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Research Papers N° 20
European Post Graduate School of International & Development Studies
Sustainable Tourism Policy as a Global Instrument for Economic Growth, Poverty
Alleviation and Peace
Ronny Natusch
2012
Master of Arts in International Politics (M.A.)
Ronny NatuschN°: 1229Supervisor: Professor André Miroir
THESIS
Sustainable Tourism Policy as a Global Instrument for
Economic Growth, Poverty Alleviation and Peacekeeping
The Importance and the Political Role of Tourism in the 21st Century
Can sustainable tourism governance make a significant contribution to achieve
economic stability, peace and development
throughout the world?
Master of Arts in International Politics (M.A.)
Ronny NatuschN°: 1229Supervisor: Professor André Miroir
1
“I am so convinced of the advantages of looking at mankind instead of reading about them, and of
the bitter effects of staying at home with all the narrow prejudices of an Islander, that I think there
should be a law amongst us to set our young men abroad for a term among the few allies our wars
have left us.”
Lord Byron (1788-1825)
English poet and leading figure in the Romantic era (approximate period from 1800 to 1840)
“Travel has become one of the greatest forces for peace and understanding in our time. As people
move throughout the world and learn to know each other, to understand each other’s customs and
to appreciate the qualities of individuals of each nation, we are building a level of international
understanding which can sharply improve the atmosphere for world peace.”
John F. Kennedy (1917-1963)
35th President of the United States of America
Master of Arts in International Politics (M.A.)
Ronny NatuschN°: 1229Supervisor: Professor André Miroir
2
Abstract
According to the UN World Tourism Organisation (UNWTO), since the 1950s tourism has turned into one of the
world’s fastest growing economic sectors and simultaneously into one of the world’s largest generators of Gross
Domestic Product (GDP) and employment. Even after periods of political or economic turmoil, global tourism has
always recovered remarkably quickly, reaching a record of 990 million1 tourist arrivals in 2011 and generating a
total revenue of US$ 1.2 trillion. Against the backdrop of tourism’s increasing importance for economic stability
and social welfare, this dissertation takes an in-depth look at ways in which tourism can spur the economy, create
jobs, favour cross-border understanding and alleviate poverty. In order to put into relief the significance of tourism,
this dissertation concentrates primarily on the academic work and the commitment on behalf of the UNWTO as
well as on recent documents and projects to highlight the pioneering role of tourism in the 21st century.
After having outlined the fundamentals of the tourism industry, this dissertation throws light on the socio-economic
role of sustainable tourism. An analysis of the latest developments in selected regions presents evidence for the
increasing importance of tourism for the world economy. As economic growth is essential in eliminating global
poverty, the third chapter explains what methods tourism can apply to fight poverty and to promote development in
poor states. In this framework, a focus lies on the correlation between tourism and the achievement of the
Millennium Development Goals. As travelling encourages exchanges and promotes understanding between
religions and cultures, the fourth part of this dissertation deals with the issue whether tourism can contribute to
building peace. In this context, the UNWTO Silk Road Programme constitutes a prime example demonstrating
ways that several states follow to cooperate peacefully and to benefit together from the tourism sector. On the
grounds of tourism’s substantial impact on the economy, on poverty eradication and on peace, the UNWTO calls
on governments worldwide to recognise and harness sustainable tourism as a driving force for development.
Examples demonstrate how national states, the G20 and multi-state initiatives are beginning to place tourism
prominently on the global political agenda. To conclude, there will be an evaluation whether tourism deserves
international political recognition as a suitable tool for achieving economic growth, peace and poverty alleviation.
1UNWTO (2012) UNWTO Tourism Highlights, p. 3 (retrieved on 11 September 2012)
Master of Arts in International Politics (M.A.)
Ronny NatuschN°: 1229Supervisor: Professor André Miroir
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Table of Contents
1. Introduction and Fundamentals....................................................................................................... 5
1.1. The Variety of Tourism Definitions ................................................................................................. 5
1.2. The History and the emerging Diversity of Tourism in the course of time...................................... 7
1.3. The symbiotic relationship between Tourism and Sustainability ................................................... 12
2. A Driver for Economic Growth in the Era of Globalization ....................................................... 13
2.1. The Importance of the Tourism Sector in the World Economy ..................................................... 14
2.2. Considerable Growth in International Tourism Receipts and Expenditures .................................. 18
2.3. The BRIC States as the world’s top spenders................................................................................. 19
2.4. First outcomes of 2012 ................................................................................................................... 20
3. Tourism as an Instrument for Poverty Alleviation....................................................................... 22
3.1. Tourism’s increasing Economic Significance for Developing Countries....................................... 22
3.2. Tourism’s potential to eradicate poverty ........................................................................................ 22
3.3. The power of the ST-EP Initiative.................................................................................................. 25
3.4. Harnessing Tourism for the Millennium Development Goals........................................................ 29
4. Peacekeeping and Cooperation in a multilateral world order .................................................... 30
4.1. Tourism Policy in the relation to the Constructivism Theory ........................................................ 30
4.2. The Seoul Declaration on Peace and Tourism................................................................................ 31
4.3. The Global Code of Ethics for Tourism ......................................................................................... 33
4.4. The Silk Road – a pioneering paradigm for International Tourism Cooperation ........................... 35
5. Tourism in the Global Political Mainstreaming ........................................................................... 39
5.1. The Reform Process within the UNWTO....................................................................................... 39
5.2. Tourism high on the international agendas – from T20 to G20...................................................... 40
5.3. Obama’s commitment to Travel Facilitation.................................................................................. 42
5.4. The Global Leaders for Tourism Campaign ................................................................................... 44
6. Outlook and Conclusions ................................................................................................................ 47
6.1. Forecasts of the UNWTO............................................................................................................... 47
6.2. Conclusions .................................................................................................................................... 48
Master of Arts in International Politics (M.A.)
Ronny NatuschN°: 1229Supervisor: Professor André Miroir
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7. Annexes............................................................................................................................................. 51
Annex 1. List of the 155 Member States of the UNWTO ..................................................................... 51
Annex 2: List of the World’s Top Destinations in International Tourism Arrivals............................... 54
Annex 3: List of the World’s Top Destinations in Internationals Tourism Receipts ............................ 55
Annex 4: Overview of the ST-EP Projects ............................................................................................ 56
Annex 5: Network of the Members of the Silk Road Programme......................................................... 59
8. Bibliography..................................................................................................................................... 60
8.1. Tables and Figures.......................................................................................................................... 60
8.2. List of Literature............................................................................................................................. 60
8.2.1. Books and Documents ................................................................................................................. 60
8.2.2. World Wide Web......................................................................................................................... 61
Master of Arts in International Politics (M.A.)
Ronny NatuschN°: 1229Supervisor: Professor André Miroir
5
1. Introduction and Fundamentals
1.1. The Variety of Tourism Definitions
According to the tourism expert William F. Theobald2, the term “tour” is derived from the Greek “tornos“ and the
Latin “tornare“, respectively meaning a lathe, a circle or the movement around a central point. In this context,
Theobald defines the suffix -ism as an action, a process, a kind of behaviour or a quality and -ist as someone who
performs a given action. Combining the term “tour” with the suffix -ism, there is an action of movement around a
circle. Against the background that a circle represents a starting point ultimately returning back to its beginning, a
tour can be considered as a journey in the form of a round-trip. Therefore, a tourist is someone who undertakes
such a journey.
However, there is no universally accepted definition of tourism. In the course of the 20th century, it has been
defined in many different ways. The League of Nations initially used the French words “tourisme” and “tourist” as
official terms to describe travellers who spend more than 24 hours abroad3. In 1941, Walter Hunziker and Kurt
Krapf, two Swiss researchers, explained tourism as the sum of the phenomena and relationships arising from the
travel and stay of non-residents, insofar as they do not lead to permanent residence and are not connected with any
earning activity4. While in 1976 the Tourism Society of England described tourism as the temporary, short-term
movement of people to destinations outside their home environment5, the International Association of Scientific
Experts in Tourism did not attach great importance to the duration of stay. It determined tourism in 1981 as the set
of particular activities selected by choice and undertaken outside the home6. These are just some of the many
definitions put forward by politicians and scholars from all over the world.
These traditional definitions7 of tourism do not take into account the increasingly intensified economic
interdependences among states in the framework of the globalization process and the consequent dwindling of
economic and political barriers. It fell to the UNWTO, a United Nations agency dedicated to the promotion of
responsible and universally accessible tourism, to point out the comprehensive impact of tourism on societies and
to draw up a clear definition valid for developed and developing economies. At the International Conference on
2 Theobald, William F. (1998). Global Tourism (2nd ed.). Oxford [England]: Butterworth–Heinemann. pp. 6–7.
3 Manoj Kumar Agarwal, Rudra Prasad Upadhyay (2006) Tourism and Economic Development in Nepal Northern Book
Centre, p. 10
4 http://tourismmanagement.info/tourism (retrieved on 8 September 2012)
5 Beaver, Allan (2002). A Dictionary of Travel and Tourism Terminology. Wallingford: CAB International. p. 313
6 http://www.docstoc.com/docs/72406452/1-Principle-of-Tourism (retrieved on 2 September 2012)
7UNWTO (1995) Concepts, Definitions, and Classifications for Tourism Statistics, Technical Manual No. 1, p. 9
Master of Arts in International Politics (M.A.)
Ronny NatuschN°: 1229Supervisor: Professor André Miroir
6
Travel and Tourism Statistics8, held in Ottawa (Canada) from 24 to 28 June 1991, the UNWTO stipulated
“Tourism comprises the activities of persons travelling to and staying in places outside their usual
environment for not more than one consecutive year for leisure, business and other purposes9”.
This relatively broad definition permits to identify tourism both between states and within a country. In this
framework, the UNWTO also recognizes that tourism comprises a large variety of activities going beyond the
common perception of being confined to holiday activity only10. Furthermore, the so-called Ottawa Conference
resulted in an adoption of a set of resolutions conveying the statistical needs of the industry for analysis, market
research, industry performance and tourism forecasts11. In order to assure the utmost accuracy and efficiency of
tourism statistics, the UNWTO has published the “Recommendations on Tourism Statistics” that assist
governments and businesses to establish clear standards for measuring tourism. According to this document, the
UNWTO proposes to divide travellers into visitors (one-day trip) and tourists (overnight stay)12 and classifies them
in three categories:
1. Domestic tourism (residents of a given country travelling within this country)
2. Inbound tourism (non-residents travelling in the given country)
3. Outbound tourism (residents travelling in another country)
Combining these tourism flows, the UNWTO makes a distinction between the following three forms13:
1. Internal Tourism (consists of domestic tourism and inbound tourism)
2. National Tourism (made up of domestic tourism and outbound tourism)
3. International Tourism (comprises inbound tourism and outbound tourism)
In order to understand the significance of tourism and its challenges in the global economy, it is essential to have
the historical development and the diversity of this sector in mind.
