesofarticles,

beginninginDecember1911,thatwouldanswerreaders’questionsabouttheMontessori

method.Moreover,thefirstMontessorischoolintheUnitedStatesopenedinTarrytown,

NewYorkinOctober1911,andanEnglishtranslationofMontessori’sownbook,The

MontessoriMethod,appearedin1912.6Itiscertainlyprobable,however,thatFisher’s

greaterliterarypopularitythanthatoftravelwriterJosephineTozier,whowrotetheinitial

McClure’sarticles,helpedpopularizetheMontessorimovementmorethanthemagazine

haddone.

5Yates105.6Tozier,“AnEducationalWonder-Worker”;“InformationabouttheMontessoriMethod”;Tozier,“MontessoriSchoolsinRome”;Willcott157-59.SeeGutekandGutek.

Keely,p.6

Andwhatwasthismovement,thispedagogy?InFisher’sdescription,Dr.

Montessori’spedagogyrestson“recognitionofthefactthatnohumanbeingiseducatedby

anyoneelse.Hemustdoithimselforitisneverdone.”7Montessorifocusedherworkon

veryyoungchildren,undersixyearsold,usingwhatToziercalled“therediscoveryofthe

tenfingers”throughasetofdidacticobjectsusedbythechildreninspecificwaysto

developtheirsenses.Thechildrenstackblocksfromlargesttosmallest,orplacecylinders

ofvaryingwidthsorheightsintheappropriate-sizedhole,orfeelthedifferencebetween

roughandsmooth,orpracticebuttoningortyingorotherfinemotorskills.Thechildren

arealmostentirelyself-motivatedand-directed,andbothTozierandFishercommented

particularlyontheneedforadultstopreventthemselves“fromrushingtotheaidofachild

whoappearstobeembarrassedandpuzzledinoneofhislittleemployments.Their

tendencyistosay,‘Poorlittlemite!’andhelphimout;therebydeprivingthechildatonceof

thejoyandtheeducationofovercominganobstacle.”8Fishersimilarlynotesthat“The

Montessoriapparatus–thewholeMontessoriidea–ismeanttofurnishappropriate

obstaclesforchildrenofthreeandfour,andfiveandsixyearsold.”9

FisherwasexplicitwithherAmericanaudiencethatDr.Montessori’sideaswerestill

indevelopmentandthattheythemselvesmustbewillingtoexperimentwiththe

methodologyandtoobservetheirownchildrenintheprocess.Forexample,shenotesthat

“NatureStudyisoneofthesubjectswhich(owingtoconditionsinRome)Dr.Montessori

hasnotyetfullyelaborated,sothatwhateverisdonenowinthatdirectionbyAmerican

mothers,usingherprincipleswithyoungchildren,mustbelargelytheresultoftheirown

7Fisher,TheMontessoriManual19-20.8Tozier,“AnEducationalWonder-Worker,”6,8.9Fisher,TheMontessoriManual107.

Keely,p.7

initiative.”10FisherconcludesAMontessoriMotherbyinvitingAmericansto“collaboratein

oursmallwaywiththescientificfounderoftheMontessorimethod,andcanhelphertogo

onwithhersystem(discoveredbeforeitscompletion)byassimilatingprofoundlyher

master-idea,andapplyingitindirectionswhichshehasnotyethadtimefinallyand

carefullytoexplore,suchasitsapplicationtothedramaticandaestheticinstinctsof

children.”11Fisherherselfwrotetwofurthernonfictionbooks,MothersandChildren(1914)

andSelf-Reliance(1916),thatbuildonMontessoriideas,notleastbecauseofthe

developmentofherownchildren,Sarah(born1909)andJames(1913).

However,FishergrievouslymisjudgedMontessori,whodecidedlydidnotwantany

“collaborators”inhermethod.Indeed,MontessoridisavowedFisher’smanuals,goingsofar

astowritealettertotheEducationalTimesSupplementofLondonsaying,“Ihavetakenthe

painstopreparemyselfahandbooktofulfillexactlythetaskwhichMrs.D.CanfieldFisher’s

bookhasthepretensionoffulfilling.Ishouldbeverygladifyouwouldgivemethe

opportunityofsayingthatIhavenotdeputed–anddonotproposetodepute–toothers

theworkofapracticalpopularexplanationofmymethod,asIhavetakengreatpainstodo

thismyself.Ihopemysystemwillnotbeheldresponsibleforanywantofsuccessthatmay

ariseoutoftheuseofotherbooksthanmyowninconnectionwiththeMontessori

apparatus.”12(Itwasexactlythistensionoverwhetherinnovationwasnecessary,possible,

orverbotenthatlatercausedthe“greatMontessorischism”betweentheAssociation

MontessoriInternationale(AMI),the“orthodox”branchthatdoesnotinnovate,andthe

AmericanMontessoriSociety,whichdoes.TheUnitedStatespatentofficehasruledthat

10Fisher,TheMontessoriManual103.11Fisher,MontessoriforParents238.12QuotedinGutekandGutek63.

