elicitation techniques
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ELICITATION TECHNIQUESDavid Nunan
Ulat ni: Rodesa O. Lajada
ELICIT
To bring or draw out (something latent);
To arrive at (a truth, for example) by logic.
To call forth, draw out, or provoke (a reaction, for example).
mula sa wikipedia
ELICITATIONA range of procedures for obtaining speech samples and other data subjects. Such procedures may range from the administration of standardized tests through to questionnaires and interviews
PRODUCTION TASK In investigating language learning
and use, one can attempt to obtain naturalistic samples from learners as they interact in the target language.
Extremely time consuming and difficult
It may not result in the outcomes one desires
Second Language Acquisition Studies Dulay and Bart, (1973- 1974) at Bailey, Madden and Krashen, (1974) designed to provide the researchers with evidence on the appearance of certain grammatical morphemes
it aims to determine the order in which the particular morphemes appeared and the effect of such variables as instruction and first language background on the order of acquisition
HALIMBAWA:
BILINGUAL SYNTAX MEASUREconsisted of cartoonlike drawings Subjects were shown the drawings and asked a series of questions which were designed to elicit the target language items under investigation.
INTERVIEW TEST OF ENGLISH AS A SECOND LANGUAGE (ITESL)designed to obtain information from
immigrants in Australia for diagnosis, placement and remediation (Griffin 1986)
consists of twenty items designed to elicit 20 target grammatical items each items contains a stimulus picture, cue questions, instructions for the test administrators, and a set of scoring criteria
Item 6 on page 137
Table 7.1 on page 138
Partial Credit Model
HALIMBAWA:
TWO POSSIBLE THREATSby determining in advance what is
going to be considered relevant, other potentially important phenomena might be overlooked
the extent to which the results obtained are an artifact of the elicitation devices employed
EISENSTEIN, BAILEY, AND MADDEN (1982)A study into the acquisition of verb
tenses
they used two different tasks to elicit data from their subjectsProduction task similar to Bilingual
Syntax Measure imitation task
SURVEYSThe collection of data (usually related to attitudes, beliefs, or intentions) from subjects without attempting to manipulate the phenomena/ variables under investigations.
SURVEYSCohen and Manion (1985) the most commonly used descriptive method in educational research, and may vary in scope from large-scale governmental investigations through to small-scale studies carried out by a single researcher
PURPOSETo obtain a snapshot of conditions, attitudes, and/or events at a single point in time
Experimental
Studies
Survey Researc
h
FIGURE 7.1STEPS IN CARRYING OUT A
SURVEYStep 1 •Define objectives
Step 2 •Identify target population
Step 3 •Literature review
Step 4 •Determine sample
Step 5 •Identify survey instruments
Step 6 •Design survey procedures
Step 7 •Identify analytical procedures
Step 8 •Determine reporting procedure
TABLE 7.2STRATEGIES FOR SURVEY
SAMPLING
STRATEGY PROCEDURE1. Sample random
Select subjects at random from a list of the population
2. Systematic Select subjects in a systematic rather than random fashion
3. Stratified Subdivide population into subgroups and randomly from subgroups
STRATEGY PROCEDURE
4. Cluster Restrict one’s selection to a particular subgroups from within the population
5. Convenience
Choose nearest individuals and continue the process until the requisite number has been obtained
6. Purposive Subjects are handpicked by the researcher on the basis of his/ her own estimate of their typicality
1. QUESTIONNAIRESAn instrument for the collection of data, usually in written form, consisting of open and/ or closed questions and other probes requiring a response from subjects
Questionnaire
Discursive Data
1.1 TYPES OF QUESTIONS
Closed Item one in which the range of possible responses is determined by the researcher
Example:Foreign languages should be compulsory in high school.
agree/ neutral/ disagree
TABLE 7.3CLOSED QUESTION TYPES IN SURVEY
QUESTIONNAIRESYOUNGMAN (1986) CITED IN BELL
(1987)QUESTION
TYPEEXAMPLE
1. List Indicate your qualifications by circling any of the following: diploma, B.A., M.A., Ph.D.
2. Category Indicate your salary range by circling one of the following:less than 20,000 20,000-40,000 40,000-60,000
QUESTION TYPE
EXAMPLE
3. Ranking Rank the following from 1 to 4 in order of preference.‘I like to learn best by studying:__with the whole class__in small groups__in pairs__independently
4. Scale Circle one of the following to indicate your attitude to the following statement:‘I like to learn through interacting with native speakers.strongly agree, agree, neutral, , disagree, strongly disagree
QUESTION TYPE
EXAMPLE
5. Quantity/ frequency
Circle one of the following:How often did you practice English outside class last week?0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10,more than 10
6. Grid How many NESB students are there in the following classes:
0-5 5-10 10-15 15+
Year 1
Year 2
Year 3
Year 4
1.1 TYPES OF QUESTIONS
Open Item one in which the subject can decide what to say and how to say it
Example:What do you think about the
proposal that foreign languages should be compulsory in high school?