8UNWTO (1994) Recommendations on Tourism Statistics p. V
9UNWTO (1995) Concepts, Definitions, and Classifications for Tourism Statistics, Technical Manual No. 1, p. 10
10UNWTO (1994) Recommendations on Tourism Statistics p. 5
11UNWTO (1994) Recommendations on Tourism Statistics p.V
12UNWTO (2010) Recommendations on Tourism Statistics 2008, p.10, ISBN : 978-92-1-161521-0
13 UNWTO (1994) Recommandations on Tourism Statistics p. 5
Master of Arts in International Politics (M.A.)
Ronny NatuschN°: 1229Supervisor: Professor André Miroir
7
1.2. The History and the emerging Diversity of Tourism in the course of time
Antiquity – the first Golden Age
It can be assumed that tourism is as old as civilisation. In particular, trade gave a vital impetus to travel. Already
2000 years BC, the port of Lothal (India) became an important centre of trade between the Sumerians in
Mesopotamia and the Indus valley civilisation14. The earliest form of leisure and cultural tourism goes back to the
Babylonian and Egyptian empires. Probably the first museum on “historic antiquities” opened to the public in
Babylon at around 600 BC. In addition, the Egyptians organized many religious festivals that attracted not only the
devout but also many people who were more interested in admiring architecture and works of art. It is likely that
towns provided not only accommodation facilities at this time but also services such as guides or sellers of food,
drinks and souvenirs. Apart from trade and leisure, travel was mainly induced by religious purposes. The first
pilgrimages can also be traced back to antiquity. For instance, thousands of Buddhist followers have travelled to the
four holy sites15, Lumbini (Nepal), Bodhgaya, Kushinagar and Sarnath (India) all referred to the stages of Siddharta
Gautama’s life (born 623 BC16).
From around 500 BC onwards, the ancient Greek population travelled to sites of healing gods, to religious and
sports festivals, like the Olympic Games. The city of Athens turned into a magnet for travellers because of a large
variety of sights such as the Acropolis and the Parthenon. As the independent city-states in the ancient Greece were
not subordinated to a central authority, very few roads were built outside the cities so that most tourists travelled by
sea. Consequently, seaports began to prosper with a multitude of inns to satisfy travellers' needs. Owing to the
increasing density of inns and the emerging competition, tourism marketing might have its roots at this time since
advertisements in the form of signs directing people to inns were already known in this era. The lands of the
Mediterranean produced a remarkable evolution in travel due to commerce, festivals, religious purposes, medical
treatment and even education. These events submit evidence that an active tourism began at a very early date. As a
matter of fact, the era of ancient Greece was also characterized by the first travel writing. The Greek historian
Herodotus (484–425 BC) is considered to be the world’s first travel writer. Guidebooks made their appearance in
the fourth century BC on destinations including Athens, Sparta (Greece) and Troy (Turkey)17.
The Roman Empire (27 BC – AD 476) gave a boost to tourism by facilitating travel because of its large territory,
common currency, economic prosperity based on free market and the “Pax Romana” guaranteeing homeland
security and armed forces keeping piracy in check and easing safe travelling by sea18. Simultaneously, first class
14 http://www.deshnaf.net/travel-history/ (retrieved on 28 August 2012)
15 http://www.buddhist-tourism.com/four-holy-sites.html (retrieved on 28 August 2012)
16 http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/666 (retrieved on 28 August 2012)
17 http://www.deshnaf.net/travel-history/ (retrieved on 28 August 2012)
18 http://www.aboutroma.com/history-of-rome/roman-empire.html (retrieved on 8 September 2012)
Master of Arts in International Politics (M.A.)
Ronny NatuschN°: 1229Supervisor: Professor André Miroir
8
roads and staging inns (precursors of modern motels) favoured the rise in travel. Domestic tourism began to
flourish. Roman citizens frequently travelled for trade or leisure purposes. When during the reign of the emperor
Constantine I (ca. 272 –337) Christianity became the dominant religion of the Roman Empire at ca. 300 AD,
journeys to the “Holy Land” turned very popular19. Wealthy classes made second homes built close to the coast.
Towns on the Apennine peninsula started to concentrate on special tourism segments. For instance, Naples
attracted retired and intellectual people, Cuma was preferred by the fashion set whilst Baia became popular among
tourists reputed for rowdiness and drunkenness and was therefore nicknamed “harbour of vice”20. Tourism thrived
in Asia, Europe and the northernmost part of Africa during antiquity and experienced a comparable boom only in
the 20th century.
The Middle Ages
In the aftermath of the decline of the Roman Empire and the Migration Period (about 400 to 800 AD), travelling
became testing and dangerous due to drawn-out power struggles among dynasties in Asia and Europe. The
emerging feudalism did not allow lower social classes to travel for leisure. In general, travelling was mostly
reserved to the nobles who used it for political purposes. For instance, Charlemagne (742-814) did not possess only
one residence but several imperial palaces in order to control and extend his empire21. Two distinctive kinds of
tourism characterized this era: business and religious obligations (pilgrimages). The latter experienced a boost due
to the rise of Christianity and Islam. The Hajj, a pilgrimage to the Kaaba in Mecca (Saudi Arabia), represents the
fifth pillar of Islam and is a religious duty that must be performed at least once in the lifetime of an able-bodied
Muslim22. Apart from religion, travelling mostly served business interests. European states tried to discover a sea
route23 to India in order to avoid customs duties or plundering common on the overland routes in the 15th century.
When explorers discovered unknown parts of the world, like Bartolomeu Dias the Cape of Good Hope in 1488 or
Christopher Columbus the American continent in 1492, deep sea shipping gained momentum. With the hope of
founding colonies and exploiting raw materials, European expeditions initiated travelling and trading on a global
scale.
19 http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/ancient/romans/christianityromanempire_article_01.shtml (retrieved on 8 September 2012)
20 http://www.odyssei.com/travel-tips/4521.html (retrieved on 8 September 2012)
21http://www.navigator-allgemeinwissen.de/die-wichtigsten-fragen-und-antworten-zur-weltgeschichte/fruehes-mittelalter/karolinger/karl-der-
grosse-reichsstrukturen/1239-warum-war-eine-hauptstadt-fuer-karl-den-grossen-nicht-geeignet.html (retrieved on 8 September 2012)
22 Fleet Kate, Krämer Gudrun, Matringe Denis, Nawas John, Rowson Nawas, Rowson Everett (2007) The Encyclopaedia of Islam, Three. E.
J. Brill, p. 31
23 Hug, Prof. Dr. Wolfgang (1991) Geschichtliche Weltkunde. Verlag Moritz Diesterweg GmbH, p. 14
Master of Arts in International Politics (M.A.)
Ronny NatuschN°: 1229Supervisor: Professor André Miroir
9
The Recovery of Tourism
The influence of the Renaissance movement and the revival of ideas from antiquity entailed a new form of tourism
in the early 17th century. Under the aegis of Queen Elizabeth I of England and Ireland (1533-1603), young men
seeking positions at court were sent to mainland Europe in order to accomplish their education and gain experience.
These so-called “Grand Tours24” of mostly three or more years became very popular and served as a model for
other upper echelons of society all over Europe. Although a Grand Tour primarily served for education, young men
were more attracted to enjoy social life and culture in predominantly French and Italian cities, such as Florence,
Paris and Venice. The pleasure during the journeys also drew the European gentry to take the Grand Tours
customary at the end of the 18th century. However, the Napoleonic Wars (1803-1815) inhibited travelling to a large
extend and let to a decline of the Grand Tours.
The typical mindset of the subsequent Romantic Period (1795-1840) placed a new emphasis on emotions and the
esteem of the picturesque qualities of nature and landscapes. This attitude made a great contribution in the
development of the Alps as a destination25 for hiking and exploring the unknown peaks26. Alpine Clubs dedicated
to the exploration of the Alpine range came into fashion. A wave of first ascents of peaks around the world sparked
off, such as the Mont Blanc (France/Italy) in 1786, the Grossglockner (Austria) in 1800, the Mount Kosciuszko
(Australia) in 1840, the Monte Rosa (Switzerland) in 1855, the Chimborazo (Ecuador) in 1880, the Kilimanjaro
(Tanzania) in 1889, the Aconcagua (Argentina) in 1897 and the Mount McKinley (USA) in 1913. Mountains
sparked interest so much that numerous ski resorts, hill stations and mountaineering spots emerged.
When the knowledge of the therapeutic qualities of mineral waters gained prominence, numerous spas were set up
for medical purposes27. Although (thermal) spas had already been well established during the Roman Empire, their
popularity increased in the 19th century. Beginning on the British Isles, health tourism became wide-spread across
Europe, such as Spa in Belgium, Bad Ischl in Austria or Bath in the United Kingdom. In due course, taking the cure
in a spa turned to a status symbol and the original medical purpose changed more and more into seeking pleasure.
In this way, spas became popular centres of social life for the European jet set. This great popularity resulted in
overcrowded inland spas. Therefore, the upper classes replaced them with sea side resorts. According to the
common knowledge in this time, sea water led to health benefits. The introduction of steamboat services
contributed to the extension of sea side resorts.
The onset of industrialisation radically changed the social and political dimension of tourism in Europe. Factory
workers longed for an escape to places of natural beauty. On the whole, the working class (proletariat) felt the need
24 http://www.deshnaf.net/travel-history/ (retrieved on 8 September 2012)
25 Profanter, Annemarie (2009) Kulturen im Dialog. Peter Lang GmbH Internationaler Verlag der Wissenschaften, p. 79
26 http://www.hls-dhs-dss.ch/textes/d/D16338.php (retrieved on 8 September 2012)
27 http://www.deshnaf.net/category/travel-history/ (retrieved on 8 September 2012)
Master of Arts in International Politics (M.A.)
Ronny NatuschN°: 1229Supervisor: Professor André Miroir
10
to change the routine from physically and psychologically stressful jobs with long working hours to rallying trips to
the countryside. However, the majority could not afford to realize this wish as working hours were often up to 14
hours a day from Monday to Saturday28. Nonetheless, the significance of travel and tourism changed dramatically
in the course of the 19th century. The close relationships between industrialised countries and their colonies in the
context of imperialism fostered constant global travelling. The advent of the steam engine permitted a considerable
cut in travel time. On the one hand, railway networks expanded quickly all over Europe and North America. On the
other hand, the United Kingdom used this pioneering technology to organize faster transoceanic crossings by
steamships and dominated hence the maritime market in the second half of the 19th century. The technological
achievements allowed reducing time and taking on numerous passengers.