Keely,p.8

“Montessori”isagenerictermthatcan’tbepatented,sobothbranchesmustsharetheterm

despitetheirdifferences.13)

Ihaven’tfoundaresponsefromFishertoMontessori’sreactiontoherwork,butin

1916shewrotedismissivelytoafriendabout“theusualferventAmericanreactiontoany

stimulant…thisisthewaythey‘tookup’theblueglasscraze,andping-pongandthe

Montessorisystem.”14Moreover,althoughMontessoriwasItalian,Fishersawsomethingin

Montessori’stheoriesthatwasdeeplyresonantwithAmerica’spastandthatdidn’tneed

thedoctor’stheoriestoappreciate:“Now,wheneverfrontierconditionsexist,people

generallyareforcedtolearntoemploytheirsensesundertheusualmodernconditionsof

specializedlaborperformedalmostentirelyawayfromthehome;andthoughformostof

ustheold-fashionedconditionsoffarm-lifesoidealforchildren,thefreeroamingoffield

andwood,thecareandresponsibilityforanimals,theknowledgeofplant-life,theintimate

acquaintancewiththebeautiesoftheseasons,theenforcedself-dependenceincrises,are

impossiblyoutofreach,wecangiveourchildrensomeofthebenefitstobehadfromthem

byanalyzingthemandseeingexactlywhicharetheelementsinthemsotonicand

invigoratingtochild-life,andbyadaptingthemtoourownchangedconditions.”15 Inthis

sentiment,sheechoestheideasofJohnDewey,whoarguesthat“Nonumberofobject-

lessons,gotupasobject-lessonsforthesakeofgivinginformation,canaffordeventhe

13Chertoff.14FishertoSarahCleghorn,September5,1917,inMadigan,Mark,72.The“blue-glasscraze”wasthepseudoscientificpracticeofchromotherapy,whichpurportedtocureillnesseswithcoloredlight.(Madigan,Mark,73)15Fisher,MontessoriforParents110.

Keely,p.9

shadowofasubstituteforacquaintancewiththeplantsandanimalsofthefarmandgarden

acquiredthroughactuallivingamongthemandcaringforthem.”16

CertainlybythetimethatFisherwroteUnderstoodBetsy–thatnovelthatsomany

scholarsseesimplyasafictionaldepictionofMontessorimethodology–shewascasting

hernetforprogressiveeducationmuchwiderthansimplyMontessori’swork,andshewas,

inparticular,FisherwasdeeplyimpressedbyJohnDewey.Shewroteadmiringprofilesof

himbothin1946andin1953,althoughIhaven’tyetfoundanydirectconnectionbetween

DeweyandFisherearlier;however,theyweretwoofthemostfamousVermontersinthe

country,nottomentionbothwell-knownnationally,andtheymusthavebeenawareof

eachother’swork.Forexample,JohnDeweypublishedanarticleonfreedomofthought

duringwartimeinTheNewRepubliconSeptember1,1917;thenextweek,themagazine

ranareviewofFisher’sUnderstoodBetsy.17 Fisherclaimsaregionalconnectionwith

Dewey,creditingVermontculturewithgivinghimhisideasaboutpedagogy,particularly

aboutstudentfreedomwithintheclassroom:“MuchofwhateverybodyaroundJohnDewey

tookforgrantedduringhisVermontyouthwasapprovedintheorybythosehefound

outsideofVermont.Butinpracticeitwasoftendecried,deridedandgreatlyfeared.”

Moreover,“MuchofwhathesawtakenforgrantedafterheleftVermont”–especiallythe

absoluteauthoritygrantedtoteachers–“wasashorrifyingtohimasitwasastonishing.”

Fisherfindssucheducationalauthorityun-American,teachingwhatisessentially“the

doctrineofthedivinerightofkings”tochildren.18Dewey’semphasisonmanualaswellas

intellectualworkwasinpartanattempttoeliminateanyachievementgabbetweenrich16Dewey,“TheSchoolandSociety”298.17Fisher,“JohnDewey,”inAmericanPortraits;Fisher,“JohnDewey,”inVermontTradition;Dewey,“ConscriptionofThought”;“AChildinArcadia.”18Fisher,“JohnDewey,”VermontTradition374.

