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Volume 8 Issue 1 Annual `800
October–December 2019
COVER STORY
VIEWPOINT
TRANSFORMING PV WASTE TO A RESOURCE
�������
SUSTAINABILITY AS A FRAMEWORK, APPROACH, AND COMMITMENT
MANAGING INDIA’S CLEAN ENERGY WASTE
Place your orders at teripress@teri.res.in
Web: http://teriin.org/projects/teddy
Offer valid till 31st
INR 1995
The Most Comprehensive Annual Data Diary and Yearbook on
India’s Energy Sector and itsImpact on Environment
Order Now& Save
20%on Print
30%on eBook
• Institutional orders limited to 10 copies
• Special e-package for corporate users
• New chapter on
energy consumption
in residential
and commercial
buildings in India
• Section on inter-
linkages of various
sectors (agriculture,
water, land,
transport etc.)
with Sustainable
Development Goals
(SDGs) will also be
covered.
• Updated data in
respective chapters
OCTOBER–DECEMBER 2019
Chief Patron
Dr Ajay Mathur
Editor
Amit Kumar Radheyshayam Nigam
Editorial Board
Sumita Misra
Chief Electoral Officer-cum-Commissioner Election,
Government of Haryana
Rakesh Kakkar
Additional Secretary, Ministry of Consumer Affairs
Dr A K Tripathi
Director General, National Institute of Solar
Energy (NISE)
Content Advisors
Dr Shantanu Ganguly
Dr P K Bhattacharya
Editorial & Design Team
Anupama Jauhry
Shashi Bhushan
TCA Avni
Abhas Mukherjee
Rajiv Sharma
Production
Aman Sachdeva
Marketing and Sales
Gitesh Sinha
Sanjeev Sharma
Head Office
TERI
Darbari Seth Block, IHC Complex
Lodhi Road, New Delhi – 110 003
Tel. +91 (11) 2468 2100 or 711
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Editor: Amit Kumar Radheyshayam Nigam
Printed and published by Dr Ajay Mathur for The Energy and Resources Institute,
Darbari Seth Block, IHC Complex, Lodhi Road, New Delhi- 110 003. Tel. +91(11)
24682100, Fax +91(11) 2468 2144 or Email: teripress@teri.res.in,
and printed by Batra Art Press, A-41 Naraina Indl. Area PH- II, New Delhi-28.
© The Energy and Resources Institute. All rights reserved.
In the fight against global climate change crisis, renewable energy has assumed
a central – and critical – role. The Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs)
submitted by countries to UNFCCC show that in about 80% cases, clean energy is a
priority. As per IRENA analysis, “a total of 145 NDCs explicitly mention renewables as
part of their mitigation and/or adaptation.” While renewable energy comprises many
resources like solar, wind, hydro, and biomass, solar PV remains a key element of this
framework. Indeed REN21’s ‘Global Status Report 2019’ states that “with around 100
GW added, solar PV was once again the frontrunner for installed renewable power
capacity. Additions from solar PV accounted for 55% of new renewable capacity.” Life
of a solar PV panel is considered to be around 25–30 years and while grid-connected
large solar power plants do not need battery storage, smaller, decentralized/off-grid
solar systems and devices do need battery storage too. Thus, while such systems
provide energy in environmentally benign forms, it is equally important to think
about many unintended consequences of such a large-scale deployment of solar PV
systems. Such consequences essentially arise out of end-of-life batteries and solar PV
panels as well as those panels that have reached the obsolescence stage. In 2016,
IRENA and IEA’S Photovoltaic Power Systems Programme estimated that by 2050
solar PV panel waste could reach 5.5–6 million tonnes. Such a scenario provides both
environmental challenges and opportunities: challenges in terms of sound disposal of
waste and opportunities that arise out of recycling and reuse of waste so generated. It
is evident that we simply cannot ignore this vital aspect of otherwise climate-friendly
solutions. There is an urgent need, therefore, to bring in the circularity dimension
of economy before the problem becomes unmanageable. Fortunately, end-of-life
solar PV has catapulted new businesses as has been the case with several start-ups
attempting to integrate second-life batteries in a variety of decentralized electricity
applications.
On the other end of spectrum is agro-waste, unscientific management of
which also abates air pollution among other ill-effects. Again, through emerging
technological innovations, there are promising possibilities of turning bio-wastes
into different energy forms, including bio-fuels. A combination of measures, for
example, incentives to technology development, right policies, and a progressive
regulatory framework can ensure an energy future that is sustainable in all
its dimensions.
From the editor’s desk...
Amit KumarSenior Director, Social Transformation, TERI
Thank you very much for
your encouragement. The
editorial team of Energy
Future will ensure that
the magazine caters to
your information and
knowledge needs. We
welcome your suggestions
and comments to further
improve our content and
presentation.
EditorEnergy Future
Email: teripress@teri.res.in
I immensely enjoyed reading the article on building materials in which the author highlights the I immensely enjoyed reading the article on building materials in which the author highlights the importance of energy efficiency in buildings in the overall energy landscape. It would be apt to say importance of energy efficiency in buildings in the overall energy landscape. It would be apt to say that a well-designed and energy efficient landscape can reduce your heating, cooling and lighting that a well-designed and energy efficient landscape can reduce your heating, cooling and lighting costs. In certain circumstances, carefully positioned trees and shrubs can save up to 25% of the costs. In certain circumstances, carefully positioned trees and shrubs can save up to 25% of the energy a typical household uses. Energy efficient landscaping has additional benefits such as lower energy a typical household uses. Energy efficient landscaping has additional benefits such as lower maintenance costs, a reduction in water use, a quieter home and cleaner air. It pays to do ample maintenance costs, a reduction in water use, a quieter home and cleaner air. It pays to do ample research on your region before you begin planning your landscape.research on your region before you begin planning your landscape.
Pramod KumarPramod Kumar
Hyderabad, Telangana
The Product Update column on ‘Switching to Sustainable Alternatives’ is very interesting as it discusses about sustainable products, such as bamboo toothbrushes, reusable drinking straws, coir products, coconut bowls, bamboo tea strainer, seed pencils, and so on. With small steps towards switching to these sustainable alternatives, we pave the way for a greener future. The dependence on plastic for convenience is costing us our planet. Now it is time for us to choose between plastic and planet.
S P Singh
Kanpur, Uttar Pradesh
The article on ‘Why Green Ratings for Buildings Matter’ published in the
July–September 2019 issue of Energy Future is quite interesting. The
author rightly says that the ever increasing adoption of the GRIHA rating
is paramount in evaluating reductions in GHG emissions intensity by 2030
and achieving the Nationally Determined Contributions submitted to the
UNFCCC by the Government of India. All the other articles published in this
issue are also very apt and useful.Aditi Bhanushali
Mumbai, Maharashtra
Letter to the Editor
teripress@teri.res.in
The July–September 2019 issue of Energy Future is quite an apt one as it captures the essence of sustainable built environments. I will try and never forget the food for thought provided by the author that 70% of India is yet to be built, and if we still mend our ways and adopt sustainability, there is a ray of hope for our posterity. All of us must always remember that sustainability does not cost more, sustainability is common sense, and without sustainability there is no future.
Rajesh DhawanNew Delhi
4 NEWS
COVER STORY
12 Managing India’s Clean Energy
Waste: A Roadmap for the Solar
and Storage Industry
FEATURES
20 Transforming PV Waste to
a Resource24 Energy–Waste Nexus: End-of-
Life Man agement of Lithium Ion
Batteries30 Potential and Market Opportunities
for Energy Generation from Agro
And Livestock Waste in India
36 Commercialization of Compressed
Biogas in India
ENERGY INSIGHTS
42 Horizons of Energy Storage:
Chemistry Nobel Prize 2019
SOLAR QUARTERLY
50 Endeavour of Rajasthan Towards
Ultra-Mega Solar Parks: Sun’s
Glow and Future Opportunities
SPECIAL EVENT
58 BEE Nudges Industry to Adopt
ISO 50001: Energy Management
System to Sustain Energy
Effi cient Culture
VIEWPOINT
60 Sustainability as a Framework,
Approach, and Commitment
64 ABSTRACTS
66 PRODUCT UPDATE
68 BOOK ALERT
70 TECHNICAL CORNER
74 INDUSTRY REGISTRY
75 EVENTS
76 RE STATISTICS
4OCTOBER–DECEMBER 2019 ENERGY FUTURE
EWSNIN
DIA
Soon police stations, civil stations, KSRTC
bus depots, Kerala Water Authority and
ITIs in the state will sport solar panels
on their rooftops, as government plans
to boost renewable energy generation
in the next one year. The Agency for
Non-Conventional Energy and Rural
Technology (ANERT) will implement the
project in the five departments from
January. “We have identified that the five
departments have space to generate 22
MW of solar energy by the end of 2020,”
said ANERT director Amit Meena.
ANERT will install solar panels on
rooftops of buildings and on the vacant
land owned by KWA to generate 13.5
MW of power. Around 36 acres of land
owned by KWA at Moongilmada in
Palakkad will be utilized for installing
ground mounted solar panels. It is
expected to generate 6–8 MW of power.
“KWA has an energy intensive operation
by running 1080 schemes. Hence, we
have decided to meet 10 per cent of
the energy needs through renewable
energy,” said KWA managing director A
Kowsigan.
Source: New Indian Express
PLANS AFOOT TO HARNESS SOLAR POWER FROM ROOFTOPS OF GOVT BUILDINGS
GREEN ENERGY POLICIES AMENDED IN ANDHRA PRADESHWith the statutory audit finding an
abnormal spurt in power purchase
cost and deterioration in the financial
position of Discoms, the state
government on Monday amended
the Andhra Pradesh Solar Power
Policy, Andhra Pradesh Wind Power
Policy, and Andhra Pradesh Wind-Solar
Hybrid Policy 2018. According to the
orders, transmission and distribution
charges shall be determined by the
APERC for connectivity to the nearest
central transmission utility via state
transmission utility network for inter-
state and intra-state wheeling of power.