Thomas Cook, a British preacher, harnessed these advantages and laid the foundation stone for package tours. He
arranged for a train on 5 July 1841 to carry parishioners from Leicester to Loughborough in the countryside.
Approximately 500 passengers travelled with the Midland Railway Company charging only one shilling for a
return ticket, meals and brass music. This was the first package tour29 for the general public. Cook also established
the first travel agency, the present Thomas Cook Group. The spread of Fordism30 in the industry at the turn of the
20th century led to mass production and higher wages for workers. Therefore, the automobile got used as a common
private good in Europe and North America. It encouraged active domestic travel on both sides of the Atlantic
Ocean. In spite of these extremely fast technological developments in travelling, the two World Wars
overshadowed the international tourism flows and brought them by and large to a standstill.
Emergence of a “Travel Society”
With the dissolution of the League of Nations and the foundation of the United Nations in 1945, the First
International Congress of National Tourism Bodies established the international non-governmental organization,
the International Union of Official Travel Organisations (IUOTU)31. In the 1950s, the world tourism industry began
to boost. This was mainly encouraged by two factors. Firstly, the aviation industry along with transport
infrastructure greatly improved so that aircraft became faster, cheaper and more comfortable for overseas travel.
The possibility to convey numerous passengers by aircraft and the steady growth of private low-cost airlines
promoted the expansion of air travel32. As a matter of fact, aeroplanes allowed the continuous growth of business
travel. Secondly, the socio-financial conditions changed dramatically. Rising income and the introduction of paid
holidays in developed countries increased the general welfare and made tourism affordable for the ordinary
28 Hug, Prof. Dr. Wolfgang (1990) Geschichtliche Weltkunde. Verlag Moritz Diesterweg GmbH, pp. 32-36
29http://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/europe-on-the-road/the-history-of-tourism (retrieved on 9 September 2012)
30http://www.willamette.edu/~fthompso/MgmtCon/Fordism_&_Postfordism.html (retrieved on 9 September 2012)
31http://www2.unwto.org/en/content/history-0 (retrieved on 9 September 2012)
32http://www.deshnaf.net/category/travel-history/ (retrieved on 9 September 2012)
Master of Arts in International Politics (M.A.)
Ronny NatuschN°: 1229Supervisor: Professor André Miroir
11
citizens33. The right to leisure time and paid holidays is anchored in Article 24 of the Universal Declaration of
Human Rights34 dating from 1948 “Everyone has the right to rest and leisure, including reasonable limitation of
working hours and periodic holidays with pay”. This article has been an integrative component of international law
and been referred to international treaties, national constitutions and laws.
Due to the steadily increasing significance of international tourism, the IUOTO was transformed into an
intergovernmental body with the necessary abilities to function on an international level in cooperation with other
international entities, above all the United Nations and its sister agencies. After the adoption of the Statutes of the
World Tourism Organization on 27 September 1970, the UNWTO was fully established in 197535. From this time
on, tourism has been characterized by swift and continued growth and evolved into one of the world’s fastest
growing economic sectors. Therefore, tourism has been more and more associated with development opportunity
throughout the world. In the course of the 20th century, tourism also experienced a growing demand for destination
diversification and differentiation. Many places have transformed into tourism resorts including Alpine villages
(Gstaad, St. Moritz and Zermatt in Switzerland), towns (Salzburg in Austria or Bora Bora in French Polynesia),
costal areas (Côte d’Azur in France or Shelly Beach in Kenya) and islands (Mallorca in Spain and the Maldives)36.
However, the right to leisure time, the enhancement of transport and the rise of income also resulted in mass
tourism. Especially the advent of cheap chartered flights spurred the package tour market and favoured mass
tourism. First hot spots of this movement were seaside resorts located in the Mediterranean and the Caribbean.
During the 1960s and 1970s, mass tourism reached its peak. In particular, tour operators encourage mass tourism
offering both low cost and standardized package tours and employing migrants for low-skill jobs and corporate
staff for the management37. Local citizens are practically never integrated in these tourism businesses. Moreover,
the fast growth of tourism has affected the environment as well as the cultures of the respective regions to a large
extent. For instance, tourist resorts polluted the Spanish coast on a massive scale and untreated sewage was pumped
into the bordering sea water in the 1960s. These circumstances favoured diseases38. Therefore, sustainable tourism
is nowadays essential to protect the environment and the local culture, to reduce mass tourism and to generate
employment for local people. In this respect, sustainability is fundamental for tourism at the dawn of the 21st
century.
33Éditions Nathan (2006) Le tourisme en France, CLERC S.A, p.4
34http://www.un.org/en/documents/udhr/index.shtml (retrieved on 20 August 2012)
35 http://www2.unwto.org/en/content/history-0 (retrieved on 9 September 2012)
36 http://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/europe-on-the-road/the-history-of-tourism/ueli-gyr-the-history-of-tourism (retrieved on
9 September 2012)
37 http://www.stepc.gr/_docs/library_docs/GLOBAL_SWOT_Analysis_TOUREG.pdf (retrieved on 9 September 2012)
38 http://www.bbc.co.uk/learningzone/clips/the-impact-of-mass-tourism-in-spain/1569.html (retrieved on 9 September 2012)
Master of Arts in International Politics (M.A.)
Ronny NatuschN°: 1229Supervisor: Professor André Miroir
12
1.3. The symbiotic relationship between Tourism and Sustainability
During the World Conference on Tourism in Manila (Philippines) from 27 September 1980 to
10 October 1980, the member states of the UNWTO recognized for the first time the salient importance of tourism
on an international level. The conference resulted in the Manila Declaration on World Tourism accenting tourism39
as an activity essential to the life of nations because of its direct effects on the cultural, economic, educational and
social sectors of national societies and on their international relations. However, if the tourism sector is not well
managed, it also faces considerable challenges and potential threats to the environment and local communities.
Therefore, the UNWTO puts sustainability on the basis of tourism and has stipulated it at the heart of its mandate
and hence all its operations. The organization is eager to promote an equitable, responsible and sustainable world
tourism order whose benefits are shared by all sectors of society in the context of an open and liberalized
international economy. Sustainable development itself was firmly anchored in the Report “Our Common Future” of
the World Commission on Environment and Development (WCED) on
20 March 1987 and determined as “the development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the
ability of future generations to meet their own needs40”. The UNWTO adjusted this definition to the tourism sector
as follows: Sustainable tourism takes full account of its current and future economic, social and
environmental impacts, addressing the needs of visitors, the industry, the environment and host
communities41.
The three objectives sustainable tourism is pursuing include economic prosperity, social equity and cohesion as
well as environmental protection which are inseparable and interlinked. In this context, a sustainable economy
guarantees benefits distributed fairly to all participants, such as stable jobs and income perspectives. The tourism
sector, with all its facets, continues to create a great amount of employment world-wide. Hence, the socio-
economic benefits of income and employment make an extensive contribution to poverty alleviation42. At the same
time, sustainable tourism respects the host communities and favours inter-cultural dialogue. In this way, the sector
makes great efforts in preserving the socio-cultural and historic heritage as well as the traditions, values, religions
and the attitude of the local communities. For example, this can be achieved by motivating local people to attach
greater importance to the protection of their genuine cultural heritage while providing a reasonable income.
Moreover, the strand of environmental protection is fundamental for tourism development emphasizing the
conservation of vital ecological processes as well as natural heritage and biodiversity. Tourism revenues can be
used to maintain and protect natural areas. In this connection, the Davos Process on Tourism and Climate Change
39 UNWTO (1980) Manila Declaration on World Tourism (UNWTO), p.1
40 http://www.un-documents.net/ocf-02.htm (retrieved on 9 September 2012)
41 UNWTO (2011) Fact and Figures. Tourism and Sustainability, p.1
42 UNWTO (2011) Facts and Figures. Tourism and Sustainability, p. 2
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dating from 2007 makes a major contribution to appropriate climate conditions, reducing emissions, imposing
innovative technologies and securing financing in order to support poorer regions and countries. In a nutshell,
sustainable tourism intends to optimize the usage of environmental resources, the respect towards the socio-cultural
authenticity of the host communities and to ensure important, long-term socio-economic benefits43. This is why the
UNWTO feels committed to the Agenda 21 keeping the rationale of reconciling environmental protection,
economic development and tackling poverty44.
In order to achieve these objectives, the UNWTO obliges its member states (see Annex 1) and its affiliate members
(more than 400 organizations and companies) to strong political leadership assisting them in imposing
sustainability principles in policy guidelines, management practises, future plans and other activities45. In addition,
it highlights that achieving sustainable tourism is an ongoing process and requires permanent monitoring of
influences and taking ad hoc measures to mitigate unforeseen events. In addition, sustainable tourism can only be
effective when it assures customer satisfaction and raises awareness about sustainability issues.
Besides, sustainable tourism is also in accordance with the recent development model of a green economy46. The
persistent global economic crisis since 2008 and its serious effects on natural resources, like biodiversity, climate,
food, fuel and water, brought about a common wish to establish a new economic paradigm comprising low carbon,
resource efficient and socially inclusive components. Therefore, the UN Green Economy Report considers tourism
as one of the ten economic sectors best able to pave the way for a transition to a green economy. It requires
investment to enhance energy efficiency, waste and water systems and could make a substantial contribution to
GDP while reducing CO2 emissions (52%), energy use (44%) and water consumption (18%). As a result, the
promotion of a green economy can help to generate more income and employment whilst preserving the
environment.
2. A Driver for Economic Growth in the Era of Globalization
Since Neoliberalism has dominated the world economy, tourism has never experienced such continued expansion
worldwide and is still in full swing. In contrast to other economic sectors, it has recovered fairly fast from
occasional economic setbacks and the current international financial crisis beginning in 2008. Meanwhile, tourism
43 UNWTO (2011) Fact and Figures. Tourism and Sustainability, p. 1
44http://www2.unwto.org/en/content/history-0 (retrieved on 10 September 2012)
45 http://sdt.unwto.org/en/content/about-us-5 (retrieved on 10 September 2012)
46UNWTO (2011) Facts and Figures. Tourism in the Green Economy, pp. 1-2
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represents one of the major drivers in international commerce and one of the most important income sources for a
number of states. The following figures47 reflect the vital position of tourism in the world economy:
Figure 1: Key numbers
Tourism directly accounts approximately 5% of worldwide gross domestic product (GDP)48. Depending on the
national extension, the percentage of tourism to GDP ranges from some 2% in countries where tourism is rather
small to more than 10% in countries where tourism is of overriding importance. For islands and developing
countries, the size of tourism can be even larger reaching up to 25%.