Keely,p.10

andpoor,whichFisheragaincreditsinparttohisbeingaVermonterratherthan“onewho

hadgrownupinthesocialassumptionthatwell-to-dopeoplehavemindsonly,andthe

lower-incomegrouphavehandsonly.”19Fisher’sVermontboosterismapparentlydoesnot

conceiveofclassprejudiceaspossibleinherbelovedstate.

Moreover,thehistoricalmomentinwhichFisherwrotehernovelisnotsimplythe

interestinMontessori’sworktotheUnitedStates(whichwasalreadydimmingbythat

time20)butalsoWorldWarI.Fisher’shusbandwasaQuakerwhoin1916decidedtogoto

Francetodriveanambulance.FisherremainedintheUnitedStateswiththecouple’stwo

childrenuntilshefinishedpreparationsofUnderstoodBetsyforpublication,atwhichpoint

thefamilyreunitedoutsideofParis.ThefactthatEuropewasinchaosnodoubtledFisher

toreflectlonginglyonanapparentlysimpler,morepeacefulpast,atthesametimethatshe

wasarguingforapedagogythatrecognizestheindividualityofeachchild.

ReadersatthetimedidnotparticularlyassociateUnderstoodBetsywithMontessori

theoriesbutratherwiththisharkeningforapurerAmericanpast.Forexample,the

reviewerforTheNewRepublicwasclearlyfamiliarwithFisher’sworkonMontessoribut

mentioneditonlytoillustratethecriticismthat,sincethepublicationoftheearlier

educationbooks,Fisherhas“growntroublinglywistful,anddoubtfulaboutcities.”The

reviewmentions“littleredschool-houses”andhighlights“theprobablyuniversaldesireto

havethechildrengrowuphealthyandself-reliant”butseesthisdesireasrootedina

returntoruralliferatherthanMontessorieducationalreform.Indeed,thereview,titled“A19Fisher,“JohnDewey,”VermontTradition377.20Onereasonoftengivenforthequick,iftemporary,demiseofinterestinMontessorieducationinAmericaisthescathingreviewthatWilliamKirkpatrick,reformerJohnDewey’sformerstudent,wrotein1914,arguingthatMariaMontessori’smethodswereexactlywhatprogressivereformershadbeendoingsincethe1880s.SeeThayer-Bacon;Willcott.

Keely,p.11

ChildinArcadia,”findsFisher“alwaysextraordinarilylikable”butseesthenovelas

unfortunatelynostalgic“forpioneerconditions”andunrealistic.21

These“pioneerconditions”areabouttheprotagonist’scountryschoollifeandfarm

homelife,whichworktogetherinharmonytogiveameaningfulexistencetoachild

diminishedbymodernizationandurbanization.UnderstoodBetsy,serializedin1916inSt.

Nicholasandthenpublishedinbookformin1917,22isthestoryofnine-year-oldElizabeth

Ann,anorphanwhohasbeenraisedbyherAuntFrancesandFrances’smother,Aunt

Harriet.WhenelderlyHarrietbecomesill,presumablywithtuberculosis,andmustgotoa

warmclimateforherlungs,thelittlegirlissenttostaywiththePutneys,Vermontrelatives

whomHarrietandFranceshavealwayscastigatedas“astiff-necked,cold-hearted,

undemonstrative,andhardsetofNewEnglanders.”ThePutneys’worstcrimeagainst

humanityisthattheygivechildrenchoreswhilenotprofferingthetypeofsentimental

over-identificationwithachildthatFrancesprefers;itisnowonderthatHarrietrefersto

thePutneys’emphasisoncapable,independentchildrenas“starving…thechild-heart”(3).

Fisher’snarrativevoiceassumesthatthereaderlivesanurbanlifeliketheone

ElizabethAnnedoesbeforemovingtoVermont:“amedium-sizedcityinamedium-sized

stateinthemiddleofthiscountry;…youknowallaboutitbecauseitwasprobablyvery

muchliketheplaceyouliveinyourself”(1).Thaturbanenvironmentfeaturesnoise,

crowds,limitedfreshair,andfortheyounggirl,acomprehensivedistrictschool,a“big

brickschoolbuilding…[that]wasfourstorieshigh,andwhenalltheclasseswerein

sessionthereweresixhundredchildrenunderthatoneroof.Youcanimagine,perhaps,the

noisetherewasontheplaygroundjustbeforeschool!”(7).AuntFrancesalsogivesher21“AChildinArcadia.”22Rahn52.

Keely,p.12

nieceadditionallearningopportunitiesoutsideofschool,because“afterschoolandon

Saturdays…therewerelessons,allkindsoflessons–pianolessonsofcourse[because

AuntFrancisisapianoteacher],andnature-studylessonsoutofanexcellentbookAunt

Franceshadbought,andpaintinglessons,andsewinglessons,andevenalittleFrench,

althoughAuntFranceswasnotverysureaboutherpronunciation”(8).