The facility of energy banking and
power drawal from all the generators
has been withdrawn. Any injection of
energy between synchronization and
declaration of commercial operation
date (COD) shall be treated as
inadvertent power and no cost shall be
paid by Discoms.
Tariff for any renewable energy
project shall not exceed the ‘difference
between the pooled variable cost and
the balancing cost’. Andhra Pradesh
Electricity Regulatory Commission
(APERC) will determine the pooled
variable cost and balancing cost every
year. All government land allotments
shall only be on lease basis.
Source: New Indian Express
5 OCTOBER–DECEMBER 2019ENERGY FUTURE
ReNew Power, which is expanding
across the energy sector supply chain, is
aiming to achieve double-digit growth
in power transmission. The company,
which recently started participating in
transmission project tenders, is hopeful
of grabbing $20 billion worth of Central
and state-level power transmission
network projects.
“ReNew Power will target a double-
digit market share in power transmission
in the coming 3–5 years. This translates
into the company’s participation in 40–
50 per cent of the transmission projects
offered,” said Ajay Bhardwaj, President
Transmission, ReNew Power.
“We will look at all the states where
we have existing projects or where we
are building current capacity. These are
the same states where the renewable
capacity is and the Centre is planning
Green Corridors,” he said. Karnataka,
Tamil Nadu, Gujarat, and Rajasthan are
some of these states.
Bhardwaj said that the transmission
sector needs to grow significantly, both
as an enabler for generation and for load
growth. The Centre is also planning to
tag power transmission with renewable
energy projects as projects of ‘national
importance’. This will reduce the levels of
approval and the cost of the project will
be shared by all beneficiary states.
Source: Business Standard
RENEW POWER TRANSMISSION EYES DOUBLE-DIGIT GROWTH, PROJECTS WORTH $20 BILLION
Prime Minister Narendra Modi’s push
to expand the country’s solar power
generation received a big boost when
state-owned Solar Energy Corporation’s
manufacturing-linked solar energy
auction received a good response.
Three private sector power producers,
namely, Adani Green Energy, Azure and
Navyug, submitted bids for a total of 10
GW of solar projects.
To develop the domestic manufacturing
of solar power panels, the Modi
government has come up with
manufacturing-linked solar power
projects. Under the scheme, solar power
producers are also required to set up
a manufacturing facility. In this round
of auctions by the SECI, the bidders
are required to set up a manufacturing
facility for producing solar power panels
for generating 1 GW of electricity if they
applied for producing 4 GW of solar
power.
Industry sources said India imports
nearly 95% of its solar power equipment
requirement from China that results
in the forex outflow of $10 billion
per year. Completion of these solar
equipment manufacturing linked
solar power projects is expected to
save nearly `70,000 forex per year and
generate large-scale employment and
development of domestic solar power
equipment industry, they added.
Source: Financial Express
PM MODI’S MEGA PUSH FOR SOLAR POWER GETS BIG BOOST; 3 FIRMS BID FOR PROJECTS OF 10 GW
6OCTOBER–DECEMBER 2019 ENERGY FUTURE
ROOFTOP SOLAR POWER CATCHES FANCY OF PUNJAB, HRY USERS
Even as industry analysts warn of
slowdown in the renewable energy
sector, the segment has added 4273
MW of new capacity to the grid during
the first half of this fiscal, which is one of
the highest additions in a first-half year
period in the last several years.
However, the addition to capacity
during April-September 2019 is only
36 per cent of the target (11,802 MW)
set for the fiscal. Solar power segment
continues to be the major contributor to
new capacity growth in the renewable
energy sector with a share of more than
two-thirds of the new capacity. It added
2921 MW (2479 MW ground mounted
and 442 MW rooftop) capacity during
April-September 2019, according to the
Ministry of New and Renewable Energy
(MNRE).
Wind sector continues to show
progress and it added about 1304 MW
of new capacity. During the last fiscal,
this segment added 1481 MW, and this
year it is expected to add more capacity.
As on September 30, 2019, the total
grid-connected installed renewable
power capacity in India stood at 82,589
MW. The total installed capacity of wind
power stood at 36,930 MW. The fast-
growing solar segment had a cumulative
installed capacity of 31,101 MW (ground
mounted: 28,863 MW; rooftop: 2238
MW).
Source: The Hindu Business Line
RENEWABLE ENERGY SECTOR ADDS 4,273 MW IN H1
Rooftop solar is fast catching fancy of
micro and small units, offices, schools,
hospitals, and households as a reliable
source of power in Punjab and Haryana.
According to solar power developers, in
the past nine months, there has been a
significant increase in queries related to
rooftop solar projects. The total installed
capacity of rooftop solar power in these
two states has touched 245 MW.
Rooftop solar is mainly installed for
captive consumption. Depending upon
the requirement, the installation starts
from 1 kWp and can go up to 1 MW.
Generally, most of the installed capacity is
between 1 and 20 kWp. Compared to the
ground-mounted projects, the rooftop
solar installations are much smaller in
terms of generation capacity.
Currently, in Haryana, the solar power is
dominated by rooftop plants of 145 MW
(on residential and commercial buildings).
The total installed capacity of solar
power in the state is 225 MW, including
ground-mounted installations. However,
in neighbouring Punjab, the rooftop
capacity is 100 MW.
According to developers, the main
factor for stronger adoption of solar
power is the cost which has fallen sharply
over the past couple of years. Depending
upon the size of the plant, the cost per
unit comes out between `2.77 and `4 per
unit.
Source: The Tribune
EWSNIN
DIA
7 OCTOBER–DECEMBER 2019ENERGY FUTURE
Central public sector undertakings
(PSUs) will acquire more than two lakh
hectares to set up 47,000 MW of green
power units under a new plug-and-
play model, aimed at accelerating
solar capacity expansion by de-risking
projects from land acquisition and
availability of transmission corridors as
well as reducing tariffs by up to 20 paise
per unit.
Under the new model, PSUs under
the power and renewable energy
ministries will acquire the land
through fully-owned SPVs (special
purpose vehicles). The land may be
purchased outright or leased from state
governments and private land owners.
State governments too can take full
ownership of SPVs in suitable cases.
Central utilities such as PowerGrid will
set up the transmission infrastructure
for these locations. This will result in a
hassle-free staging arena—called ‘ultra-
mega renewable energy power parks’
with hosting aggregate capacity of
4000 MW each—for promoters without
having to worry about stumbling over
land acquisition or transmission issues.
The projects within a park will be given
out on the basis of tariff-based bidding.
The model envisages individual
projects of 2000 MW within a park.
However, projects in multiples of
600 MW will also be allowed in
multiple locations in cases where
new transmission lines have to be
laid. In cases where transmission links
already exist, projects will be allowed
in multiples of 250 MW. Floating solar
projects too are covered under the
model, wherein the minimum size could
be 50 MW.
Source: Times of India
POWER PSUs TO ACQUIRE OVER 2 LAKH HECTARES FOR SOLAR PARKS
Delhi is generating 146 MW solar power
by installing rooftop solar panels in
schools, markets, institutions, and other
buildings under Mukhya Mantri Solar
Power Yojna. “The rooftop installations of
solar panels progressed with significant
pace. It has also helped in cutting CO2
emission by 500 tonnes every day,” Delhi
Power Minister Satyendar Jain said. “Now
we started installing solar panels in
housing societies. From these solar
plants, power can be supplied for the
common utilities like parking, lift, clubs,
gym, etc.” he said.
Jain further said that this initiative has
reduced the electricity bill from `10 per
unit to `1 in these households. “Apart
from this, the overall electricity bill of the
societies with solar plants has also been
reduced by 50 per cent”, he said, adding
that it is not only environment-friendly
but also highly economical compared to
other sources of power.
Source: The Pioneer
CITY GENERATES 146 MW SOLAR POWER: JAIN
8OCTOBER–DECEMBER 2019 ENERGY FUTURE
EUROPE LEADS IN FINANCING GREEN ENERGY PROJECTSA new Dutch green bond (officially
known as the Sovereign Green Bond)
will fund a wide range of low-carbon
projects undertaken by governments.
This includes three categories:
renewables (including onshore solar
energy and offshore wind energy),
energy efficiency (including residential
energy efficiency upgrades), and
clean transportation initiatives and
infrastructure.
The Netherlands Ministry of Finance’s
Dutch State Treasury Agency (DSTA)
launched this inaugural 20-year green
bond on 21 May of this year. Prior to
the auction, a total of 32 investors
were registered by the DSTA as ‘green
investors’, with a special allocation
set aside for them. Bids from those 32
investors and others arrived into the
DSTA quickly, and it occurred at the start
of the auction.
This May bond established the
government of the Netherlands as the
first country with a triple-A rating to
issue a green bond (known as a DSL).
By issuing the bond, the Dutch aim to
support the establishment of a robust
green capital market that can provide
financing to utilities and others who
have bankable projects.
Source: T&D World
World Media Wire (WMW) has declared
Denmark as the unofficial winner of
REN21’s Renewables in Cities 2019
Global Status Report. “Denmark has
11 cities on the report and is the
uncontestable leader in this strive for
world change!” proclaimed WMW about
a report in which Denmark has 39
mentions and Copenhagen a further 24.
The think-tank REN21 has carried out
what it describes as a ‘stock-taking of
the world’s cities transition to renewable
energy’ and it has detailed the efforts of
Denmark’s cities for all to see. As well as
listing 11 cities with a renewable energy
target – Aarhus, Copenhagen, Egedal,
Frederikshavn, Gladsaxe, Helsingør, Høje-
Taastrup, Hvidovre, Samsø, Skive, and
Sønderborg – it points out that Denmark
has the third biggest share when it
comes to renewable energy fuelling its
district heating network (46 per cent) –
behind only Iceland and Norway.