2.1. The Importance of the Tourism Sector in the World Economy
When measuring the impact of tourism to the global economy, the UNWTO makes use of two indicators: tourism
arrivals and receipts. From 1950 to 2011, international tourism arrivals (i.e. overnight visitors) rose from 25
million – over 277 million in 1980 and 528 million in 1995 – to 99049 million travellers worldwide50. In 2011,
international tourism receipts exceeded US$ 1 trillion51 for the first time in history, up from US$ 928 billion in
2010. Destination receipts from international tourism are counted as exports and cover transactions from same-day
and overnight visitors52. Apart from the pure receipts, the tourism sector also generates export earnings through
international passenger transport that reached estimated US$ 196 billion in 2011. Hence, the total amount of
international tourism receipts (exports including passengers’ transport) ran into US$ 1.2 trillion53. It can be
47 http://www2.unwto.org/en/content/why-tourism (retrieved on 10 September 2012)
48 UNWTO (2012) UNWTO Tourism Highlights, p. 3 (retrieved on 10 September 2012)
49 http://media.unwto.org/en/press-release/2012-09-12/international-tourism-track-hit-one-billion-end-2012 (retrieved on
11 September 2012)
50 UNWTO (2012) UNWTO Tourism Highlights, p. 3 (retrieved on 11 September 2012)
51 http://media.unwto.org/en/press-release/2012-05-07/international-tourism-receipts-surpass-us-1-trillion-2011 (retrieved on 11 September
2012
52 UNWTO (2012) UNWTO Tourism Highlights, p. 3 (retrieved on 11 September 2012)
53 http://media.unwto.org/en/press-release/2012-05-07/international-tourism-receipts-surpass-us-1-trillion-2011 (retrieved on 11 September
2012)
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15
supposed that this makes US$ 3.4 billion a day on average. Thanks to these figures, it is undeniable that tourism
plays a significant role for the international economy. In terms of world exports, tourism ranks fourth after fuels,
chemicals and food.54 In numerous developing countries tourism ranks even first in this order. This is the reason
why international tourism accounts for 30% of the world’s services exports and 6% of overall exports of goods and
services55.
Between international tourist arrivals and receipts, there is a close interrelation. Remarkable is that the growth of
receipts just tends to lay slightly behind growth of arrivals in times of economic uncertainty. This fact submits
evidence that international tourism receipts are able to make progress in rebounding from the losses of the crisis. In
the years 2008 and 2009, international arrivals and receipts decreased dramatically because of the economic
downturn triggered by the international financial crisis. In addition, the wave of protests in connection with the
Arabian Spring from December 2010 onwards had devastating effects on the tourism in the Middle East. Bearing
these setbacks in mind, it is considerable how fast tourism has rebounded and how resilient this economic sector is.
Neither the increase in tourist flows nor an economic recovery process have ever been so quick and led in 2011 to a
record in tourist arrivals and receipts. Taleb Rifai, UNWTO Secretary-General, welcomed this encouraging
development and underscored “The past two years have shown healthy demand for international tourism out of
many markets, even though economic recovery has been uneven. This is particularly important news for countries
facing fiscal pressure and weak domestic consumption, where international tourism, a key export and a labour
intensive activity, is increasingly strategic to balancing external deficits and stimulating employment.”
However, growth in the tourism sector is not equally balanced in the world. In the following, there is a short
analysis on growth of international tourist arrivals in 2011 by region:
Europe
Above of the expectations of the UNWTO, Europe maintained sound growth despite persistent economic
constraints and received a total of 504 million tourists56. Accounting for over half of all international tourist
arrivals, Europe is the fastest growing region in relative terms (+6% along with Asia and the Pacific) and in
absolute terms (29 million more tourists out of the 43 million additional international arrivals worldwide). The
rising number of tourists concentrated above all on Central and Eastern Europe as well as on Southern and
Mediterranean Europe. The latter subregion even achieved a share of 19% of world tourism. Not only the
traditional destinations, like Croatia, Greece and Portugal, benefited from increasing tourists, but also the smaller
54 UNWTO (2012) UNWTO Tourism Highlights 2012, p. 3 (retrieved on 11 September 2012)
55 http://media.unwto.org/en/press-release/2012-05-07/international-tourism-receipts-surpass-us-1-trillion-2011 (retrieved on 12 September
2012)
56 UNWTO (2012) UNWTO Tourism Highlights 2012, p. 6 (retrieved on 12 September 2012)
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Mediterranean states recording double-digit growth, such as Montenegro, San Marino and Serbia. This enormous
growth can possibly be ascribed to two recent trends. First, the situation of political transition in the framework of
the Arabian Spring in the Middle East and North Africa caused a shift in traffic towards the European
Mediterranean area. Second, the region benefited from strengthened outbound flows coming from Northern
European markets, particularly Germany, Russia and Scandinavia57. Referring to Central and Eastern Europe,
Georgia (+39%), Azerbaijan (+22%) and Kazakhstan (+21%) recorded the highest increase. (The UNWTO regards
the Middle Asian states as belonging to Europe). The subregion of Northern Europe also listed double-digit growth,
notably Iceland (+16%), Finland (+14%) and Norway (9%). In comparison, Western Europe only experienced a
more modest growth with Germany (+6 %), Austria (+5%), Belgium (+4%), the Netherlands (+4%) and France
(+3%).
In addition, eurostat, the statistical office of the European Union, stated on 24 January 2012 that the number of
nights spent in hotels and similar establishments in the EU reached a peak of 1.6 billion nights in 201158.
Surprisingly, the largest increases were recorded in the Baltic Member States as well as in Bulgaria and Romania,
namely in Lithuania (+19.8 %), Bulgaria (+18.3%), Estonia (+14.6%), Latvia (+14.1%) and Romania (+12.9%).
Bulgaria ranked first and Lithuania second in the number of hotel nights spent by non-residents. Moreover,
Lithuania ranked first Bulgaria second in the number of hotel nights spent by residents. Especially for these
relatively small states, tourism serves as an essential source for high revenues.
Asia and the Pacific
Arrivals in Asia and the Pacific also gathered momentum reaching a total of 13 million tourists59 but on a much
slower level than Europe. The slight slowdown can largely be attributed to the impact of the Tohoku earthquake
and the tsunami in Japan that lead to a decline of the country’s inbound and outbound market. In terms of
subregions, South-East Asia registered the highest growth (+10%) benefiting from strong intraregional demand.
Many states reported double-digit figures including Myanmar (+26%), Cambodia (+20%) and Thailand (+20%). In
absolute terms, Thailand experienced the largest increase with over 3 million more tourist arrivals followed by
Singapore that received1 million more tourists. While the tourism sector has progressed a lot in South East Asia,
notably in Bhutan (+39%), Sri Lanka (+31%) and Nepal (+22 %), growth was much lower in North-East Asia with
South Korea (+11%), Hong Kong (China) (+11%) and more modest China (+3%). Oceania only saw a growth by
57 UNWTO (2012) UNWTO Tourism Highlights, p. 9
58 http://europa.eu/rapid/pressReleasesAction.do?reference=STAT/12/13&format=HTML&aged=1&language=EN&guiLang uage=en
(retrieved on 12 September 2012)
59 UNWTO (2012) UNWTO Tourism Highlights, p. 9
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Ronny NatuschN°: 1229Supervisor: Professor André Miroir
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1% of which the highest results were achieved by New Zealand (+3%). This development can also be caused by the
decline of the Japanese outbound market60.
The Americas
Further growth in tourism arrivals could be listed on the American Continent (+4%) with 157 million tourists. This
growth mainly benefited South American states (+9%) for the second consecutive year which is notably sustained
by strong intraregional demand. Uruguay (+22 %), Paraguay (+13%) and Peru (+13%) experienced the strongest
results. With regard to Central America, all states registered positive growth with an above-average increase of 5%,
the most Panama (+11%). In the Caribbean area, growth was especially intensive in Cuba (+7%), Barbados (+7%)
and Aruba (+6%). However, North America only showed below-average growth (+3%) albeit this represents an
increase of a total of 3 million tourist arrivals. The United States recorded robust growth (+4%) whereas Mexico
(+0,5%) and Canada (-1%) experienced low results61.
Africa
Revolutionary uprisings in the context of the Arabian Spring had a huge negative impact on tourism in the Oriental
part of Africa (-9%). So that Africa only recorded very slight growth (+1%). Tunisia, the starting point of the
political transitions, was primarily affected suffering a fall by 31% in arrivals62. Yet, this event promoted a shift of
tourism flows from North Africa to Subsaharan destinations by 7%. Arrivals in this region grew by half a million
tourists maintaining the total at 50 million. The fastest growth saw Cap Verde (+27%), Algeria (+16%) and
Madagascar (+15%).
The swift growth in Algeria can be ascribed to the strong political commitment of the national government having
set up a leading plan63 for sustainable tourism development from 2008 until 2030. The Algerian tourism policy plan
is pursuing the promotion of Algeria as tourist destination (from the high plateaus to the Sahara), foreign
investment, the cooperation between public and private businesses and the support of local people. The Algerian
authorities expressed in the leading plan for tourism development that it would be fundamental to change radically
behaviour and attitudes. Tourism can make a great difference in realizing the wishes claimed during the public
uprisings in Algeria, mainly the increase of salaries, creation of jobs and tax relief. The Algerian government
support investors by means of banking credit and housing supply for tourism projects, especially in the
economically underdeveloped areas. These include a cut in VAT of 17 % for received tourism benefits, a bonus
from 3 to 4.5 % for investors and a reduction in land concessions from 50% to 80% of land to set up tourism
60 http://media.unwto.org/en/press-release/2012-01-16/international-tourism-reach-one-billion-2012 (retrieved on 12 September 2012)
61 UNWTO (2012) UNWTO Tourism Highlights, p. 9
62 UNWTO (2012) UNWTO Tourism Highlights, p. 12
63 http://www.aps.dz/Promoting-destination-Algeria-a.html (retrieved on 12 September 2012)
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projects. In the meantime, there are 763 hotel projects64 steered by the Algerian government. Algerian Tourism
Ministers announced that these projects will create 36,000 more new jobs.