Moreover,AuntFrancesherselfpursuestheeducationsheimaginessheneedstobe

agoodmother.Fishermakesfunoftheemphasison“scientificmotherhood”prevalentin

theearly20thcentury,inwhichmotherswereencouragedtoturntoauthorities–often

physicians–foradviceabouthowtoraisetheirchildren.23AuntFrances,intryingtobethe

bestmothershecanbetothebaby,“re-readonebookafteranotherwhichtoldherhowto

bringupchildren.ShejoinedaMother’sClubwhichmetonceaweek.Shetooka

correspondencecoursefromaschoolinChicagowhichtaughtmother-craftbymail”(3).

(Thereisalsosomeself-mockeryherefromFisher,whoofcoursehadwrittentwochild-

rearingmanualsherselfbythatpoint.)AndyetAuntFrancesissonervousandclingythat

littleElizabethAnnisananxious,fearful,dependent,passive,“white,tremblingchild”by

thetimesheisnineyearsold(18).

Thatweak,scaredchildisthrustbyhergreat-auntHarriet’sillnessintoanewworld

thatisnotentirely–orindeedatall–focusedonprotectingherfromeverything.Sherides

thetrainfromNewYorkCityuptoVermontalone,afterarelativehastakenhertotheeast

coastandputherontherighttrain,chargingtheconductortomakesureshegetsoffatthe

correctstop;sheissofrightenedbythetimeshearrivesthatshecan’twalk,andthe

conductorhastophysicallycarryheroffthetrain.

23Apple,esp.33.

Keely,p.13

AnditisinthisfirstmomentinHillsboro,Vermont,thatherprogressiveeducation

begins.HerUncleHenrywrapsherinacapetokeepherwarm,setsherdowninthefront

seatofthelumberwagonwithhim,andbeginsthejourneytothePutneyfarm,without

askingher“agreatmanytimeshowyouhad‘stoodthetrip’”(19),whichshehasalways

assumedwasanintrinsicfeatureofalltravel;inthisnewworld,strangeexperiencesare

notconsideredinevitablyjarringtodelicatenerves,largelybecausenervesarenot

consideredinevitablydelicate.ElizabethAnnstartstoworkherselfintoanervousfit,

imaginingherselffallingoutofthewagonandbeingcrushedbythewheels,butitturnsout

thatsuchflightsofhystericalimaginationrequireasympatheticaudience;UncleHenry,

insteadofintuitingherself-createdterrorandaskingto“hearallaboutit,”askshertotake

overthereinssothathecandosome“figgering”withpaperandpencil(19).Hegivesher

rudimentaryinstructions–“Youpullontheleft-handreintomake’emgototheleftand

t’otherwayfort’otherway,though’tain’tlikelywe’llmeetanyteams”(19)–andthen

leaveshertoitwhilehegetsonwithhismath.ElizabethAnnehas“instantabsorbed

interest”intheprojectathand,notbecauseshe’spleasedtobeaskedbutbecauseshe

wantstomakeexcusesaboutwhyshecan’tdoit,butUncleHenryispayingherno

attentionatall.Sheisdistractedfromherdistressbecausethehorsesstartwalkingtothe

leftside,andshe“hastilydecidedwhichwasherrighthand(shehadneverbeenforcedto

knowitsoquicklybefore)andpulledonthatrein.Thehorsesturnedtheirhangingheadsa

little,and,miraculously,theretheywereinthemiddleoftheroadagain”(20).Inother

words,thelittlegirlishavinganobjectlessonwithself-correctingdidacticmaterials,just

asMontessorirecommends.Thefactthatshehashadnochoiceinthematter,thatdriving

hasbeenthrustuponher,isnotwhatMontessorirecommends,butyoungElizabethAnne

Keely,p.14

hasspentnineyearshavinghercuriositydulledbyfearandanxiety;thereisnonew

knowledgethatshewillpursueonherownatthispoint.Thestakesarealsohigherhere

thanMontessoriwouldrecommend;inherflusteredforgetfulnessaboutwhichisherright

andlefthand,shethenpullsonthewrongrein,andthewagoncomesclosetotippingintoa

ditch.Indeed,FisherisheretreadinginthefootstepsofJohnDeweyratherthan

Montessori,fortheformerargues(inFisher’sownwords)thatoneroleofeducationis“to

providefor[thechild]opportunities(realones,nopretense,sinceallpretenseispoison)to

joinhelpfullyandcreativelyintheworkofhiscommunity.”24

Shesoonhasanepiphany–whatthenarrativevoicereferstoas“herbrain,waking

up”asshehasherveryfirst“wholethoughtofherveryown”(21)–whensherealizesthat

shedoesn’tactuallyneedtorememberwhichhandisrightandwhichisleft,aslongasshe

pullsthereininthedirectionthatshewantsthehorsestogo.Inadidacticmoment,the

narratorexplainsthat“Athome,AuntFranceshadalwaysknownexactlywhatshewas

doing,andhadhelpedheroverthehardplacesbeforesheevenknewtheywerethere;and

atschoolherteachershadbeencarefullytrainedtothinkfasterthanthescholars.Someone

hadalwaysbeenexplainingthingstoElizabethAnnsocarefullythatshehadneverfound

outasinglethingforherselfbefore.Thiswasaverysmalldiscovery,butitwasherown.