Source: http://cphpost.dk/news/denmark-a-world-leader-in-renewable-energy.html
DENMARK A WORLD LEADER IN RENEWABLE ENERGY
EWSN
9 OCTOBER–DECEMBER 2019ENERGY FUTURE
Research published in the journal Nature
Climate Change shows that wind speed
has increased on a global scale over the
past decade, which is good news for the
wind power industry. The research by
scientists from Cardiff University tracks
a trend of decreasing wind speeds since
the 1970s – known as global terrestrial
stilling – and confirms that since 2010
the trend has been reversed with a
significant increase observed. The
report also showed that since 2010, the
increase in wind speeds has been three
times greater than the rate of decrease
before 2010, increasing potential wind
energy by 17 ± 2% for 2010 to 2017,
something they believe could boost
US wind power capacity by a factor of
~2.5%.
Source: https://www.power-technology.com/news/industry-news/global-wind-speed-increases-are-good-for-renewable-
power-say-scientists/
GLOBAL WIND SPEED INCREASES ARE GOOD FOR RENEWABLE POWER SAY SCIENTISTS
Africa, where close to half of its 1.2
billion people have access to electricity,
is set to become a world leader
in renewable energy. In the Africa
Investment Forum (AIF) held during
11–13 November, a key focus was on
sustainable renewable energy. The
forum was organized by the African
Development Bank (AfDB) and its
various partners and attended by
heads of state from countries such
as South Africa, Ghana, Rwanda, and
Mozambique. At an invitation-only
discussion among the leaders, Rwanda’s
President Paul Kagame said that there
was a lot of progress in Africa as a whole.
“I have always thought it was Africa’s
time. We Africans have let ourselves
down, we are now realizing it has always
been our time. And we now need to
seize every opportunity to be where
we should be by now,” Kagame said.
Kagame was the driver of the African
Continental Free Trade Agreement
(AfCFTA) during his time as chair of the
African Union in 2018. The agreement
had not been in existence during the
first AIF last year. Established in March
2019, the AfCFTA has now been
signed by 54 of the 55 African
member states.
Source: https://www.utilities-me.com/news/14355-africa-seeks-to-become-key-global-player-in-renewable-energy
AFRICA SEEKS TO BECOME KEY GLOBAL PLAYER IN RENEWABLE ENERGY
10OCTOBER–DECEMBER 2019 ENERGY FUTURE
STUDY SHOWS WHERE GLOBAL RENEWABLE ENERGY INVESTMENTS HAVE GREATEST BENEFITSA new study finds that the amount of
climate and health benefits achieved
from renewable energy depends on the
country where it is installed. Countries
with higher carbon dioxide (CO2)
emissions and more air pollution, such
as India, China, and areas in Southeast
Asia and Eastern Europe, achieve
greater climate and health benefits
per megawatt (MW) of renewable
energy installed than those operating
in areas such as North America,
Brazil, and parts of Europe. The study
in Palgrave Communications by the
Center for Climate, Health, and the
Global Environment at the Harvard T.H.
Chan School of Public Health (Harvard
C-CHANGE) offers a new method for
transparently estimating country-
level climate and health benefits from
renewable energy and transportation
improvements that companies, investors,
and policymakers can use to make
strategic decisions around achieving the
United Nations’ Sustainable Development
Goals (SDGs). Researchers measured
two types of benefits—climate benefits
(reductions in carbon emissions)
and health benefits (decreased mortality
attributable to harmful air pollution)—
and developed a user-friendly model
to compare how those benefits vary
based on where renewable energy is
operating.
Source: ScienceDaily
Scientists from Trinity College Dublin
have taken a giant stride towards solving
a riddle that would provide the world
with entirely renewable, clean energy
from which water would be the only
waste product. Reducing humanity’s
carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions is
arguably the greatest challenge facing
21st century civilization, especially given
the ever-increasing global population
and the heightened energy demands
that come with it.
One beacon of hope is the idea that
we could use renewable electricity to
split water (H2O) to produce energy-
rich hydrogen (H2), which could then
be stored and used in fuel cells. This is
an especially interesting prospect in a
situation where wind and solar energy
sources produce electricity to split water
as this would allow us to store energy for
use when those renewable sources are
not available.
Source: https://phys.org/news/2019-11-scientists-renewable-energy.html
SCIENTISTS TAKE STRIDES TOWARDS ENTIRELY RENEWABLE ENERGY
EWSN
11 OCTOBER–DECEMBER 2019ENERGY FUTURE
RENEWABLE ENERGY TO EXPAND BY 50% IN NEXT FIVE YEARS – REPORTGlobal supplies of renewable electricity
are growing faster than expected and
could expand by 50% in the next 5 years,
powered by resurgence in solar energy.
The International Energy Agency (IEA)
found that solar, wind, and hydropower
projects are rolling out at their fastest
rate in 4 years. Its latest report predicts
that by 2024 a new dawn for cheap
solar power could see the world’s solar
capacity grow by 600 GW, almost double
the installed total electricity capacity of
Japan. Overall, renewable electricity is
expected to grow by 1200 GW in the
next 5 years, the equivalent of the total
electricity capacity of the United States.
Renewable energy sources make
up 26% of the world’s electricity today,
but according to the IEA, its share is
expected to reach 30% by 2024. The
resurgence follows a global slowdown
last year owing to falling technology
costs and rising environmental
concerns.
Source: The Guardian
The Republic is ramping up its drive
to soak up more energy from the sun,
amid growing global awareness on how
fossil fuels are contributing to climate
change. By 2030, Singapore wants to
ramp up its solar capacity by more
than seven times from current levels
and increase the current 260 MWp of
installed solar capacity to 2 GWp. This
is enough to meet the annual power
needs of around 350,000 households
in Singapore or about 4 per cent of
Singapore’s total electricity demand
today.
The new 2 GWp target for Singapore
was outlined by Minister for Trade and
Industry Chan Chun Sing at the opening
of the Singapore International Energy
Week held at the Sands Expo and
Convention Centre.
Currently, solar energy contributes
less than 1 per cent to Singapore’s total
energy mix. More than 95 per cent
comes from natural gas, the cleanest
form of fossil fuel. Other sources, such
as oil and coal, round up the mix.
Source: The Straits Times
SINGAPORE TO RAMP UP SOLAR ENERGY PRODUCTION TO POWER 350,000 HOMES BY 2030
MANAGING INDIA’S CLEAN ENERGY WASTEA ROADMAP FOR THE SOLAR AND STORAGE INDUSTRY
13 OCTOBER–DECEMBER 2019ENERGY FUTURE
With the increasing penetration of distributed renewable energy sources such as solar PV and energy storage into the Indian electricity sector, it is necessary to prepare for managing the waste generated from these technologies. The reduce, reuse, and recover approach off ers multiple socio-economic benefi ts besides being environmentally benign. In this article, Akanksha Tyagi takes a closer look at the management of clean energy waste.
14OCTOBER–DECEMBER 2019 ENERGY FUTURE
India is undergoing a clean energy
transition. The government is
consistently implementing policies to
increase the share of renewables in
the total electricity mix. Solar energy,
in the form of rooftop and utility-scale
solar, is at the forefront with significant
capacity addition over the past decade.
The cumulative solar capacity has
grown from 3 MW in 2009 to 31 GW
as of September 2019 and is aimed to
reach 100 GW by 2022.1 Energy storage
is also garnering much attention with
the growing share of renewable energy
in the grid to overcome generation
intermittency. The Union Cabinet
recently approved the National Mission
on Transformative Mobility and Battery
Storage that includes a five-year
phased manufacturing programme
to set up large-scale battery and cell
manufacturing giga plants in India.
1 MNRE. 2019. Physical Progress
(Achievements). New Delhi: Ministry of New
and Renewable Energy
Since then, several renewable plus
storage tenders have been announced.
The share of solar plus storage projects
is only going to increase as India moves
towards achieving the 100 GW target. In
additional to lead-acid batteries, which
have been in use for energy storage and
uninterrupted power supply solutions
for many decades, alternative battery
chemistries such as lithium and redox
flow are emerging for renewable energy
applications.
Although the dramatic augmentation
of solar and storage capacity ensures
access to sustainable energy for all, it
carries an impending issue of disposal
and management at the end of
their useful life. The expected useful
working life of solar photovoltaic
(PV) modules is between 25 and
30 years, after which they have to
be discarded. In addition, some of
these products are also damaged
during transportation, installation,
operation, or natural calamities such
as typhoons and floods. So, even
though most of the installed projects
are well short of decommissioning, it
would not be prudent to delay their
waste management. According to
our analysis,2 the current 31 GW solar
capacity alone would result in 107,000
tons of waste by 2022. Interestingly,
none of this waste would come from the
expected end-of-life of these modules.
About 24,000 tons would result from
damages during transportation and
installation process. The remaining,
about 82,000 tons, would result from
early failures during the plant operation
phase. This amount will continue to
grow as more solar capacity is deployed
in future.
2 This number is derived by multiplying
the average weight of a panel with
the solar capacity under the early loss
scenario assumptions of losing 0.5% of the
capacity while transportation, 0.5% during
installation, and 2% within 10 years of
installation.
15 OCTOBER–DECEMBER 2019ENERGY FUTURE
Similarly, for batteries, the expected life
varies from 3 to 10 years depending
on the battery chemistry. Further,
several factors can result in an early life
failure of batteries. Besides damage
from improper handling during
transportation and installation, different
operational factors, such as overheating,
deep discharging, and low or high
surrounding temperature, can also cause
an early life failure of batteries. As these
technologies continue to grow, so does
the cumulative waste. In the absence
of a regulatory framework, this entire
waste would end up in landfills, thus
adversely impacting the environment.
Necessity and
Opportunity of Waste
ManagementDedicated waste management and
recycling policies are crucial from
an environmental and a resource
management perspective. The
environment aspect pertains to the
ecological impact of these products
upon disposal. Both PV modules and
batteries contain metals as an active
component. In PV modules, two
different technologies are prevalent:
crystalline silicon and thin-film. The
major components of a crystalline
silicon module are silicon, aluminium,
copper, and silver. Thin-film modules
contain compounds of tin, cadmium,
and lead besides aluminium, copper,
and silver. In parallel, the battery sector
is dominated by different chemistries
of the lithium-ion technology, the main
metallic components of which are
lithium, manganese, nickel, iron, and
cobalt. They also contain a solution of
metals as electrolytes such as lithium
hexafluorophosphate (LiPF6).