The Middle East
Also the Middle East suffered recoil in the tourism sector by virtue of the social and political upheavals of the
Arabian Spring. Although the Middle East had been the world’s fastest growing tourism region in the course of the
past decade, this region lost estimated 5 million arrivals (-8%), totalling 55 million, in 2011. In particular, Syria (-
41%), Egypt (-32%), Lebanon (-24%), Palestine (-15%) and Jordan (-13%) suffered great declines in tourist
arrivals. Nonetheless, a few destinations, mainly located on the Arabian Peninsular, sustained steady growth. The
most remarkable is Saudi Arabia that recorded an impressive growth of 60% in international tourism arrivals (6
million extra visitors since 2010 reaching a total of 17 million) thanks to efforts and strategies by the national
government to increase the significance of tourism in the country’s economy65. Saudi Arabia represents an
important place for Islamic pilgrimage, especially the Kaaba in Mecca and the holy mosques of Mecca and Medina.
The first is of utmost importance. All Muslims face the Kaaba when they are praying. Besides, the Five Pillars of
Islam obliges every Muslim to go on a pilgrimage to Mecca at least once in the lifetime. The Saudi Commission for
Tourism and Antiquities, a state-ruled board of tourism development with partners from the public and private
sector, has set up ambitious plans and programmes to stimulate investment in tourism and to improve the tourism
activity66. The Saudi authorities found out lower prices for outbound tourist packages were one of the main reasons
why their citizens preferred tourist destinations abroad67.Its ongoing projects establishing tourist facilities through
investment enhanced its competitiveness to a large extend and provided great benefits accrued to the national
economy and citizens. Aside Saudi Arabia, the United Arab Emirates along with Oman sustained steady growth as
well.
2.2. Considerable Growth in International Tourism Receipts and Expenditures
From the perspective of tourism receipts generated by tourism arrivals, the Americas (+5.7%) achieved the highest
growth in 2011. Followed by Europe (+5.2%), Asia and the Pacific (+4.3%) and Africa (+2.2%). Nevertheless,
Europe holds the largest share of international tourism receipts. Among the top ten tourist destinations, receipts
rose significantly in Hong Kong (China) (+25%), the USA (+12%), Spain (+9%), and the United Kingdom
64 http://www.aps.dz/Over-700-tourism-projects-in.html (retrieved on 12 September 2012)
65 UNWTO (2012) UNWTO Tourism Highlights, p. 12
66 http://www.scta.gov.sa/en/TourismInvestment/SupportTourismInvestment/Documents/Touristic_investment_eng.pdf, (retrieved on 12
September 2012)
67 http://www.scta.gov.sa/en/mediaCenter/SCTAPublications/Documents/MainTourismIndicators2004-2010.PDF (retrieved on 12 September
2012)
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(+7%)68. The Middle East was the only region recording negative growth in receipts (-14%) to the above mentioned
consequences of the Arab Spring movement. The following table shows the relative sums of income in the
respective regions gained through tourism confirming the importance of tourism for welfare:
Regions Share Receipts in US$ Receipts in €
Europe 45% 463 billion 333 billion
Asia and the Pacific 28% 289 billion 208 billion
the Americas 19% 199 billion 143 billion
the Middle East 4% 46 billion 33 billion
Africa 3% 33 billion 23 billion
Table 1: Total tourism revenues by region
Annex 2 and Annex 3 show the World’s Top Destinations in arrivals and receipts. The UNWTO found out that
France is the state with most of international tourist arrivals (79 million) and ranks third in receipts (US$ 54
billion). The United States is the world’s largest earner (US$ 116 billion) attracting 62 million tourists. Spain is the
second largest earner worldwide and the first in Europe (US$ 60 billion) being the destination for 57 million
tourists69. Against the background of Spain’s current national budget deficits70, tourism makes a tremendous
contribution to the country’s income. In comparison to 2010, Turkey moved up one place to sixth in arrivals and is
twelfth in receipts.
2.3. The BRIC States as the world’s top spenders
According to the UNWTO, tourism expenditures include all consumption expenditures of tourists for goods,
services or activities during their visit71. Just like in the years before, Germany has continued to be the world’s
biggest source market spending US$ 84 billion in 2011, followed by the United States (US$ 79 billion) and China
(US$ 73 billion). On the whole, the top spenders are the rising middle classes from emerging source markets in
Asia, Central and Eastern Europe, the Middle East, Southern Africa and South America whose disposable income
has progressively increased showed very swift growth in tourism expenditures. The BRIC states fulfilled a leading
role in 2011: China (US$ 73 billion), Russia (US$ 32 billion), Brazil (US$ 21 billion) and India (US$ 14 billion).
68 http://media.unwto.org/en/press-release/2012-01-16/international-tourism-reach-one-billion-2012 (retrieved on
12 September 2012)
69 UNWTO (2012) UNWTO Tourism Highlights, p. 6
70 http://www.tradingeconomics.com/spain/government-budget (retrieved on 13 September 2012)
71 UNWTO (2010). Recommendations on Tourism Statistics, p. 23
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In contrast to this long-term trend, advanced economies (+4.9%) from Europe, the Americas and Asia and the
Pacific posted higher growth than emerging ones (+4.3%) in 201172 which can be explained with the strong results
in Europe and the decline in the Middle East and North Africa. Even if destinations in advanced and emerging
states benefited both from the 2011 growth in arrivals and receipts, tourism in emerging economy destinations has
increased faster than in advanced ones. In this respect, the market share of the tourism sector in emerging
economies has grown from 30% in 1980 to 47% in 201173. Besides Japan, the United Kingdom was the only
market in the top ten to record a decline in expenditure (-2%) from 2010 probably by virtue of the weakened
economy and pound sterling. But also the British aviation, taxation and visa policy74 may play a role as the United
Kingdom requires the highest air tax in the world as well as a lavish, expensive and time-consuming visa process,
even for its key growth markets from Asia.
2.4. First outcomes of 2012
The steady rise of tourism since 2010 has remained constant in 2012 and marked a record of 467 million tourist
arrivals from January to June 2012. This means that there have been 22 million more tourists (+5%) during the first
half of 2012 compared to the same period in 2011.
Every region benefited from growth. Asia and the Pacific showed the best results. South Asia and South East Asia
saw a clear rebound in some of the destinations that recorded declines in 201175. Especially Japan’s inbound and
outbound travel seems to be clearly on convalescence. Taleb Rifai stated “Although Asia was affected by the
economic crisis of 2008-2009 due to its strong linkages with other economies; the region has bounced back quickly
and is today a leader in the global economy. This is clearly reflected in its tourism figures”.
Europe consolidated its record growth of 2011 in spite of the persisting economic instability in the Eurozone. In
particular, Central and Eastern Europe (+8%) have been particularly buoyant and spurred the tourism performance
due to double-digit increases76. Likewise, Northern and Western Europe (both +5%) have posted sound results –
the best Germany with +10%. Only the increase in Southern Europe slowed slightly down in 2011. This could be a
sign of a return of tourist flows to the destinations across the Mediterranean Sea in North Africa and the Middle
East. The Americas have registered growth of tourism as well. Notably, Central and South America had the lion’s
72 http://media.unwto.org/en/press-release/2012-01-16/international-tourism-reach-one-billion-2012 (retrieved on
12 September 2012)
73 UNWTO (2012) UNWTO Tourism Highlights, p. 2
74 http://www.wttc.org/news-media/news-archive/2012/marketing-not-only-answer-uk-tourism-says-wttc/ (retrieved on
12 September 2012)
75 http://dtxtq4w60xqpw.cloudfront.net/sites/all/files/pdf/unwto_barom12_04_july_excerpt_0.pdf, retrieved on 13 September 2012)
76 http://media.unwto.org/en/press-release/2012-01-16/international-tourism-reach-one-billion-2012 (retrieved on
13 September 2012)
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share in arrivals (both +7%) whilst North America’s growth (+4%) was particularly marked by the United States
and Canada.
Tourism in North Africa also boosted, especially in Tunisia with an impressive increase of 48% in the first quarter
of 2012. Destinations in the Sub-Saharan part of Africa keep on attracting more and more tourists. Furthermore, the
Middle East also showed small signs of recovery with arrivals up by 1%. The best results gained Egypt (+29% in
the first quarter of 2012).
The first UNWTO statistics of 2012 indicate that international tourism continues to show sustained growth despite
challenging economic conditions in many of the source markets in Europe and North America. Among the top ten
countries by expenditure on travel abroad, growth was significant in China (+30%), Russia (+15%), USA (+9%),
Germany (+6%) and Canada (+6%).
It can be assumed that tourism arrivals will hit the one billion by the end of 201277. Furthermore, the organization
upholds its vision that emerging economies will regain the lead with stronger growth in Asia and the Pacific (4% to
6%) as well as in the Americas and Europe (2% to 4%). Taleb Rifai said in his keynote speech at the opening of the
ITB Travel Trade Show on 6 March 2012 in Berlin (Germany) that by the end of 2012, one seventh of the world’s
population will have crossed international borders as tourists in a single year. He is certain that this extraordinary
number will contribute to more jobs, higher income possibilities and countless opportunities for development.
Furthermore, the UNWTO Secretary-General also believes that sustainability comes with this growth. He argues,
properly planned and managed, tourism is able to be one of the most promising sectors for achieving a more
economically, environmentally and socially sustainable future. In this context, he highlighted “Imagine how
business models would be transformed if one billion people demanded sustainable practises from hotels and tour
operators. Imagine how many would benefit if one billion people bought local produce or hired a local guide. These
are small actions, but given the size of our sector, their impact would be huge78. We need to work together with
tourism administrations to ensure that governments give priority to tourism as part of national policies to stimulate
growth and employment.”
77 http://media.unwto.org/en/press-release/2012-09-12/international-tourism-track-hit-one-billion-end-2012 (retrieved on
13 September 2012)
78 http://media.unwto.org/en/press-release/2012-03-05/one-billion-tourists-key-creating-jobs-and-stimulating-economy-unwto-secret
(retrieved on 13 September 2012)
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3. Tourism as an Instrument for Poverty Alleviation
3.1. Tourism’s increasing Economic Significance for Developing Countries
Aside from gradual economic growth, international tourism has been characterized by geographical expansion and
steady demand for global diversification in destinations. Therefore, many developing countries have attracted a
rising number of tourists since the end of the 20th century so that multiple new tourism destinations have emerged
challenging the traditional ones of Europe and North America79. While the top 15 destinations (mostly advanced
countries) absorbed 88% of international arrivals in 1950, the proportion turned to 75% in 1970 and ended up to
55% in 2010. This reflects the emergence of new destinations very well. Many of them are developing countries. In
fact, the share of international tourist arrivals received by emerging and developing countries has steadily risen,
from 32% in 1990 to 46% in 2011. As a result, the new destinations recorded around 500 million out of the total
990 million international tourism arrivals in 2011. This demonstrates that tourism has become a crucial player in
the economy for developing countries. Nowadays, the tourism sector represents the main source of foreign
exchange revenues for a third of developing states80 as well as the main and sometimes the only means of economic
and social development for less rich states. The positive economic effects including solid earnings, welfare and job
creation largely contributes to integrate developing states closer into the global economy, to eradicate poverty in
this way and to promote sustainable development. Especially for 20 of the world’s 48 Least Developed Countries
(ranked by the UN Index), the tourism sector represents the first or second source of export income81. Particularly
in small island states, tourism can even account for over 25% of GDP.