ElizabethAnnwasasexcitedaboutitasamotherbirdoverthefirsteggthathatches”(21).

Shethrowsherselfintothisdrivingproject,usinghernew-foundunderstandingand

concentratingasshehasneverdonebefore:“Nowforwhatseemedtoheralong,longtime

shedrove,drovesohardshecouldthinkofnothingelse.Sheguidedthehorsesaround

stones,shecheeredthemthroughfreezingmudpuddlesofmeltedsnow,shekeptthemin

24Fisher,“JohnDewey,”VermontTradition377.

Keely,p.15

theanxiouslyexactmiddleoftheroad”(22-23).Andshedoesthisallwithnoexternal

praise;therewardissimplythattheyeventuallyarriveatPutneyfarmthankstoher

driving.

Uponherarrivalatthefarm,sheispromptlyrenamed“Betsy”withnofanfare,and

thenewnamewillsignifynotonlyhernewsurroundingsbutalsothenewchild-rearing

philosophywithwhichshe’llbetreated.Thenovelreferstoherbybothnamesforfive

morechaptersbeforeBetsyhasfinallymaturedintohernewname.ElizabethAnnwas

alwayscarefullyawakenedbyherAuntFrances,whosupervisedherdressinganddidher

hair;Betsy,ontheotherhand,islefttolieinbeduntilshedecidestogetupanddress

herselfanddoherownhair.ElizabethAnnneverhadachore,whichwerethepurviewof

servants;Betsyisaskedtohelpwithonemealaday,andtheinstructionssheisgivenare

briefandincludeadvicetoaddsugartoapplesauce“tillittastesright”(78),requiringher

toexperimentwithdifferinglevelsofsweetenerandtomakeindependentdecisions.

ElizabethAnn’sappetitewascarefullymonitoredanddiscussedatthedinnertable;Betsy

isallowedtobypassthebakedbeansfordinnerandeatthreehelpingsoftheapplesauce

thatshemadeherself.ElizabethAnnwascarefullywalkedbackandforthtoschooltwicea

daybyAuntFrances,whocommiseratedovereverytestandperceivedslightbythe

teacher;Betsy,ontheotherhand,issentbyherselftowalktoschoolafterlunchonherfirst

dayinVermont.

TheschoolinHillsboroisaone-roomschoolhouse,sosmallthatBetsyiswalking

rightpastitwhentheteacher,MissBenton,runsouttogether.Thedesksareinrows–no

Montessorithrowrugsandtinytableshere–andcarvedupwiththeinitialsofgenerations

Keely,p.16

ofstudents.Thereareonlytwelvestudentsintheentireschool,however,rangingfromfive

throughpresumablytheupperelementaryschoolgrades.

OneprojectofthatinitialafternoonistogetBetsysortedoutintermsofher

academicachievementandthelevelofappropriatechallenge.Betsy’sexperienceofbeing

3A–thehighestlevelofthirdgradeinherpreviousschool–isthatshewillbeboredmuch

ofthetime,exceptforwhensheislostinmathclass.Herexperienceinreadinglessons,for

example,hadbeenthatall40studentsinher3Aclasssatwiththeirbookopenedtothe

samepassage;theteacherwentaroundtheroom,callingoneachchildinturntoreada

line,“untilyourturncametostandupandreadyoursentenceortwo,whichbythattime

soundedjustlikenonsensebecauseyou’dreaditoversomanytimestoyourselfbefore

yourchancecame.Andoftenyoudidn’tevenhaveachancetodothat,becausetheteacher

didn’thavetimetogetaroundtoyouatall,andyouclosedyourbookandputitinyour

deskwithouthavingopenedyourmouth”(57-58).Betsylovestoread,butthathasnothing

todowiththetediumofreadingclass.Butinhernewone-roomschoolhouse,sittingwith

theteacherandjusttwootherstudents,eachstudentreadsafullpage,andwhenthelevel

ofthepassageisobviouslyverylowforBetsy,herteacherhandsherthe7th-gradereader

instead.TheselectionisJohnGreenleafWhittier’s“BarbaraFrietchie,”andBetsyreadsitso

wellthattheentireclassstopstheirworktolisten;sheisafraidthattheotherstudentswill

laughather,butinsteadtheyareeagertohearwhathappensinthepoem.