Each of these metals has distinct
environmental impact, entailing
specific handling and disposal
procedures. While aluminium and
silicon are relatively less toxic, the
heavy ones such as cadmium, tin, and
lead are an environmental hazard. In
addition to these visible metallic parts,
some bulk components such as module
glass are threats to the environment.
Glass in PV modules contains antimony
to improve the module’s stability under
light irradiation. Antimony is a potent
human carcinogen. Intuitively, none
of these damaged products should be
dumped directly into the environment
or sent for secondary consumption
without proper treatment. However,
this is the prevalent practice that
leads to the second issue of resource
management.
As metals are vital for PV modules
and batteries, they should be used
efficiently. Some of them have
limited reserves and are also used
competitively in other industries.
Researchers at the Council on Energy,
Environment and Water (CEEW) have
conducted an assessment on the
criticality of different metals for Indian
16OCTOBER–DECEMBER 2019 ENERGY FUTURE
manufacturing industry.3 The analysis
identifies silicon, germanium, lithium,
and cobalt as critical minerals based
on their economic importance in the
renewable sector and the risk associated
with their geographical reserves.
Further, metals such as cobalt, nickel,
3 Gupta, V., T. Biswas, and K. Ganesan.
2016. Critical Non-Fuel Mineral Resources
for India’s Manufacturing Sector: A Vision
for 2030. New Delhi: Council on Energy,
Environment and Water (CEEW) and
NSTMIS
and iron have relatively low supply risk,
but they are extensively used in other
industries, such as chemicals, aerospace,
and electronics. The competitive
consumption of these metals in other
industries, coupled with limited
availability and geopolitical uncertainty
in the supply chain, can increase the
cost of end products. A PV module
represents almost 50% of the overall
cost of solar PV systems. Batteries, on
the other hand, represent almost 70%
of the total cost of two-wheeler electric
vehicles and 50% of four-wheelers. The
cost trajectory of these technologies
will be driven by the availability of these
critical minerals and their replacement
by alternative materials or technologies.
While the latter might take time, the
supply crunch of these critical minerals
threatens the future of these clean
energy technologies.
In this context, the end-of-life
management and recycling of these
products are crucial. It will ensure
sustainability by adhering to the
concept of circular economy, support
new industries, and create employment
opportunities. The metals can be
reused within the industry to locally
manufacture more products in future
that can bring down the cost of these
technologies. Further, as mining of
these metals creates as much waste
as landfilling, material recycling will
decrease the environmental impact at
the manufacturing stage as well.
Current Recycling
Procedures
PV ModulesMuch of the PV module mass comprises
aluminium frames and glass, followed
by the metallic components in solar cells
and wires. The main steps of recycling
PV modules include dismantling,
combustion, and etching. Dismantling
involves removal of metal frames
and terminal boxes from modules.
Combustion involves burning modules
to remove the organic encapsulant.
This process ensures recovery of glass
and solar cells (silicon or thin-film) with
minimal breakage. Etching involves
treating the residual mixture of glass
and metals with acid or alkali for the
separation of these two components.
After recovering glass, the composition
of acid or alkali solution is changed to
recover the different metals.
Lithium-ion BatteriesDepending of the application, lithium-
ion batteries come in varying sizes and
17 OCTOBER–DECEMBER 2019ENERGY FUTURE
chemistries. The basic structure has a
cathode, an anode, and an electrolyte.
These components are packed in an
aluminium or plastic case. Broadly,
the battery recycling process involves
dismantling, crushing, and processing.
Dismantling refers to the removal of
the externalities such as aluminium or
plastic case encasing the cell. Crushing
refers to the process of grounding
the cell to powder. This is followed
by sieving to remove tailings and
other waste from fine metal particles.
Processing is a broad term for recovering
metal components. This is a multi-step
process involving treatment with alkali
or acid, extraction, and stripping. The
metal ions recovered by treatment with
acid and alkali are dissolved in organic
solvents. As each metal has a different
level of solubility in these solvents, we
get a mixture of metal solutions. Then,
the solution is brought in contact with
solid metal or alloy, which reduces the
ions present in the liquid phase. The
resultant solution is heated at ambient
temperature and pressure to remove the
organic solvent and get metals.
Owing to multiple steps, these
methods are energy intensive and less
efficient. So, the focus of the recycling
processes should be to decrease
the number of steps. Also, because
of the presence of different metals,
there is a strong possibility of metal
contamination in the recovered mass.
Therefore, module and battery recycling
requires separate recycling processes to
efficiently recover and reuse materials.
Way Forward for IndiaIndia is yet to have a dedicated PV
waste management and recycling
policy. At present, solar module and
battery waste is treated as general
electronic waste and comes under
the Ministry of Environment, Forest
and Climate Change. However, given
the distinct nature of this waste and
the economic value of components,
it is necessary to have a separate
regulation in place. At present, India’s
PV module manufacturing industry is
underdeveloped and majority of the
modules are imported from countries
like China. Having a module recycling
policy in place can make India self-
reliant by ensuring a sustainable
supply of raw materials and creating
employment opportunities.
Unlike India, several countries are
already working on addressing the
impending waste disposal problem.
Some noteworthy mentions are the
European Union’s Waste Electrical and
Electronic Equipment (WEEE) Directive,
the U.S. module manufacturer First Solar,
and pilot projects by Japan’s New Energy
and Industrial Technology Development
Organization (NEDO). India can learn
a lot from these countries to frame a
regulation for its rapidly developing
clean energy market.
First, working on the lines of EU’s
WEEE Directive, India can revise its
existing electronic waste management
framework to include PV modules and
batteries. The revised regulation, an
expansion of the extended producer
responsibility (EPR), should set the
targets for collection and recovery
efficiency of waste and lay out financing
schemes for the same. Under the
extended EPR, developers should report
the sale of their products, collect the
18OCTOBER–DECEMBER 2019 ENERGY FUTURE
damaged or discarded products from
consumers free of cost, and update
the status of their targets. They should
also maintain transparency and inform
consumers of the procedures and the
economics of module and battery waste
management. This information should
be mentioned on the products to be
easily accessible to consumers.
Second, as the current recycling
processes are capital intensive, access
to finance is crucial. Depending on the
market share, Indian developers can
choose any of the globally available
financing models, such as pay-as-
you-go, pay-as-you-put, and joint-
and-several liability scheme. In the
pay-as-you-go model, the developer
pays for the process at the time of
waste creation. This model is often
implemented with a last-man-standing
insurance. The insurance covers for
an unforeseen event of a developer
going out of business. In such scenario,
the insurance company finances the
waste collection and recovery. On the
contrary, the pay-as-you-put model
requires pre-allocating a fixed amount
for the waste management process.
First Solar, a leading solar module
manufacturer in the United States, uses
this approach for recycling the waste
from its modules. With the sale of each
module, it sets aside a lump sum to
meet the estimated future collection
and recycling cost of its modules.
In addition to these two models,
developers can also opt for a collective
producer responsibility scheme. Here,
they jointly set a financing guarantee
with last-man-standing insurance to
pay for the collection and recycling
costs corresponding to the market
share of their products. Then, they use
the pay-as-you-go model to cover the
cost of managing the waste from their
products. This model is successfully
implemented in Germany.
Third, a market-driven initiative is
important for a thriving waste collection
and recycling industry. The various
stakeholders of the Indian solar industry
should take responsibility to invest in
recycling technologies, finance routes,
and feasibility examination by pilot
projects. They can learn from the Solar
Energy Industries Association (SEIA)
in the United States and Japan’s New
Energy and Industrial Technology
Development Organization (NEDO),
which have taken a lead on clean energy
waste collection and management. SEIA,
a not-for-profit trade association of the
U.S. solar energy industry, is maintaining
a corporate social responsibility
committee to develop and review the
research in recycling technologies. It
introduces developers to recycling
vendors and provides financing options
for waste collection and management.
Some of the members are already
operating the take-back and recycling
programs for their products. In Japan,
NEDO has been undertaking extensive
research activities for PV recycling. In
2014, it developed an automated PV
recycling technology that separates
different types of panels (crystalline Si,
thin-film) to recover valuable materials
such as aluminium, Si, glass, and metal
semiconductor. This technology is
currently in the experimental phase.
In India, the Ministry of New and
Renewable Energy (MNRE) has endorsed
several solar associations, such as the
National Solar Energy Federation of India
(NSEFI), the Indian Solar Manufacturers
Association (ISMA), and the Federation
of Indian Chambers of Commerce &
Industry (FICCI) Renewable Energy.
These associations can collaborate to
develop guidelines for reporting the sale
and damage of modules, invest in new
recycling technologies and examine the
feasibility of existing services, and create
a financing scheme for the same.
As distributed renewable energy
sources such as solar PV and energy
storage penetrate deep into the
Indian electricity sector, it is necessary
to prepare for managing the waste
generated from these technologies.
In addition to being environmentally
benign, the ‘reduce, reuse, and
recover’ approach offers multiple
socio-economic co-benefits. The local
manufacturing industry will benefit from
decreased dependence on the import
of raw materials. It is imperative for
the government to introduce a holistic
policy framework for handling the
waste from clean energy technologies,
highlighting the responsibility of
different stakeholders, and creating an
enabling environment to implement the
same.
Dr Akanksha Tyagi is Research Analyst, Council
on Energy, Environment and Water (CEEW),
New Delhi.
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20OCTOBER–DECEMBER 2019 ENERGY FUTURE
TRANSFORMING PV WASTE TO A RESOURCE
Growing resource consumption comes at a cost of the environment. As the global
deployment of PV approaches terawatt levels in an increasingly resource-constrained
world, resource efficiency strategies adopted for PV manufacturing combined with
end-of-life high-value recycling are essential to promote a circular economy and
transform PV waste into valuable secondary raw materials for other industries. In this
article, Karen Drozdiak, Andreas Wade, and Sujoy Ghosh describe how First Solar
continues to proactively invest in the improvement of the recycling technology to
increase resource efficiency and drive down recycling prices for its customers.