3.2. Tourism’s potential to eradicate poverty
The above mentioned explications of the UNWTO findings submit evidence that the tourism sector has proven to
be an essential instrument to increase economic stability and hence to improve the balance of payments. Especially
for low income countries, tourism is a substantial national activity in the economic sector and the basis for welfare.
In 2011, the travel and tourism industry accounted for 255 million jobs globally82. For a number of developing
countries, tourism is a leading promoter of job creation accounting for 8% of global employment.
According to the World Travel and Tourism Council (WTTC), tourism generates significantly more jobs than other
industries, employs six times more people than the global automotive manufacturing sector, four times more than
79 http://step.unwto.org/en/content/background-and-objectives (retrieved on 14 September 2012)
80 UNWTO (2012) Annual Report 2011, p. 14
81 UNWTO (2011) Facts and Figures. Tourism and Poverty Reduction (retrieved on 14 September 2012)
82 The World Travel & Tourism Council (2012) Travel & Tourism Economic Impact 2012, p. 4
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Ronny NatuschN°: 1229Supervisor: Professor André Miroir
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the mining sector and a third more than the financial sector83. Each job in the tourism sector creates allegedly up to
two jobs in other sectors. In this regard, an outstanding and significant feature of tourism is its multiplier effect
providing much needed employment opportunities not only in the tourism sector but also in others through linkages
to the local economy. Tourism has a direct, indirect and induced impact on job creation84. Direct jobs are generated
for tourism reasons, like the hospitality industry (hotels, restaurants, etc.), travel agencies, transport companies etc.
The indirect contribution encompasses three main groups whose activity is for tourism purposes. Firstly, capital
investment from the directly involved tourism industry, like the construction of accommodation, restaurants, leisure
facilities, transports equipment. Secondly, government expenditures support tourism activity, such as tourism
promotion, visitor information and administrative services etc. Thirdly, supply-chain effects of the three economic
sectors that result in a tourism product, including purchases of domestic products and services from tourism
businesses, such as food from local agriculture or arts and crafts. Moreover, the induced impact refers to the
spending by those who are directly or indirectly employed by travel and tourism. Visitors’ expenditures on
accommodation, food and drink, manufactured goods, local transport, entertainment etc. produce economic and
employment benefits in many related sectors in industrialised and developed states setting up opportunities for
development and poverty alleviation85. Of the overall number of jobs worldwide (direct and indirect)86, tourism’s
contribution to employment is estimated in the order of 6%-7%. Against this background, tourism is one of the
largest employment sectors in many countries and swift entry vehicle into the workforce for women, young people
and disadvantaged groups, like ethnic minorities.
The economic side is not the only to favour tourism in low income countries. A lot of characteristics that are
essential for a well-operating tourism industry are given by nature. These mainly constitute subjective impression
from the environment87 that tourists perceive as pleasure or well-being. They include temperate or warm climate,
the aesthetics of landscapes, a well-rounded biodiversity and rich cultural heritage. Nature can particularly be a
trump for rural areas. Against the background that nature can be an obstacle for the economic performance, e.g.
through warm and dry climate in the summer, the tourism branch can profit from these natural features.
Furthermore, tourism is also accessible to the poor because the sector is mostly run by small and medium sized
companies and demand comparatively small investment. Besides, via the tourism sector, consumers get into closer
contact with the local population. This interaction can result in numerous intangible and practical benefits
83 http://www.wttc.org/news-media/news-archive/2012/travel-tourism-larger-industry-automotive-manufacturing/ (retrieved on 14 September
2012)
84 The World Travel & Tourism Council (2012) Travel & Tourism Economic Impact 2012, p. 11
85 UNWTO (2012) UNWTO Tourism Highlights, 2012 Edition, p. 5
86 http://www2.unwto.org/en/content/why-tourism (retrieved on 15 September 2012)
87 http://step.unwto.org/en/content/tourism-and-poverty-alleviation-1 (retrieved on 15 September 2013)
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guaranteeing rising of awareness of cultural, economic and environmental situations and support the local
investment in infrastructure. As a result of these extremely socio-economic positive effects, tourism can play a
crucial role in alleviating poverty and to mitigate the dreadful economic situation of countries. In order to assure
that the poor are able to gain economic benefits on a long-term, the UNWTO recommends arranging strategies in a
twofold way (see following pie charts)
Figure 2: UNWTO’s recommended twofold strategies
First, the left small pie chart symbolises the aim to raise the size and the performance of the tourism sector as a
whole. This can be achieved e.g. by increasing the number of tourists, their duration of stay or the amount of their
expenditures.
Second, the right big pie chart stands for the goal to increase the proportion of expenditures that reaches the poor.
Specific actions that permit and assist the poor in participating in tourism or profit from the sector indirectly can
make a great step forward to realize this aim.
As a matter of fact, the UNWTO has carried out 10 principles for pursuing poverty elimination by means of
tourism in a sustainable way88:
1. All aspects and types of tourism can and should be concerned about poverty alleviation.
2. All governments should include poverty alleviation as a key aim of tourism development and consider
tourism as a possible tool for reducing poverty.
3. The competitiveness and economic success of tourism businesses and destinations is critical to poverty
alleviation – without this the poor cannot benefit.
4. All tourism businesses should be concerned about the impact of their activities on local communities
and seek to benefit the poor through their actions.
88 Quotation: http://step.unwto.org/en/content/tourism-and-poverty-alleviation-1 (retrieved on 15 September 2012)
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5. Tourism destinations should be managed with poverty alleviation as a central aim that is built into
strategies and action plans.
6. A sound understanding of how tourism functions in destinations is required, including how tourism
income is distributed and who benefits from this.
7. Planning and development of tourism in destinations should involve a wide range of interests,
including participation and representation from poor communities.
8. All potential impacts of tourism on the livelihood of local communities should be considered, including
current and future local and global impacts on natural and cultural resources.
9. Attention must be paid to the viability of all projects involving the poor, ensuring access to markets
and maximising opportunities for beneficial links with established enterprises.
10. Impacts of tourism on poverty alleviation should be effectively monitored.
3.3. The power of the ST-EP Initiative
Even if the above mentioned theory outlines effective and sustainable roadmaps how to fight against world poverty;
it has became apparent that the poor population in developing countries often do not benefit from the economic
impact of tourism89. Therefore, the UNWTO, in cooperation with the United Nations Conference on Trade and
Development (UNCTAD), launched the Sustainable Tourism – Eliminating Poverty Initiative (ST-EP Initiative) at
the World Summit on Sustainable Development in Johannesburg (South Africa), hold from 26 August to 4
September 2002. This initiative was a response to the previous United Nations Millennium Summit in 2000 at
which poverty was identified as one of the biggest global challenges and declared as one of the Millennium
Development Goals (MDGs) by the world leaders. The MDGs are a set of comprehensive objectives aiming a
reduction of income poverty, hunger, maternal and child morality, disease, inadequate shelter, gender inequality,
environmental degradation and the Global Partnership for Development90. These goals were officially adopted by
most world leaders to achieve development measured to the respective countries on global and local level. The
existence of the Global Partnership for Development assures the collaboration among the entire international
community in order to make human development accessible for everyone and in every country. If the MDG’s were
achieved in 2015, world poverty would be likely cut by half and tens of millions of lives can be saved.
In this context, the UNWTO launched the ST-EP Initiative as an effective instrument to make a perceptible
contribution to the eight international development goals. In particular, tourism can play an important role for the
MDG 1 (extreme poverty and hunger), MDG 3 (gender equality), MDG 7 (environmental sustainability) and MDG
8 (global partnerships for development).
89 http://step.unwto.org/en/content/background-and-objectives (retrieved on 15 September 2012)
90 http://www.unwto.org/tourism&mdgsezine/, p.3 (retrieved on 15 September 2012)
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On the whole, the ST-EP Initiative concentrates on projects seeking to spur poverty eradication by providing
assistance to sustainable development opportunities and employment91. The special focus lies on people living on
less than US$ 1 a day in the world's least developed countries (notably in Africa) along with developing states in
general92. The primary assessment criterion for any ST-EP project is to fulfil the three pillars of sustainable
development (see Chapter 1). In addition, the UNWTO takes great efforts to intertwine other important and urgent
aspects such as gender equality, social empowerment, protection of biodiversity and conservation of heritage.
Furthermore, the ST-EP initiative is fully committed to protect traditions and culture of native people from
commercial interests. Poor people should not have to impair their own culture to earn their livelihood. There should
be a strong balance between business liberalization and ethical philosophy. Kofi Annan, former UN Secreatry-
General, is firmly convinced that poverty reduction can be reached in a certain period. He said “We will have time
to reach the Millennium Development Goals, but only if we break with business as usual. We cannot win
overnight93." It can be very helpful to sensitize general attitude in regard to sustained actions as a sign of reputation
towards non-sustainable projects.
During the UNWTO’s General Assembly session in Beijing (China) in October 2003, a resolution on the
implementation of the ST-EP programme was unanimously voted by all UNWTO members. On 24 September
2004, the UNWTO set up the international headquarters of the ST-EP Foundation in Seoul (South Korea)
responsible for organizing and administering several ST-EP projects and events. In the aftermath of the
inauguration of the UNWTO ST-EP Foundation, implementation of projects started in 2005 with a training
programme for local guides in the village of Ebogo (Cameroon)94. Since then, projects have swiftly expanded and
are executed in close cooperation between national tourism authorities, local governments, NGOs, development
organizations and tourism companies in the beneficiary countries according to the above mentioned principles.