Betsysadlytellsherteacherthatshecan’tbeallowedtoreadinthe7th-gradereader

becausehermathskillsaresoweak,butitturnsoutthathernewteachermeetseach

studentathisorherlevelineachfieldofstudy.Betsywindsupin2nd-grademath,which

confusesherterribly–howcanshebein7th-gradereadingand3rd-gradespellingand2nd-

Keely,p.17

grademath?–althoughtheteachertellsher,“Youaren’tanygradeatall,nomatterwhere

youareinschool.You’rejustyourself,aren’tyou?Whatdifferencedoesitmakewhatgrade

you’rein?Andwhat’stheuseofyourreadinglittlebabythingstooeasyforyoujust

becauseyoudon’tknowyourmultiplicationtable?”(64-65).Betsycanonlyreply,“Well,for

goodness’sakes!,”notentirelysureherselfwhysheissoconfusedbythisnewsystem,but

thenarrativevoicestepsintoclarifytheproblemBetsyisfacing:“Thematterwasthat

neverbeforehadsheknowswhatshewasdoinginschool.Shehadalwaysthoughtshewas

theretopassfromonegradetoanother,andshewaseversostartledtogetaglimpseofthe

factthatshewastheretolearnhowtoreadandwriteandcipherandgenerallyuseher

mind,soshecouldtakecareofherselfwhenshecametobegrownup”(65).

ThereareothersurprisesinstoreforBetsythatday.Oneisthatstudentstaketurn

gettingapailofwaterfromthepondfortherestoftheclasstodrink,similartothecooking

andhospitalityasksthatMontessoristudentsdoforoneanother.Theother,morestartling,

isthat,onceshehaslearnedthespellinglistshe’sbeenassigned,fasterthanherfellow

classmates,andsettlesherselfinfortheexpectedperiodofboredom,theteacherasksher

totakefive-year-oldMollyintoacornerandhelpherwithherreading.Hereisaperfect

exampleofMontessori’smulti-ageclassrooms,andtheexperienceisgoodforboth

children,justastheItaliandoctorwouldhavepredicted.Betsy“hadneverhadanythingto

dowithchildrenyoungerthanherself,andshefeltverypleasedandimportanttohave

anybodylookuptoher!...ElizabethAnncorrect[ed]Mollygentlywhenshemadeamistake,

andwait[ed]patientlywhenshehesitated.Shehadsofreshinhermindherownsuffering

fromquick,nervouscorrectionsthatshetookthegreatestpleasureinspeakingquietlyand

notinterruptingthelittlegirlmorethanwasnecessary.Itwasfuntoteach,lotsoffun!”

Keely,p.18

(62).Thetimefliesby,andBetsyissurprisedwhentheteacherasks“thoughtfully,justas

thoughBetsywereagrown-upperson,”aboutherassessmentoflittleMolly’sreadingskills

andwhethershemightbereadyforthesecondreader(62).

UnlikeMontessori,forwhomtheteacher’sprimaryroleistopreparethe

environmentinwhichthetoddlerswilllearn,Fisherarguesthatadultshaveanimportant

roleinmodelingbehaviorsandprovidingdirectinstructiontostudents.Earlier,observing

Montessori’sclasses,Fisherhadnotedthat“Itwasevidenttoherthattheusual‘class

recitation’and‘classlessons’wereoutofthequestion,sincetheycouldatthebest,possibly

fittheneedsofonlyonechildintheclass.Andyetitisobviouslyimpossible,astheworldis

madeup,tohaveateacherforeverychild.Therewasonlyonewayout–thingsmust

somehowbesoorganizedandarrangedthat,formostofthetime,thechildcanandshall

teachhimself.”25IntheHillsboroone-roomschoolhouse,however,thereareotheroptions:

studentscanteacheachother(asinBetsy’shelpingMollywithreading);classrecitations

andlessonscanbedonewithverysmallgroupsofchildren,aclasswithintheclass;and

sometimes,theteacherworksone-on-onewithastudent,ashappenswithBetsyandmath:

“assoonasMissBentonhadseentheconfusionofthelittlegirl’smind,thetwohadsettled

downtoaseriousstrugglewiththatsubject.MissBentonhadhadBetsyreciteallby

herself,soshewouldn’tbeflurriedbytheothers;andtobeginwithhadgoneback,back,

backtobedrock,tothethingsBetsyabsolutelyknew,tothe2x2’sandthe3x3’s.And

then,verycautiously,astepatatime,theyhadadvanced,stoppingshortwheneverBetsy

feltabeginningofthatbewildered‘guessing’impulsewhichmadeheranswerwildlyat

random”(123).Thisapproach–teacher-centricbutfocusedononeparticularchild–

25Fisher,TheMontessoriManual19.