Closed Item
Open Item
1.2 QUESTION WORDINGQuestions should not be complex
and confusing, nor should they ask more than one thing at a time
Example from Cohen and Mannion (1985: 105- 107)
Would you prefer a short, non-award course (3,4, or 5 sessions) with part-day release (e.g. Wednesday afternoon) and one evening per week attendance with financial reimbursement for travel or a longer, non-award course (6,7, or 8 sessions) with full day release, or the whole course designed on part-time release without evening attendance?
1.2 QUESTION WORDINGAvoid culturally biased questions
Example(from an oral proficiency interview)Interviewer: Where is your mother? What does your mother do? Subject: She’s dead?Interviewer: Ah- she’s dead. Very good. (van Lier 1989:
499)
FACTORS TO BE CONSIDEREDThe willingness of respondents to make
critical statementsThe willingness of respondents to discuss
certain personal topics, such as age, salary, or opinions on political and social issues
The shared values which can be assumed, for example, the concept of freedom of the press
The attitudes which can be assumed, for example, the commonly held belief among many educators in Western countries that classroom learning should be a source of enjoyment for the learner
REMINDER:Questionnaires must be: -constructed -piloted -administeredbefore collating and interpreting
the responses
1.3 INTERPRETING RESPONSESExample: selected extracts from a study
Nunan was involved in
Question:‘State three beliefs you have about
language development that determine the way you teach.’
372 responses15 pages of statements
KEY WORD ANALYSIS(GENERATING CATEGORIES FROM THE STATEMENTS MADE BY THE RESPONDENTS)
ImmersionLearning by doing/ experientialLanguage across the curriculumGrammar, structure, correctnessOral/ written language
relationshipsCreation of rich, positive
environmentEtc.
TABLE 7.4TEACHERS BELIEFS ABOUT
THE NATURE OF LANGUAGE AND LEARNING
Category Number1. Reference to language/ learning 2022. Reference to environment/ climate
102
3. Reference to the learner 68TOTAL 372
1.4 QUANTIFYING QUALITATIVE DATAExperienced teachers(5+ years
experience)
Inexperienced
teachers(1-5 years experience
)
Total
Reference to language/ learning
126 76 202
Reference to environment/ climate
35 67 102
Reference to the learner 19 49 68
Total 180 192 372-It should transpire that the relatively more experienced teachers made significantly more references to principles of language learning.Hypothesis- as teachers increase their mastery of technical aspects of instruction and knowledge of language. Their teaching practices become less dependent on local environmental and affective factors
1.4 QUANTIFYING QUALITATIVE DATA (ALTERNATIVE WAY) LINCOLN AND GUBA (1985)
1. Place each individual entry onto library index cards.
2. Select the first file from pile and place it on one side.
3. Select the second card and make a determination on intuitive grounds whether it is ‘look-alike’ or represents a new category.
4. Continue on successive cards5. Cards which are not fully recognized should
be placed into a miscellaneous pile. They should not be discarded but should be retained for later review.
2. INTERVIEWSThe elicitation of data by one person from another person through person-to-person encounters
DEGREE OF FORMALITY
Guided by the responses of the interviewee rather than the agenda of the researcher
1. UNSTRUCTURED
2. SEMI-STRUCTUREDThe interviewer has a general idea
of where he or she wants the interview go, and what should come out of it, but does not enter the interview with a list of predetermined questions
DEGREE OF FORMALITY
The agenda is totally predetermined by the researcher, who works through a list of set questions in a predetermined order
3. STRUCTURED
*ADVANTAGES-it gives the interviewee a degree of power
and control over the course of the interview
-it gives the interviewer a great deal of flexibility
-it gives one privileged access to other people live’s
BIAS INHERENT IN MOST RESEARCH METHOD
1. In terms of oral interview-asymmetrical relationship between the participants
2. In terms of content-biographical factors such as gender and ethnicity can affect the validity and reliability of the research (Briggs, 1986)
3. In linguistic termthe asymmetry will be reflected in the actual language used (van Lier, 1989)
PRACTICAL SUGGESTIONS FOR PLANNING AND CONDUCTING
INTERVIEWS(RECOMMENDED BY COHEN AND
MANION, 1985)
1. Preparing the interview schedule
2. Piloting3. Selection of subjects4. Elements of the interview
-briefing and explanation-questioning
PRACTICAL SUGGESTIONS ABOUT THE ACTUAL CONDUCT
OF THE INTERVIEW(SUGGESTED BY WALKER, 1985)
1. Physical positioning of the interviewer and interviewee
2. The researcher must also decide how to interview is going to be recorded:*note-taking*tape-recording
TABLE 7.5STRENGTHS AND WEAKNESSES OF
TAPE-RECORDING AND NOTE-TAKING
Instruments
Strengths Weaknesses
Tape-recording
-preserves actual language-naturalistic-objective record-interviewer’s contributions recorded-data can be reanalyzed after the event
-possibility of data overload-time-consuming to transcribe-context not recorded-presence of machine off putting-core issues masked by irrelevancies
Note-taking -central issues/ facts recorded-context can be recorded-economical-off record statements not recorded
-recorder bias-actual linguistic data not recorded-encoding may interfere with interview-status of data may be questioned
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