21 OCTOBER–DECEMBER 2019ENERGY FUTURE
The global consumption of natural
resources has more than tripled since
the 1970s and it accounts for half of the
total global greenhouse gas emissions
and more than 90% of biodiversity loss
and water stress. The United Nations’
International Resource Panel warns that
global natural resource consumption
could more than double by 2050,
driven by economic growth, population
growth, and unsustainable production
and consumption patterns.
As one of the fastest growing
economies, India has experienced
fi rst-hand how growing resource
consumption comes at a cost of the
environment. In this context, the
Ministry of Environment, Forest and
Climate Change recently released a
Draft National Resource Effi ciency
Policy that aims to enhance resource
effi ciency and promote the use of
secondary raw materials in order to
decouple the country’s economic
growth from negative environmental
impacts. Circular economy strategies
are also important for the photovoltaic
(PV) industry as India aims to install 100
GW of solar by 2022 under its National
Solar Mission. Under an ambitious solar
deployment scenario of 170 GW by
2030, the total estimated demand for
materials is expected to increase from
0.7 million tons in 2015 to 12 million
tons in 2030.
PV panels typically consist of glass,
aluminum, copper, and semiconductor
materials, which can be successfully
recovered and reused at the end of
their useful life. By mass, approximately
75% of a PV module consists of glass
alone. While bulk recycling focuses
only on recovering high-mass fraction
materials such as glass, high-value
recycling maximizes resource recovery
by also recuperating energy intensive
and valuable materials such as silicon
and silver. The recycling of PV modules
has been a mandatory requirement
in the European Union (EU) under
the Waste Electrical and Electronic
Equipment (WEEE) Directive since 2012.
CENELEC, the European Committee for
0.4
7
0.1
1.7
0.2
3.8
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
2015 2030
Mill
ion
tonn
es
Glass Aluminium Silver
Figure 1 Total estimated material demand for PV in India (2015 versus 2030)
Source Details available at http://moef.gov.in/wp-content/uploads/2019/07/Draft-National-Resourc.pdf, last accessed on 26 November 2019
Figure 2 The First Solar value loop
Electrotechnical Standardization, has
developed a supplementary standard
specifi c to PV panel collection and
treatment (EN50625-2-4 and TS50625-
3-5) to assist treatment operators with
high-value PV recycling.
In 2005, First Solar established the
industry’s fi rst global recycling program
and has been proactively investing
in high-value recycling technology
improvements ever since. As part of the
company’s commitment to responsible
life cycle management, First Solar has
embedded circular material fl ows for
the key components used in its thin fi lm
PV technology to transform waste into
resource – from raw material sourcing
through end-of-life recycling. At the
beginning of the product’s life cycle,
by-products from the zinc and copper
mining industries are converted into a
leading eco-effi cient PV technology that
generates clean and reliable electricity
for 25+ years. First Solar not only designs
its thin fi lm modules to withstand harsh
climatic conditions for 25+ years, but also
22OCTOBER–DECEMBER 2019 ENERGY FUTURE
handles, and shoe soles, thereby further
closing the loop on our product’s life
cycle. The remainder of the recycled
module scrap (approximately 5–10
percent) that cannot be used in
secondary raw materials is handled
using other responsible waste treatment
and disposal techniques.
Considering a 90% recovery
ratio, one kilogram of First Solar’s
semiconductor material can be recycled
41 times over, which translates into a use
time of more than 1200 years, assuming
a 30-year panel life. The remainder of the
recycled module scrap (approximately
5–10 per cent) that cannot be used in
secondary raw materials is handled
using other responsible waste treatment
and disposal techniques. Owing to
the shredding, crushing, and heating
typically involved in recycling processes,
material losses are inevitable and the
recovery ratio is always less than 100 per
cent.
First Solar continues to proactively
invest in recycling technology
improvements to increase resource
efficiency and drive down recycling
prices for its customers. In 2015, First
Solar piloted its third-generation
recycling technology, a continuous flow
process that achieves superior glass
and semiconductor purity and requires
30 per cent less capital, chemicals,
waste, and labour. The continuous flow
process improves recycling efficiency
and throughput, increasing a recycling
plant’s daily recycling capacity from
30 to 150 tons. As of 2018, routinely
operated recycling plants of First Solar
achieved zero wastewater discharge.
Instead, the wastewater is recycled
and converted into freshwater, which
can then be reused in the recycling
process. By minimizing the dependence
of its recycling process on freshwater,
First Solar is paving the way for the
future roll-out of mobile PV recycling
solutions in areas where water utilities or
wastewater treatment facilities are not
available.
As the global deployment of PV
nears terawatt levels in an increasingly
Figure 4 First Solar’s second-generation (2011) recycling technology based on the chemical industry’s batch process
Figure 3 First Solar’s first-generation (2005) recycling technology based on mining industry’s batch process
ensures that they are suited for high-
value recycling to maximize material
recovery at the end of a module’s useful
life. First Solar’s high-value recycling
process recovers more than 90% of the
semiconductor material for reuse in new
panels of First Solar and 90% of the glass
for use in new glass container products.
In Malaysia, the recovered laminate
material is reused in rubber products
such as bicycle handles and shoe soles.
During the recycling process, First Solar
modules are crushed and shredded
to break the lamination bond. The
crushed modules are chemically
treated to recover the semiconductor
material from the glass. The unrefined
semiconductor material is then sent
externally for further processing. Once
the glass is rinsed and cleaned, it is
packaged so that it can be reused in
new glass products. In Malaysia, our
laminate material is now being recycled
for reuse in rubber mats, bicycle
23 OCTOBER–DECEMBER 2019ENERGY FUTURE
Figure 5 First Solar’s third-generation (2015) PV recycling technology based on a continuous flow process
industries. Mandating solar PV recycling
and incorporating recovery targets of
85% or more (as stipulated by the draft
National Resource Efficiency Plan) in
government tenders, schemes, and
PPA agreements would provide the
necessary enforcement mechanism
needed to promote responsible PV
waste management and incentivize
investment in high-value PV recycling
infrastructure in India. Internationally, a
new sustainability leadership standard
for PV modules (NSF 457) includes
take-back and recycling requirements
for product end-of-life management.
NSF 457 is in the process of being
adopted by the Electronic Product
Environmental Assessment Tool (EPEAT),
a leading global ecolabel for electronics
and information technology products,
which will enable public and private
purchasers to identify environmentally
leading products and manufacturers
who adhere to responsible end-of-life
management and resource efficiency
practices.
Karen Drozdiak is Manager Sustainability
Communications and Analysis, First Solar;
Andreas Wade is Global Sustainability Director,
First Solar; and Sujoy Ghosh is Vice President
India and the Middle East, First Solar.
resource-constrained world, resource
efficiency strategies adopted for PV
manufacturing combined with end-
of-life high-value recycling are needed
to promote a circular economy and
transform PV waste into valuable
secondary raw materials for other
24OCTOBER–DECEMBER 2019 ENERGY FUTURE
ENERGY–WASTE NEXUSEnd-of-Life Management of Lithium Ion Batteries
To become competitive in the electric vehicle field and transition towards full
electric mobility, India needs to overcome resource efficiency challenges and create
a sustainable electric vehicle ecosystem, which includes securing its supply of rare
elements, including lithium. In this article, Mehar Kaur emphasizes the need for
domestic manufacturing, battery reuse, and recycling of LIBs.
25 OCTOBER–DECEMBER 2019ENERGY FUTURE
Electric mobility has gained momentum
in India. Although NITI Aayog’s
proposal of selling only electric
vehicles after 2030 has been refuted
by the government, the general trend
is towards cleaner energy use in
transportation.1,2 This push from the
government along with the support in
the clean energy sector positions India
well to take up the challenge of moving
towards full electric mobility. The
results of the transition can already be
observed in the public transport sector,
such as the metro and e-rickshaws. The
focus of private and public sectors is
to push electric vehicles in the public
transport sector, including public
sharing vehicles, buses, and two- and
three-wheelers.
Given the upward trend of electric
mobility, it is essential to understand
the full life cycle assessment of energy
storage used in electric vehicles and
develop an efficient, low emission
1 Dash, D. K. 2019. Niti Aayog doesn’t have
authority to decide on EV deadline, my
ministry will have final word: Nitin Gadkari.
Times of India, August 23 2 Singh, C. 2019. No need to ban petrol,
diesel vehicles as EVs gaining momentum:
Nitin Gadkari. News18. Details available
at https://www.news18.com/news/auto/
no-need-to-ban-petrol-diesel-vehicles-
as-evs-gaining-momentum-nitin-
gadkari-2320271.html
charging infrastructure for the same.
A consistent supply of electricity is
key to moving towards full electric
mobility; however, scaling up charging
infrastructure is an issue. In addition,
most of the electricity and charging
requirements are met by fossil fuels.
However, we don’t want to burn coal
to save oil. So even though electric
vehicles are an efficient technology to
reduce CO2 emissions, net emissions
per passenger per kilometer in the
electric vehicle sector versus internal
combustion (IC) engine should be
analysed when transitioning towards
electric mobility. To make the full life
cycle sustainable, a shift away from
fossil fuels and towards cleaner energy
solutions, that is, use of solar grid
energy storage to provide electricity, is
essential.
Electric vehicles with cleaner and
more efficient technologies have
successfully gained momentum and
a competitive edge in the market. As
compared to gasoline vehicles, electric
vehicles have fewer moving parts and
therefore require less maintenance.3
However, one of the challenges limiting
the uptake of electric vehicles is the cost
3 How do gasoline & electric vehicles
compare? Idaho National Laboratory.