Keely,p.19

works,and“Sheattackedapageofproblemsnowwithazestandself-confidencewhich

madeherarithmeticlessonsamongthemostinterestinghoursatschool”(124).

Assessmentintheschoolisongoingandentirelyformative,untiltheday“the

Superintendent,theall-important,seldom-seenSuperintendent,cametovisittheschool

andthechildrenweregivensomeexaminationsohecouldseehowtheyweregettingon”

(89-90).Betsyhasbeenconditionedbyheryearsatthebigcityschooltofear

examinations,whichdeterminewhetheronecanmoveontothenextgradeattheendofthe

year,andshethusregressestoheroldElizabethAnnselfandsuffersawholeslewof

anxioussymptoms:“Hermouthhadgonedryandherkneeshadshakenandherelbows

hadfeltasthoughtheyhadnomorebonesinthemthansomuchjelly,andhereyeshad

smarted,and,oh,whatanswersshehadmade!…shehaddisgracedherselftentimesover”

(90).SheseekssympathyfromherCousinAnnasshehadalwaysdonefromAuntFrances,

onlytodiscoverthatFrancesalwaysthoughtthatexaminationswereratherfun:“Like

takingadare,don’tyouknow.Somebodystumpsyoutojumpoffthehitchingpost,andyou

doittoshow’em.Ialwaysusedtothinkexaminationswerelikethat.Somebodystumps

youtospell‘pneumonia,’andyoudoittoshow’em”(92).Betsythinksthat’sallverywell

forAnn,butsheherselfhadgottenscaredandmadealotofmistakes:“Ispelled‘doubt’

withoutanyband‘separate’withane,andIsaidIowawasboundedonthenorthby

Wisconsin,andI…”SheisinterruptedbyCousinAnn,whopointsoutthat“itdoesn’tmatter

ifyoureallyknowtherightanswers,doesit?That’stheimportantthing”(92).However,

“ThiswasanideawhichhadneverinallherlifeenteredBetsy’sbrainandshedidnottake

itinnow”(92-93),evenwhenCousinAnnpointsoutthat“HemlockMountainwillstand

righttherejustthesameevenifyoudidforgettoputabin‘doubt’”(93).

Keely,p.20

Laterthatafternoon,theuselessnessofexaminationsfordeterminingrealgrowthis

drivenhomewhenBetsymustproveherproblem-solvingskillsinareal-life,ratherthan

created,situation.WhensheandlittleMollywalkbacktothefarmfromthesaphouse,

whereAnnhasbeenmakingmaplesyrup,theytakeawrongturnandaccidentallyheadup

HemlockMountainratherthandownit.Althoughdarkisfalling,Betsyisrelativelycalm,

figuringthattheycanjustturnaroundandgotheotherway,butthenMollytakesone

wrongstepandfallsintoadeeppit,whereariver-formedcavehadcollapsedlongago.

Betsy’sfirstthoughtistorunbacktothefarmandgethelp,butthefive-year-oldbecomes

hystericalatthethoughtofbeingleftinthepitaloneinthedark.Betsypullsherself

togetherandasksherself,“WhatwouldCousinAnndoifshewerehere?Shewouldn’tcry.

Shewouldthinkofsomething”(101).SoBetsylooksaround,assessingherresources,and

seesahugepinetreelimbwithbrokenbranchstubs.Sherealizesthatcouldworkasa

ladderifshecangetitintothehole.Ittakesusingastickasaleverforhertogetthehuge

treelimboutofthesnow,butshefinallydoesso,maneuversittothepit,tellsMollytoget

undercover,andslidesthelimbintothepit.Mollyquicklyclambersupandgetshigh

enoughthatBetsycanliedownflat,reachdownherarms,andpullthechildup.Justasthe

rescueisachieved,CousinAnnarrives,lookingforthechildreninthedark;thePutneysare

notgiventopraise,butAnnsays,“Well,now,thatwasquiteagoodideaforalittlegirlto

have,”whichmakesBetsy’sheart“sing[]joyfully”(103).Thatnight,asshecurlsupinbed,

“sheremembered,eversofaintly,assomethingofnoimportance,thatshehadfailedinan

examinationthatafternoon”(103).Shehasinternalizedthelessonthatwhatreallymatters

iswhatyouknowandwhatyoucandowithwhatyouknow,notwhataSuperintendent

thinksofyourspelling.