Meanwhile, the portfolio of projects contains more than 100 projects in a total of 34 developing countries. Already
70 of these projects have been completed and the remaining are being implemented. Projects rank from
development of ecotourism products with local communities in Guatemala to development and promotion of the
Great Himalaya Trail in Nepal with a view to enhance the local economic impact of tourism in the country. In fact,
the projects95 mainly focus the following activities:
1. Easing the engagement of local people in tourism development around cultural and natural heritage sites.
2. Creating business linkages between poor manufacturers and tourism companies
91 UNWTO (2012) Tourism Report 2011, pp. 36-37
92 http://www.unwtostep.org/ (retrieved on 15 September 2012)
93 http://www.iffoundation.org/index.php?fuseaction=section.main&id=3 (retrieved on 16 September 2012)
94 UNWTO (2012) Annual Report 2011, p 42
95 http://www.unwto.org/tourism&mdgsezine/ p. 15 (retrieved on 16 September 2012)
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3. Supplying professional and financial services to small, medium and community-based tourism companies
4. Training local guides and hotel staff
A list of all current projects is included in Annex 4. Half of the ST-EP projects beneficiaries are from Least
Developed Countries (LDCs). All these projects follow a structured concept in the form of seven mechanisms in
order to achieve the aim that the poor are able to make good and sustainable use of tourism96. These seven strategic
lines of action are an important philosophy of the ST-EP initiative and have been widely disseminated and
incorporated in ST-EP projects. In the following, there is an overview on how the poor can benefit from each
mechanism97:
The seven ST-EP mechanisms98:
1. Employment of the poor in tourism enterprises
This mechanism targets to increase the level of the local poor employed in tourism companies. In practice,
the ST-EP initiative supports the poor to develop their own skills and to benefit directly from them. The
UNWTO beliefs that education and job-oriented training are the first step of breaking the vicious cycle of
absolute poverty and reinforces the removal of cultural and social barriers99.
2. Supply of goods and services to tourism enterprises by the poor or by enterprises employing the poor
The poor can also be involved in the supply process. When goods and services from local production are
provided in the tourism supply chain, it can assist in maximising the proportion of tourism expenditures being
retained to local communities. When doing so, traditional rural skills and jobs can better be maintained. These
special identities of local tourism products can help to establish stable sources of business.
3. Direct sales of goods and services to visitors by the poor (informal economy)
This mechanism refers to the direct selling of products and services made by poor people and deliver a
suitable way to earn income. The traditional goods include fruits, handicrafts and guided tours. The ST-EP
initiative places great value on the provision of information to tourists about the concerning local products
and supports likewise the training to local people how their goods meet the quality requirements of their
customers.
96 http://step.unwto.org/en/content/overview-st-ep-activities-0(retrieved on 16 September 2012)
97 http://step.unwto.org/en/content/seven-st-ep-mechanisms (retrieved on 16 September 2012)
98 http://step.unwto.org/en/content/overview-st-ep-activities-0 (retrieved on 16 September 2012)
99 http://www.unwto.org/step/mechanisms/en/ms.php?op=2 (retrieved on 16 September 2012)
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4. Establishment and running of small, micro or community-based tourism enterprises or joint ventures
by the poor (formal economy)
This strand highlights that the poor can set up their own businesses in the tourism area, including
accommodation facilities, catering, guiding and entertainment programmes, retail outlets and transport. The
local people can take their own responsibility offering them opportunities to self-organization.
5. Tax or levy on tourism income or profits with proceeds benefiting the poor
Aside direct work of the poorer classes, revenues earned by national or local governments from tourism can
be used to alleviate poverty. These funds are directed to all poor in general, not only to those who are
specifically engaged in the tourism sector. From another perspective, governments can easily generate money
from the tourism sector by imposing taxes, such as bednight levies and entrance fees for protected areas. The
raised funds can fully or partly be inserted to benefit the local community. However, the ST-EP initiative
emphasises that transparency of the local taxes and consultations with the private sector must be assured in
order to avoid exorbitant taxation levels.
6. Voluntary giving and support by tourists or tourism enterprises
This mechanism refers to tourism companies or tourists themselves that are willing to give voluntary
support in the form of funds. According to a variety of destinations, tourists often feel the pleasure to give a
financial contribution to the destinations they visited. So do companies offering sponsorship for
development initiatives in their professional sectors. In particular, beneficiary projects clearly outlining
efficient and perceptible local influence and community involvement promote the awareness and hence the
willingness to attract sponsorship and visitor support.
7. Investment in infrastructure stimulated by tourism also benefiting the poor in the locality, directly or
through support to other sectors
This mechanism supports the expansion of investment in infrastructure to achieve tourism development.
Examples include communications, roads, sanitation as well as energy and water supply. These
investments require a careful and sustainable planning so that the poor can be supplied with basic services.
Moreover, infrastructure opens up new and swifter routes to access markets, especially for remote or rural
areas. The principal challenge is to guarantee that innovative projects in tourism development do not
consume resources at the expense of resident communities and that the poor have the chance to be
integrated in these projects100.
100 http://www.unwto.org/step/mechanisms/en/ms.php?op=2 (retrieved on 15 September 2012)
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Meanwhile, the ST-EP Initiative has proven to be as a suitable way to eliminate poverty through tourism projects.
Making use of the gained experience, the UNWTO intends to expand the most successful ST-EP projects and apply
the best practises in destinations where the tourism sector can contribute considerably to poverty reduction. For
instance, the UNWTO ST-EP Foundation finished a ST-EP project with the SNV Netherlands Development
Organization in Copán (Honduras) in 2011. This town attracts more than 150,000 tourists per year to visit the
Mayan ruins per year. However, the UNWTO discovered in 2006, that the tourism sector employed only 5% of the
working population101. In order to counterbalance this situation, the two above mentioned organizations did a great
effort, in the framework of a ST-EP project, to create business linkages between 15 local micro-companies and
hotels, such as the Hotel Marina Copán. By providing training courses for the entrepreneurs of the local businesses
and seed funding for the improvement of the product quality, they supported the small local companies to sell their
products to the hotels. As a result, more than 300 people gained a job in the framework of this partnership and the
turnover of the involved businesses has doubled since then.
Another ST-EP initiative was crowned with success in Konso102 (Ethiopia). This small town is full of unique
cultural artefacts. The ST-EP project has established various training courses on tourism awareness, hospitality
management and tour guiding for the local people. A second integrative component of this project has imposed
reasonable marketing strategies and established tourism facilities. All these activities have created numerous jobs,
such as free lancers (local guides), tourism employees (hotels and lodges), and merchants of local products and
services to tourists. Therefore, they receive a higher share from the tourism revenues now.
3.4. Harnessing Tourism for the Millennium Development Goals
At the UN World Summit in New York (USA) taking place on 13 September 2005, the UNWTO convened
different meetings with governments, the private sector, UN agencies and civil society leaders on how to use
tourism most effectively to achieve the MDGs. These discussions culminated in the adoption of the Declaration on
“Harnessing Tourism for the Millennium Development Goals”. The participants noted in the declaration that the
ecologic, economic and social benefits generated by tourism have not yet been enough recognized by numerous
governments and international development assistance agencies103. Therefore, the declaration calls on them to
extend their efforts supporting the tourism sector to introduce greater priority of tourism in development assistance
programmes and poverty alleviation strategies and to promote public-private partnerships and good governance.
101 UNWTO (2012) Annual Report 2011, p. 43
102 http://www.unwto.org/tourism&mdgsezine/ p. 16 (retrieved on 16 September 2012)
103 http://step.unwto.org/sites/all/files/docpdf/declaration.pdf, p. 1 (retrieved on 16 September 2012)
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At the heart of the declaration stands mobility defined as the essential factor to achieve the goal of creating
employment and alleviate poverty. However, mobility has been curbed by security deficiency and increasing fuel
prices affecting air transport. Therefore, the declaration calls on the United Nations General Assembly and urges
governments, international and bilateral development assistance agencies, financial institutions, private
corporations, NGOs and other interested parties to fully recognize sustainable tourism as an effective means to
realize the MDGs and to integrate tourism in their national development programmes and poverty reduction
strategies104. In this context, the declaration also calls on large national and multinational companies to adopt strong
social responsibility measures towards local communities and take specific measures to increase the level of
employment of poor people as well as the supply of goods and services by the poor.
In order to make more progress towards the achievement of the MDGs, the UNWTO and other UN agencies
launched in December 2006 the Millennium Development Goals Achievement Fund (MDG-F)105. In concrete
terms, the MDG-F assists national governments, local authorities and citizen organizations in their striving to
eliminate poverty. In 2011, the UNWTO pursued a total of 11 MDG-F tourism development projects in Ecuador,
Egypt, Honduras, Nicaragua, Panama, Peru, Senegal, Serbia and Turkey. For instance, a MDG-F project in
Nicaragua is attempting to reduce inequality through culture. The Caribbean coast of this country is one of the
poorest regions and home of six different ethnic groups speaking four different languages. The project aims to
reduce the gaps between the indigenous people and the afro-descendants by making them aware of their diverse
cultural heritage and to use it as a tourism resource to receive income and jobs.
As a result, these projects submit evidence that tourism is applicable as an essential means to alleviate poverty.
Firstly, its relative job-intensive nature creates a lot of employment and generates linkages of collaboration with
other economic sectors. Secondly, as travel is the base for tourism, the sector supports the establishment and
extension of infrastructure.
4. Peacekeeping and Cooperation in a multilateral world order
4.1. Tourism Policy in the relation to the Constructivist Theory
With regard to the disciplines of international relations, tourism policy can substantiate the constructivism theory.
Generally, constructivists presume that significant aspects of international relations are historically and socially
contingent rather than having inevitably resulted of human nature or other essential characteristics of world
104 http://step.unwto.org/sites/all/files/docpdf/declaration.pdf, p. 1-2 (retrieved on 16 September 2012)105 UNWTO (2012) Annual Report 2011, p 40
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politics106. Contrary to realism and liberalism that focus on material factors like power or trade, constructivist
theories stress the influence of ideas and how different groups conceive their identities and interests107. In this
respect, constructivists regard the interests and identities of states as highly malleable processes rejecting the idea
that states are entities seeking to survive. They place great value on how ideas and identities are created, how they
evolve and how they shape the way states understand and respond to their situation. In this framework, the scholar
Stephen Walt points out that it matters whether Europeans define themselves primarily in national or continental
terms (…)”108. Furthermore, the constructivist theory presumes that cross-border communication and shared civic
values undermine traditional national loyalties and establish radically new forms of political association. Values
and norms can play a key role in this framework. As a matter of fact, some constructivists argue that international
law and other normative principles have eroded earlier ideas of sovereignty and changed the legitimate purposes for
which state power may be employed.
The defining element of constructivism theory is a focus on discourse. From one perspective, discourses in society
mirror and shape beliefs, interests etc. and establish accepted norms of behaviour. From another perspective,
discourses are capable of shaping how political actors define themselves and their interests, and thus modify
behaviour. Against this backdrop, travel and tourism bring people and decision-makers into closer contact with
different cultures and religions and can promote a better understanding among people. Already Mahatma Gandhi
recognized the mutual understanding that travelling can induce and noted “I have watched the cultures of all lands
around my house and other winds have blown the seeds of peace, for travel is the language of peace”. In a speech
on the subject of “linking cultures” at the World Tourism Day on 27 September 2011, Ban Ki-moon, United
Nations Secretary-General, confirmed tourism’s potential as a tool for peace in connecting communities around the
world, emphasizing the proven interaction between tourism and peace, human rights and understanding”109.