Details available at https://avt.inl.gov/sites/
default/files/pdf/fsev/compare.pdf
of their battery pack. Battery makes up
about 40–50% of the electric vehicle
sector cost and the cost of the cells in
the pack accounts for 70–80% of the
total cost of battery pack.4 Currently,
India is dependent on imports for the
supply of rare earth elements needed
in the cell. India imports 100% of the
lithium used in lithium ion batteries
(LIBs). LIBs are electrochemical power
sources used in portable devices such
as mobiles, for medical and space
applications, in electric vehicles, and as
energy storage due to their desirable
characteristics. LIBs are known for their
lightweight, long-lasting life, better
life cycle, high energy density, good
efficiency, and high power. Therefore,
several companies have adopted LIBs
for electric vehicle or hybrid electric
vehicles or as a form of energy storage
device, replacing the traditional lead
acid battery. This has directly increased
the use of LIBs in the country. Major
applications of LIBs are expected in
emergency power backups for an
uninterruptible power supply, marine
applications, solar power grid energy
storage, remote monitoring systems/
alarms, for reliable mobility technology,
and so on.5 The automotive and power
market is viewed as the largest future
growth opportunity for LIBs. However,
to become competitive in the electric
vehicle, power sectors and transition
towards full electric mobility, India
needs to overcome resource efficiency
challenges and create a sustainable
electric vehicle ecosystem, which
includes securing its supply of rare
elements including lithium and its future
prices.
4 Society of Indian Automobile
Manufacturers (SIAM). 2017. Adopting
Pure Electric Vehicles: Key Policy
Enablers. Details available at http://
www.siam.in/uploads/filemanager
/114SIAMWhitePaperonElectricVehicles.pdf5 Hecimovich, P. 2017. The Seven Top Uses
for Rechargeable Lithium-ion Batteries.
Battery Systems. Details available at
https://www.batterysystems.net/the-
seven-top-uses-for-rechargeable -lithium-
ion-batteries/
26OCTOBER–DECEMBER 2019 ENERGY FUTURE
Need for Domestic
Manufacturing, Battery
Reuse, and Recycling Lithium deposits are concentrated in a
few countries, for example, Argentina,
Chile, Bolivia, and China. Any instability
and unrest in these countries can impact
the price of lithium, thereby affecting
battery cost and the cost of electric
vehicles and solar PV.6,7 Therefore,
domestic manufacturing, battery reuse,
and recycling of LIBs are necessary to
secure the supply of LIBs and stabilize
their prices. Recently, with an increase
in the uptake of renewable energy,
there is also an increase in the waste
stream of spent batteries. It has been
estimated that the quantity and weight
of rechargeable lithium batteries in
China would be over 25 billion and
500,000 metric tonnes, respectively,
by 2020.8 A huge amount of battery
6 Hao, H., Z. Liu, F. Zhao, Y. Geng, and J.
Sarkis. 2017. Material flow analysis of
lithium in China. Resources Policy 51:
100–1067 Motavalli, J. 2010. Forget lithium – it’s rare
earth minerals that are in short supply for
EVs. CBC News, June 19. Details available
at https://www.cbsnews.com/news/forget-
lithium-its-rare-earth-minerals-that-are-in-
short-supply-for-evs/8 Zeng, X, J. Li, and Y. Ren. 2012. Prediction
of various discarded lithium batteries
in China. Proceedings of the 2012 IEEE
International Symposium on Sustainable
Systems and Technology. pp. 1–4
waste ends up in landfills at present,
causing groundwater pollution through
leachate seepage, air pollution when
the waste is burnt openly, and soil
pollution, especially around the landfill
area. Since the value chain for LIBs is
not yet developed, even in the informal
sector, which treats substantial amounts
of other waste streams, waste lithium
batteries are not picked up. If it is not
addressed, this electric boom could
leave up to 11 million tonnes of spent
LIBs for recycling by 2030.9 To overcome
dependency on other nations and
secure supply, to hedge against price
fluctuations due to geopolitical barriers,
to prevent social and environmental
damage caused by spent batteries,
and to prevent valuable materials from
ending up in landfills, it is important
to reuse, reduce, and recycle the waste
generated.
Closed loop recycling, end-of-life
product management, and reverse
logistics are the key to maintaining
a continuous, cost-effective supply
of rare materials, including lithium,
nickel, manganese, cobalt, titanium,
phosphorus, and so on, enhancing
cost-effectiveness of the supply chain,
alleviating environmental issues
associated with mining, and achieving
9 Kochhar, A. 2017. Li-cycle featured in The
Guardian. Details available at https://li-
cycle.com/2017/08/10/li-cycle-featured-in-
the-guardian/
resource efficiency. This can be achieved
by developing a robust domestic electric
vehicle manufacturing ecosystem
with commercially available cells and
subsequently having India’s own cell
manufacturing gigafactory.4 Although
raw materials are currently imported,
there could still be about a 30% reduction
in the import value as a result of reduced
labour cost and utility rates in India.
Reuse of spent battery should be
considered as the first step in reducing
battery waste as the recycling of LIBs
is complex. Unlike lead acid batteries,
which have a relatively small number
of large lead plates packed together in
a single plastic case, LIBs have a wider
variety of materials. Also, the chemical
composition of active materials in LIBs
is not standardized, and chemistries
depend on battery functions and differ
from manufacturer to manufacturer.10
LIB recycling costs are high, and
recycling of lithium can be five times
more expensive than obtaining the
virgin material through brine-based
processes.11 Recycling of LIBs is also
associated with safety issues as LIBs may
explode during the process of recycling.
This can occur due to oxidation when
lithium metal produced from battery
overcharge sustains a mechanical shock
from exposure to air.12
Spent electric vehicle LIBs reach
end-of-life and need replacement when
their remaining capacity is below 80%
10 Gaines, L. 2014. The future of automotive
lithium-ion battery recycling: Charting a
sustainable course. Sustainable Materials
and Technologies 1–2: 2–711 Reid, G. and J. Julve. 2016. Second
Life – Batteries as Flexible Storage for
Renewables Energies. Bundesverband
Erneuerbare Energie e.V. (BEE). Details
available at https://www.bee-ev.de/
fileadmin/Publikationen/Studien/201604_
Second_Life-Batterien_als_flexible_
Speicher.pdf 12 Shin, S. M., N. H. Kim, J. S. Sohn, D. H. Yang,
and Y. H. Kim. 2005. Development of a
metal recovery process from Li-ion battery
wastes. Hydrometallurgy 79: 172–181
27 OCTOBER–DECEMBER 2019ENERGY FUTURE
of the initial capacity.13 This is when the
battery fails to meet the requirement for
the automotive service, but there is still
sufficient energy and power capacity
left for its application in less demanding
applications, such as renewable energy
grid storage, integration, and backup
power of battery. These secondary
applications in other less demanding
industries decrease the amount of
battery waste stream generated,
resource exploitation, and waste
disposal. It also postpones the costly
process of recycling, which can be more
expensive than harvesting new supply
through the process of mining.14
Recycling of LIBs is not common
and only about 3% of LIBs are recycled.
Recycling is mostly undertaken to
obtain lithium and other materials in
the cathode; however, recycling of
the anode is also important. Graphite
13 Jiao, N. and S. Evans. 2016. Business
models for sustainability: the case of
second-life electric vehicle batteries.
Procedia CIRP 40: 250–25514 Xu, C., W. Zhang, W. He, G. Li, J. Huang, and
H. Zhu. 2018. Generation and management
of waste electric vehicle batteries in
China. Environmental Science and Pollution
Research 24: 20825–20830.
used in the anode of commercial
LIBs stores lithium ions well when
battery is charged.15 It is important
to consider the supply of graphite
because a lithium ion cell contains
at least 11 times more graphite than
lithium, depending on the battery type
and the application.16,17 Commercially
available recycling processes include
pyrometallurgical, hydrometallurgical,
and direct recycling. In the
pyrometallurgical recycling, battery is
smelted at elevated temperatures to
recover metals, such as nickel, cobalt,
15 Scrosati, B. and J. Garche. 2010. Lithium
batteries: status, prospects and future.
Journal of Power Sources 195(9): 2419–243016 Bade R., N. Pidgeon, and M. Greene. 2012.
Graphite Sector Review. Details available
at http://minesite.com/media/pub/ var/
release_downloadable_file/38247.pdf17 Dunn, J. B., L. Gaines, M. Barnes, M.
Wang, and J. Sullivan. 2012. Material and
energy flows in the materials production,
assembly, and end-of-life stages of the
automotive lithium-ion battery life cycle.
Argonne National Laboratory (ANL).
Details available at https://publications.anl.
gov/ anlpubs/2014/11/109509.pdf
lithium, and zinc.18 This process does
not recycle graphite. Hydrometallurgy
is a chemical-based recycling process
in which acid–base leaching, solvent
extraction, precipitation, ion exchange,
and electrolysis are used to recover
materials.19 The direct physical process
involves multiple physical and chemical
steps at low temperature and low
energy to separate battery components
and recycle and recover battery grade
materials – all active materials (including
graphite anode) and metals except
the separator for re-use in LIBs.15 These
recycling processes can be combined
for recycling of different LIB chemistries.
Some of the common LIB chemistries
include lithium cobalt oxide (LiCoO2),
lithium manganese oxide (LiMn2O
4),
lithium iron phosphate (LiFePO4),
lithium nickel manganese cobalt oxide
(LiNiMnCoO2), lithium nickel cobalt
18 Moradi B. and G. G. Botte. 2016. Recycling
of graphite anodes for the next generation
of lithium ion batteries. Journal of Applied
Electrochemistry 46: 12319 Tanong, K., L. Coudert, G. Mercier, and
J.-F. Blais. Recovery of metals from a
mixture of various spent batteries by a
hydrometallurgical process. Journal of
Environmental Management 181: 95–107
28OCTOBER–DECEMBER 2019 ENERGY FUTURE
aluminum oxide (LiNiCoAlO2), and
lithium titanate (Li4Ti
5O
12). Recycling
processes are different for different LIB
chemistries. New recycling technologies
are continuously being developed
and tested in lab and pilot scale to
accommodate new chemistries.