Keely,p.21

Butissucheducation–individualattention;thepracticalhandinhandwiththe

academic;anemphasisonrealgrowthratherthanprogressionthroughgrades–available

tomostchildrenin1916?(or1946?ornow?)IsFisher’snovelsimplyan“Arcadia,”asthe

NewRepublicreviewerfound,amomentaryescapefromthedangersofmodernityand

WorldWarI?Oristheresomethingforward-lookingaswellasbackward-lookingin

Fisher’sidealofruralone-roomschoolhousesandself-reliantfarmfamilies?

Thirtyyearslater,lookingbackafterasecondworldwar(oneinwhichFisherlost

herbelovedson),Fisherhypothesizedthat“Thoselocalfreehighschoolstwenty-fiveor

thirtyorfortyyearsagowerecertainlynotbettereducationalinstitutionsinthemselves

thantheexpensiveprepschools,asonemightatfirstthink.Buttheboysandgirlswho

wenttothosesmallsemi-ruralhighschoolsweresaturatedtothemarrowoftheirbonesby

constantcontactwiththefeelingofcommunalresponsibilityforunderstandingthe

workingsoflocalinstitutionsandforhelpingtokeepthemworking.”26 Issuchacommunity

feelingstillpossibleinaworldtornapartbymultipleworldwars,scatteredby

urbanizationandrelocation,andbereftofautonomybyindustrialization?Shenotes,“If

therearegreatpsychologicaldangerstoindividualdevelopmentformembersofverylarge

groups,andif,asseemsinevitable,humangroupingsaregoingtogetlargerandlargerin

thefuture,whatcanthoseofusacutelyconcernedforthewelfareoftheyounger

generationdoaboutit.”27

Fisheracknowledgesthatthissoundssomewhat“gloomy”butholdsouthopethat

educationwillprovidenewroadsforward:“Somethingofthiskindseemstohavebeenthe

guessofthoseeducatorswho,uptoashorttimeago,werecalledprogressive.Whatthey26Fisher,AmericanPortraits23.27Fisher,AmericanPortraits28.

Keely,p.22

werereallyafterwasnotsomuchachangeincurriculumordisciplineastoplacethechild

andtheadolescentinsurroundingswhere,asanaturalconsequenceofdailylife,hehas

real,notmake-believe,managerialpowerovertheconductofhisaffairs”28–theverything

thatcamenaturallytoBetsy,oncesheleftthecity.

Fisherconcludeswithanappreciationfortheongoingworkofprogressive

educatorsinaworldthatseemsdarkerthaninthoseearlydaysofthecenturywhenshe

wasobservingMontessori’sclassesinRome:“Theenlightenedmodernschoolteacheris

strugglingsotoarrangeschoollifethatboysandgirlsofthefuturemaybeabletoprofitby

theprodigiousmaterialadvantagesoflarge-scaleproductionanddistributionwithout

payingtoohighapriceintermsofweakenedindividualself-dependence.Heisfrightened

abouttheeffectontheyoungergenerationofthepresent.Heisevenmorealarmedabout

theimmediatefuture,when–asthemostcasualprophetcanguess–humangroupsare

goingtobemorearmy-likeinsizethaneverbefore.Theintelligentmoderneducatoris

doinghisbesttomakeclassroomlifeprovideforyoungAmericansmoreofthat

strengtheningexperienceofmanagingtheconductoftheirownlivesthatusedtobe

providedbythehuman-sizedgroupsofcommunitylifeofthepast.…Tothisgrandparent

thegoodmodernprogressiveschoollookslikeoneofthewaysopenintoavigoroushuman

future.”29

Inanationthatisnowevenless“human-sized”initsgroupingsthanFishercould

haveanticipatedsixtyyearsago,Iwouldloveforalleducators–thosewhoconsider

themselves“progressive”andthosewhoconsiderthemselves“traditional”–toreadboth

Fisher’sessayandhernow-most-famousnovel,UnderstoodBetsy.Allteachersacrossthe28Fisher,AmericanPortraits28-29.29Fisher,AmericanPortraits28-29.

Keely,p.23

spectrumwouldrecognizethatBetsy,whoturnsaconfidenttenattheendofthenovel,is

ineverywayamorevigorouschildthanthefrightened,weakElizabethAnnofayear

before.Couldallofthoseeducatorstalktooneanotherina“human-sized”community,one

thathas,deepinthemarrowofitsbones,a“feelingofcommunalresponsibilityfor

understandingtheworkingsoflocalinstitutionsandforhelpingtokeepthemworking.”30If

Fishercouldenvisionsuchinstitutionsin1916,andcouldmakeacallforsuchcommunities

in1946,couldweheedhercallinthisdayandage?

30Fisher,AmericanPortraits23.

Keely,p.24

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