End-of-life Management
of New Energy Storage
Technologies (Lithium
Ion Batteries) There is a growing concern regarding
the carbon footprint of electric vehicles
and greenhouse gas emissions from
both battery manufacturing and electric
vehicle’s life cycle. Requia, Mohamed,
Higgins, et al. (2018) found that electric
vehicles consistently showed reductions
in greenhouse gas emissions and
emissions of some criteria pollutants.20
Another review of 11 research studies
concluded that emissions from battery
production for electric vehicles can
vary between 56 and 494 kg CO2/kWh.21
Case studies from Europe revealed that
during the battery production and car
manufacturing stage, emissions are
higher for electric vehicles than the
conventional cars; however, during the
in-use phase, electric vehicles travel
farther with a given amount of energy
and have lower emissions.17 Therefore,
even when accounting for battery
production, overall in Europe, emissions
are lower for electric vehicles than for
a typical car. However, emissions from
electric vehicles are still substantial
and could become worse given the
larger batteries that will become
more common for long-range electric
vehicles. Various factors, discussed next,
20 Requia, W. J., M. Mohamed, C. D. Higgins,
A. Arain, and M. Ferguson. 2018. How
clean are electric vehicles? Evidence-
based review of the effects of electric
mobility on air pollutants, greenhouse gas
emissions and human health. Atmospheric
Environment 185: 64–7721 International Council on Clean
Transportation. 2018. Effects of battery
manufacturing on electric vehicle life-cycle
greenhouse gas emissions. ICCT Briefing
should be considered simultaneously
to ensure low emissions from electric
vehicles and the renewable sector.
Grid DecarbonizationElectricity used for battery
manufacturing and during electric
vehicle life cycle contributes to
considerable amounts of carbon
emissions as fossil fuels are burnt to
produce electricity. Use of low carbon
renewable sources for electricity
production will build a clean grid
ecosystem. Subsequent decrease in grid
carbon intensity will lead to emission
reductions in battery production phase
and in electric vehicles’ life cycle in-use
phase during charging.
Battery Reuse and RecyclingBattery reuse for secondary, less
demanding applications should be
considered before battery recycling.
Using electric vehicle batteries for
electricity grid would further decrease
emissions attributed to the electric
vehicle sector and spent battery waste.
Although recycling new batteries is
complex and costly, it can be made
economical by standardizing the
battery production and ensuring
labelling, monitoring of batteries, and
implementing regulations to ensure
recycling. Also, creation of recycling
parks that include inputs from all
stakeholders, including manufacturers,
through an extended producer
responsibility (EPR) and effective
collection mechanisms that integrate
the informal sector can contribute to a
robust collection and recycling system.
New Battery Technology Improvements in battery technologies
such as chemistries with lower
carbon intensities, increasing battery
energy density, higher charging
and discharging efficiencies, more
environmentally sustainable and
longer lifetime will decrease energy
consumption and emissions from
battery production. Some new, cleaner
technologies are using sulphur in
cathode as opposed to heavy metals.
Policy Intervention Policy intervention through a pan-
India platform is required to develop a
sustainable electric vehicle ecosystem
that also promotes battery recycling.
Robust and stable government policies
should be framed to achieve resource
efficiency, circular economy, and
transition away from full dependence
on imports of rare earth elements. Some
measures could include encouraging
manufactures to collect spent batteries
through ‘take-back’ policy and
mandating minimum recycling of spent
batteries.
Mehar Kaur is Research Associate, Centre for
Waste Management, TERI, New Delhi.
Tel. 2468 2100
Fax: 2468 2144
India +91 • Delhi (0)11
Email: teripress@teri.res.in
Web: http://bookstore.teri.res.in
The Energy and Resources Institute
Attn: TERI Press
Darbari Seth Block
IHC Complex, Lodhi Road
New Delhi – 110 003/India
To purchase the book, visit our online bookstore at http://bookstore.teri.res.in or send us your demand draft or cheque in favour of TERI, payable at New Delhi
(outstation cheques are not accepted).
Fundamentals of Waste and Environmental Engineering deals with the global problem of waste generation. This book discusses the design and operation of engineering hardware and facilities for pollution control. It covers fundamentals of mesophillc and
thermophilic bioprocessing of wastes. The book highlights the ways to control and minimize unwanted pollution and includes research-
generated information and data. In order to make contents applicable, theoretical, multichoice, and practice tutorial numericals are also
included in the book.
ENVIRONMENTAL REMEDIATION THROUGH ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING
ISBN: 9789386530103 • Price: `665.00
Major topics covered
• Air Pollution and its
Abatement
• Wastes to Value-added
Products
• Water, Wastewater, and
Non-aqueous Liquids
• Waste Heat Treatments
and Utilizations
• Solid/Semisolid
Waste Treatments/
Management for
Business Developments
• Environmental Variance
and Effects of Pollution
on Humans.
JustReleasedJustReleased
30OCTOBER–DECEMBER 2019 ENERGY FUTURE
POTENTIAL AND MARKET OPPORTUNITIES FOR ENERGY GENERATION FROM AGRO AND
LIVESTOCK WASTE IN INDIA
31 OCTOBER–DECEMBER 2019ENERGY FUTURE
India has a huge potential for installation of anaerobic digestion based biogas plants
for cooking, electricity, and transport fuel applications in both rural and urban areas
owing to the availability of large quantities of animal wastes, wastes from forestry
and agriculture, industrial wastes, kitchen wastes, and so on. Over the years, a
number of projects of diff erent capacities and applications have been taken up
for developing the technical know-how, manpower, and necessary infrastructure.
In this article, Sunil Dhingra focuses on energy generation from agro and livestock
waste in India.
32OCTOBER–DECEMBER 2019 ENERGY FUTURE
IntroductionIn India, the growing concerns
about long-term energy security,
depleting fossil fuel reserves, and their
environmental impact have created
a greater stimulus to promoting
renewable energy, particularly in sectors
where larger gains are possible. Quality
energy services resulting in improved
productivity are seen as harbinger
driving economies and societies. In
light of the energy security challenge, it
becomes imperative to adopt strategies
for an energy mix that lead towards a
low-carbon development pathway.
India has 140 million hectares of net
sown area, with a large diversity in the
type and productivity of crops. A large
amount of crop residues are generated
after harvest. These residues are mainly
used for animal feeding, mulch and
manure, and as a source of energy
for rural households and industrial
use. However, a large portion of crop
residues is not utilized and burned to
clear fields for sowing the next crop. It is
estimated that about 683 million tons of
crop residues is produced annually from
11 major crops grown in India. The total
annual crop residue surplus is estimated
to be approximately 178 million tons,
which is largely burnt on the field and
has a substantial impact on air quality
due to emissions of particulate matter.1
In addition to the availability of excess
unutilized biomass, urban India also
generates about 70 million tons of
municipal solid waste each year that
mostly goes into unregulated landfills.
According to official estimates, on an
average only 70% of waste generated
is collected, while the remaining 30%
is again mixed up and lost in the urban
environment.
Recent initiatives by the Government
of India have spurred the effort to
address the following challenges:
» Environmental concerns associated
1 Estimation of Surplus Crop Residues in
India for Biofuel Production, Joint Report
of TIFAC and IARI, October 2018
with manure and agro-industrial
waste management
» Increasing energy demand and
growing interest in the utilization of
renewable energy sources to meet
that demand
» New and modified national policies to
facilitate biowaste-based renewable
energy development
» Increase in biowaste utilization and
market development for potential
‘green’ job growth
Biowaste Generation
Potential and Market
OpportunityThe major crops in India and the
producing states are given in Table 1.
The crop-wise annual production and
the surplus quantity are given in Table
2.2 Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Maharashtra,
Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Gujarat,
2 Estimation of Surplus Crop Residues in
India for Biofuel Production, Joint Report
of TIFAC and IARI, October 2018
33 OCTOBER–DECEMBER 2019ENERGY FUTURE
Uttar Pradesh
18%
Punjab
17%
Maharashtra
14%Other
13%
Gujarat
8%
Madhya Pradesh
6%
Haryana
6%
Karnataka
5%
Andhra Pradesh
5%
Tamil Nadu
4%
Telangana
4%
Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Haryana,
West Bengal, and Tamil Nadu are the
major crop producing states.
Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Maharashtra,
Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat, Madhya
Pradesh, Haryana, Telangana, and
Karnataka account for more than
85% of the total surplus crop residue
production in the country (Figure 1).
The Government of India has already
introduced a number of policies and
initiatives for the effective management
of biowaste materials.
Bioenergy is to be seen as an
important tool to promote socio-
economic development, particularly
in rural areas, besides contributing
to the capacity addition of non-fossil
fuel-based power. Significant progress
Table 1 Major crops in India and the producing states
Crop type States
Rice Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, West Bengal
Wheat Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Haryana
Bajra Rajasthan, Gujarat, Maharashtra
Jowar Maharashtra, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh
Sugarcane Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra, Karnataka
Cotton Maharashtra, Uttar Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh
Groundnut Gujarat, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh
Oilseeds Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka,
Maharashtra
Table 2 Crop-wise total dry and surplus biomass
Crop Dry biomass (million tons) Surplus biomass (million tons)
Rice 225.487 43.856
Wheat 145.449 25.07
Maize 27.88 6.036
Sugarcane 119.169 41.559
Gram 26.515 8.724
Tur 9.167 1.755
Soybean 27.779 9.95
Rapeseed and
mustard
17.085 5.157
Cotton 66.583 29.74
Groundnut 12.9 3.873
Castor 4.604 3.017
All crops 682.618 178.737
Figure 1 Major crop residue producing states by percent of surplus production
has been made in the development of
biopower in the country. About 10 GW
capacity has already been installed,
which largely comprises about 8.7 GW
from biomass and bagasse cogeneration
based plants and 138 MW from waste
to power, besides 676 MW from non-
bagasse captive power plants. Biomass
combustion based power generation
is the most commonly used way of
converting chemical energy of biomass
into thermal and electrical energy. The
advantage of the technology is that
it is similar to that of a thermal power
project except for the type of boiler.
The typical biomass power plants are
in tens of MW capacity. Most of the
existing biomass power plants are
suffering from the lack of continuous
and reliable availability of biomass
supply and its logistics due to absence
of organized biowaste collection and
aggregation in the country. The sector
is facing challenges related to building
fuel supply chains, prevailing low
electricity tariffs, and the absence of
an overarching policy framework for
bioenergy.
Overview of Policies and
Incentives Various programmes and policies
promote anaerobic digestion (AD)
s
34OCTOBER–DECEMBER 2019 ENERGY FUTURE
of manure and agro-industrial waste
to generate renewable energy. India
has a huge potential and need for the
installation of AD based biogas plants
for cooking, electricity, and transport
fuel applications in both rural and
urban areas owing to the availability
of large quantities of animal wastes,
wastes from forestry and agriculture,
industrial wastes (e.g., agro/food
processing), kitchen wastes, and
so on. Over the years, a number of
projects of different capacities and
applications have been taken up
for developing the technical know-
how, developing manpower and
necessary infrastructure, establishing
a proper arrangement for operation
and maintenance and large-scale
dissemination. As a result, around
five million family-sized biogas plants
have been installed under the biogas
development programme. In addition,
400 biogas off-grid power plants have
been set up with a power generation
capacity of about 5.5 MW.
MNRE is spearheading the waste
to energy programme, a national
programme that promotes the recovery
of energy from urban, industrial, and
agricultural wastes through waste to
energy projects. The programme focuses
on converting municipal solid waste and
agricultural waste into fuel for heating
and cooking, CHP (combined heat and
power), and bio-compressed natural gas
(bio-CNG). The MNRE provides financial
incentives through interest subsidies
for commercial projects, capital cost
for innovative demonstration projects
that generate power from municipal
or industrial waste, and power to
encourage implementation of these
projects.
Ministry of Petroleum and Natural
Gas launched Sustainable Alternative
Towards Affordable Transportation
(SATAT) initiative to develop bio-CNG
plants. It is geared towards reducing
India’s dependence on oil and gas
imports by producing bio-CNG using
agricultural residues, cattle dung,
sugarcane press mud, municipal
solid waste, and waste from sewage
treatment plants. The Ministry
envisages setting up of 5000 bio-CNG
plants in 5 years, guarantees offtake of
bio-CNG by oil marketing companies
(OMCs), and plans to invest `175,000
crore in infrastructure development for
bio-CNG distribution as the automotive
fuel. There is a particular focus on
producing bio-CNG using paddy straw,
especially in the northern states of
Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, and
Bihar where 40 million tons of paddy
35 OCTOBER–DECEMBER 2019ENERGY FUTURE
straw is burnt every year, causing major
environmental and health problems.
The OMCs assure a purchase price of
`46 per kg of bio-CNG. These facilities
are expected to be large-scale projects
that can consistently provide bio-CNG
as a transportation fuel.
Galvanizing Organic Bio-Agro
Resources (GOBAR)-DHAN was launched
by the Ministry of Drinking Water and
Sanitation. It is an extension of the
Swachh Bharat Mission (Clean India
Mission). It aims to help villages manage
their biowaste and to educate people
about the importance of safe and
efficient bio-agro waste management.
This scheme focuses on converting
livestock manure and solid agricultural
waste into biogas/bio-CNG. The Ministry
aims to set up 700 bio-agro waste
management projects in about 350
districts.
ConclusionIt is apparent that biowaste and livestock
wastes offer a tremendous potential
for power generation in India. The
development of biowaste energy will
help reduce greenhouse gas emissions.
India needs a mix of both large-scale
grid-connected and decentralized
renewable energy to meet its electricity
and energy deficits. Recently, there
has been significant focus on large-
scale renewables. The decentralized
biowaste energy systems based on
the sustainable use of solid wastes,
such as biowaste and livestock wastes,
have the potential to offer low-carbon
development pathways in meeting clean
energy needs in rural areas, besides
creating employment opportunities
in rural areas. Setting up biowaste
collection, aggregation and supply chain
mechanisms holds the key to success.
Additional policies are needed for crop
residue collection and aggregation to
encourage private investment. This will
further provide choices to farmers to
dispose of their biowaste materials and
build viable business models to establish
biowaste supply chain mechanism
that allows private sector to invest in
biowaste energy systems for production
of bio-CNG, bioethanol, bio-pellets, and
biopower in the country.
Sunil Dhingra is Senior Fellow, The Energy and
Resources Institute (TERI), New Delhi, India.
Email: dhingras@teri.res.in
36OCTOBER–DECEMBER 2019 ENERGY FUTURE
Commercialization of Compressed Biogas
in India
37 OCTOBER–DECEMBER 2019ENERGY FUTURE
Biomethane is a promising renewable energy option for substitute of natural gas for
grid and vehicular applications. It can be easily compressed to increase its utility as
compressed natural gas and directly fed to transportation vehicles. With increased
awareness, technical knowledge and support, this technology can be applied
worldwide for waste management, energy security, and climate change mitigation.
Rimika Madan Kapoor, Virendra Kumar Vijay, and Vandit Vijay discuss the biogas
production technology from organic waste in India and how it can be expected to
grow in future.
38OCTOBER–DECEMBER 2019 ENERGY FUTURE
Owing to the rising demand for
energy and the need to minimize the
environmental impacts of fossil fuels,
energy systems fueled by sources that
are more efficient, cost-effective, and
reduce environmental emissions are in
major demand. This search has led to
biogas, an important fuel among the
various biomass derived options.
Biogas to CBGBiogas, which is produced from
organic matter, is an essential source
of renewable methane and has
phenomenal prospects to meet
our future energy demands. It is an
efficient fuel for several end uses as
an alternative to conventional fossil
fuels. It also ensures the recycling of
nutrients present in the manure and
other biodegradable feedstock to the
soil. Biogas can be produced from
anaerobic digestion of organic wastes
generated from agricultural, domestic,
and industrial activities in the presence
of anaerobic microorganisms. Biogas
consists of 50–65% methane, 35–45%
carbon dioxide, 0–10% water vapour,
and traces of O2 N
2, H
2 and H
2S. It is
nearly 20% lighter than air and has
ignition temperature of 650–750 °C. The
calorific value of raw biogas is in the
range of 22–25 MJ/m3 and assuming
50% CH4 in raw biogas, the energy value
is 21 MJ/Nm³, and density is 1.22 kg/
Nm³, which is similar to air (i.e., 1.29 kg/
Nm³). The relative percentages of these
gases depend upon the quality of the
feed material and process conditions.
The major constraint on limited
applications of raw biogas is the complex
composition of biogas. The presence
of CH4 makes biogas a combustible
fuel, while CO2, in addition to being
non-combustible, restrains not only
the energy content per unit mass or
volume (calorific value) but also its
compressibility, thereby making it
difficult to be stored in containers and
limiting its utility for onsite applications
(e.g., for heating purposes and electricity
generation). The undesirable impurities
such as CO2, H
2S, and water vapour
cause problems such as corrosion of
mechanical parts, toxicity, and reduction
in heating value. Therefore, to augment
and widen the scope of utility of biogas
to higher value applications of natural
gas, it is important to remove such
impurities and upgrade it to biomethane
with CH4 content above 90%. Biogas
upgradation is basically a gas separation
process that yields a CH4 rich gas
called compressed biogas (CBG). The
compressed biogas is a dynamic fuel
of the future. It can be blended with
natural gas in any proportions, and
correspondingly the available natural
gas distribution and storage network can
handle biomethane too. The technology
for upgrading biogas to biomethane
is mature, efficient, and safe. However,
choosing the appropriate method
depends upon various factors, such as
cost, energy requirement, site conditions,
and application. The established
technologies for the separation of CO2
from biogas are absorption (pressurized
water scrubbing, physical or chemical
absorption), adsorption (pressure
swing adsorption), and membrane
(high pressure, low pressure) cryogenic
method.
Status and Potential of
Biogas in IndiaLarge quantities of organic wastes
are available in rural and urban areas
of India, and hence biogas can be
produced at different locations and
scales. At present, India produces only
about 2.07 billion m3/year of biogas,
while its estimated production potential
is as much as 48 billion m3/year.1 A total
of about 5 million family size biogas
plants were installed all over the
country till December 2017 out of the
total potential of 12 million family size
biogas plants. For biogas upgrading and
bottling, organic wastes such as cattle
manure in dairy farms, food wastes in
canteens and hostels, and municipal
1 This is just an approximation of biogas
production from organic waste available
in India based on the waste data and
calculations.
solid wastes in urban areas are available
in abundance. There are numerous cattle
farms, dairies, and village communities
with a large number of cattle having
the potential for producing biogas at a
medium to large scale. Biogas can be
produced in large scale in industries
such as distilleries, food processing, pulp
and paper industries, sewage treatment
plants, landfills in urban areas, and so
on. The estimated CBG potential from
various sources in India is nearly 62 MMT
with bio-manure generation capacity
of 370 MMT. CBG is envisaged to be
produced from various biomass/waste
sources, such as agricultural residue,
municipal solid waste, sugarcane press
mud, distillery spent wash, cattle dung,
and sewage treatment plant waste. If
the government provides the necessary
support, biogas market could substitute
a significant quantity of Indian natural
gas consumption by 2030.
If biogas upgrading and bottling
technology is promoted and
disseminated in urban and rural areas
extensively, bottled biogas can be a
substitute to fossil fuels in major energy
consumption sectors (e.g., transport
and cooking). Use of upgraded and
bottled biogas in transport and cooking
sectors would bring several benefits,
such as a carbon-neutral green fuel
production, infrastructure development,
increased employment opportunities
in rural and urban areas, deep
penetration of dedicated upgraded
biogas infrastructure in rural/urban as
well as remote areas, sustainable waste
management, and reduction in GHG
emissions in fossil fuel driven energy
consumption sectors such as cooking
and transportation.
CBG is a way forward for reducing
the fossil fuel dependence in India.
The scope of utilization of bottled
biogas as a vehicular fuel in India can
be understood by the growth of CNG
infrastructure in India. Although natural
gas is not yet a major transportation
fuel in India, the use of compressed
natural gas (CNG) is a key step towards
the goal of using upgraded biogas in
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