4.2. The Seoul Declaration on Peace and Tourism
Apart from the fact that international peace is at the heart of the United Nations’ mission, the UNWTO stated peace
as a priority in Article 3 of its Statutes: “The fundamental aim of the Organization shall be the promotion and
106Patrick Thaddeus Jackson and Daniel Nexon (2002).Whence Causal Mechanisms? A Comment on Legro Dialogue IO,1,
p. 81-102
107 International Relations: One World, Many Theories, (1998), Stephen M. Walt, Foreign Policy, No. 110, Special Edition: Frontiers of
Knowledge pp. 29-32+34-46
108 Quotation: International Relations: One World, Many Theories, Stephen M. Walt, Foreign Policy, No. 110, Special Edition: Frontiers of
Knowledge (1998), p. 41
109http://www.uni-klu.ac.at/frieden/downloads/Leaflet_Project_Tourism_and_Peace.pdf, p. 1 (retrieved on 18 September 2012)
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development of tourism with a view to contributing to economic development, international understanding, peace,
prosperity (…)110.”
The tourism sector is not only an economic sector but also a kind of human interaction. Since 1980, the UNWTO
has placed the issues “peace” and “mutual understanding” several times on its agendas, highlighting the importance
of tourism as a tool for building peace. The debates resulted in the 2011 Seoul Declaration on Peace and Tourism.
The declaration111 outlines practical principles leading to the promotion of world peace through tourism. It
underlines the need for respecting the unique diversity of cultures, ethical beliefs, histories, ideologies, religions
and the willingness to comply with their respective manners and customs. As tourism advances the intercultural
dialogue and consequently the interest in different points of view, tourism can be used as a means to alleviate
discrimination and to deepen mutual understanding and solidarity across borders. Also, within borders mutual
understanding helps promote acceptance, protection and recognition of the rights of social minorities. Moreover,
the Seoul Declaration on Peace and Tourism emphasises that mutual cooperation drives forward sustainable
development of different cultural, natural and social environments. Especially by exchanging knowledge and
information, the gap between advanced and developing countries in cultural, economic, social and technological
aspects can be bridged.
Numerous regions have shown in the course of time that people from different cultures and religions can live in
harmony together respecting their different attitudes. The town of Kazan112 in Russia sets an appropriate example.
By virtue of its rich history, it is home to religious communities of Sunni Muslims, Christians (Eastern Orthodox,
Catholics, Protestants), Jews and supporters of Bahá'í Faith and Krishnaism (a Hindu sect focussed on the god
Krishna). For hundreds of years, this mosaic of religions has been characterized by peaceful coexistence. The
multi-confessional society is epitomized in the Temple of All Religions113, a master-piece of the architect Ildar
Khanov. Grown up in the atheist Soviet Union, he envisaged the newly declared Russia as a country bringing
together all world religions. The temple serves as a museum and a cultural/spiritual centre in honour of the
religious diversity. Therefore, it is structured in halls representing the 16 major world religions. The construction of
the temple began in 1993 and will never finish – as a sign that religious variety is external. A great majority of
visitors from all over the world are enchanted by the temple’s architecture and welcome its pioneering value.
110 http://dtxtq4w60xqpw.cloudfront.net/sites/all/files/docpdf/unwtostatuteseng.pdf, p. 4 (retrieved on 18 September 2012)
111 Quotation: http://www.traveltimes.co.kr/news/news_tview.asp?idx=23690#.UCtu-6Nft9M
112 http://www.goethe.de/ins/ru/lp/prj/drj/top/wtt/009/kas/deindex.htm (retrieved on 18 September 2012)
113 http://kazanherald.com/2012/03/02/daytrip-temple-of-all-religions/ (retrieved on 18 September 2012)
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During its session on 26 May 2010, the UN Security Council underscored the importance of intercultural
dialogue114 and shared values in terms of global peace and security. Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon argued that
even if it seems that globalization is bringing the world closer together, it would also divide it. He particularly
stressed that extremists make use of incitement and identity-based appeals to recruit followers and that some
politicians had included divisiveness in their election strategy. Ban Ki-moon claimed that many recent problems
were the result of a lack of dialogue. Multicultural enrichment could sometimes appear confusing to people, thus
causing cross-cultural tensions or the impression of injustice. Therefore, the Secretary-General recommended
expanding dialogue as a suitable means to defusing tensions, strengthening moderate voices in controversial
debates, preventing conflicts from escalating and bringing about reconciliation in a case of conflict. He also
emphasised that dialogue is vital for achieving peace in the broadest sense. Ban Ki-moon urged the UN Security
Council to make greater use of intercultural dialogue as an important diplomatic instrument to keep peace. Besides,
the UNESCO has recognized the strong capability of intercultural dialogue in building peace as well and considers
the post-Cold war period as the transition from a war culture to a peace culture115. Tourism can hence work as a
vehicle to stimulate intercultural dialogue and make a great contribution in promoting peace.
4.3. The Global Code of Ethics for Tourism
Tourism as a powerful driving force for peace, human rights and mutual understanding is not only enshrined in the
Seoul Declaration on Peace on Tourism, but is also a fundamental axis in the Global Code of Ethics for Tourism116
(Global Code of Ethics). This is a conceptual roadmap for tourism development containing a comprehensive set of
ten principles whose purpose is to help maximize the sector’s benefits while minimizing its potentially negative
impact on the environment, cultural heritage and societies across the globe. Its function makes clear that the code is
in conjunction with the principles of sustainability. It is based on the fact that tourism is not feasible without
travelling and therefore supports closer contacts between people from different cultures. However, these meetings
raise many ethical queries117. Against this background, the Global Code of Ethics deals with these questions and
recommends how to reconcile tensions between travellers and their host communities. Even if the Global Code of
Ethics is voluntary and not legally binding, it has been widely recognized and implemented by a large number of
governments, stakeholders of the tourism industry, local communities and tourists alike. In fact, all 10 principles
were compiled in collaboration between these parties, approved by the UNWTO General Assembly on 1 October
1999 and endorsed two years later by the UN General Assembly.
114http://www.un.org/apps/news/story.asp?NewsID=34817&Cr=alliance+of+civilizations&Cr1= (retrieved on 18 September 2012)115 http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0010/001018/101803e.pdf, p. 59-61 (retrieved on 18 September 2012)116 http://ethics.unwto.org/en/content/global-code-ethics-tourism (retrieved on 20 September 2012)
117 UNWTO (2011) Facts and Figures. Tourism and Ethics
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The first priority of the Global Code of Ethics refers to the mutual understanding of people being the foundation for
peace. Already the preamble indicates that direct, spontaneous and non-mediatised contacts between people and
societies of different cultures and lifestyles engender friendship and understanding among the people of the
world118 contributing to peace. Article 1 adds that responsible tourism is at the core of understanding and
promoting ethical values in religious, philosophical and moral respects. It describes tourism as an indispensable
factor of self-education, mutual tolerance and acceptance between cultures119.
In this context, the Global Code of Ethics recommends that both stakeholders and tourists should observe the
cultural and social traditions and practices of all peoples, including those of minorities and indigenous peoples and
to appreciate their value120. Tourism activities should be carried out in accordance with the features and traditions
of the host communities respecting their laws, manners and customs. In this framework, host areas and local
professionals should esteem and familiarize themselves with the tourists visiting them, e.g. their lifestyles, tastes
and expectations. The Global Code of Ethics also stresses that a line of other factors can make a large contribution
to a hospitable stay121, including tailor-made education and training for professionals, the respect of gender equality
and human rights as well as the fight against sexual exploitation (especially when applied to children) in
accordance with international law.
Simultaneously, article 1 charges tourists and visitors to acquaint themselves with the characteristics of the
countries even before their departure. They must be aware of the health and security risks within the host areas and
aim to minimize these risks. Furthermore, the Code warns visitors not to commit any act considered criminal
according to the respective laws and avoid any action that is offensive or injurious to the local populations
(including damage to the local environment, trafficking in illicit drugs, arms, antiques, protected species and
products as well as substances that are dangerous or prohibited122). On the level of the host communities, the
Global Code of Ethics declares the protection of tourists and visitors and their belongings as the task of the public
authorities keeping in mind their vulnerability and ensuring their safety. This goal can be achieved by facilitating
the accessibility of specific means of information, prevention, security, insurance and assistance. In conclusion, the
Global Code of Ethics requires authorities to severely condemn and punish attacks, assaults, kidnappings or threats
against tourists or workers in the tourism industry as well as the wilful destruction of tourism facilities or of
elements of cultural or natural heritage. If the work and the endeavours of governments, stakeholders and tourists
118 http://dtxtq4w60xqpw.cloudfront.net/sites/all/files/docpdf/gcetpassportglobalcodeen.pdf, p 2 (retrieved on 20 September 2012)
119 http://ethics.unwto.org/en/content/global-code-ethics-tourism-article-2 (retrieved on 20 September 2012)
120 http://ethics.unwto.org/en/content/global-code-ethics-tourism-article-1 (retrieved on 20 September 2012)
121 http://ethics.unwto.org/en/content/global-code-ethics-tourism-article-2 (retrieved on 20 September 2012)
122 http://ethics.unwto.org/en/content/global-code-ethics-tourism-article-1 (retrieved on 20 September 2012)
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are in compliance with the content of the Global Code of Ethics for Tourism, a big step will be made towards a
sustainable, peaceful and respectful multicultural society.
Nevertheless, policy-makers and tourism stakeholders have not been using the force of tourism as an instrument for
peace to its full potential. This can be ascribed to the lack of a solid knowledge-base in this area. Therefore, the
UNWTO has recently launched a mutual research project with the Centre for Peace Research and Peace Education
of the University of Klagenfurt (Austria) by signing a Memorandum of Understanding on 24 April 2012123. A
Project Team made up of experts and support staff will carry out concrete case studies showing how and under
which conditions tourism can contribute to peacebuilding and conflict prevention as well as resolution and
reconciliation efforts. The project is running until the end of 2013124. The results will lead to concrete
recommendations for all tourism stakeholders outlining their special roles in peacebuilding activities. Moreover,
the findings will also serve their interest in the wider international community including local and national policy-
makers125.” The UNWTO seeks to play an active role in progressing in this area. Taleb Rifai, UNWTO Secretary-
General, emphasized in this context that tourism can be an efficient tool for peace consolidation. It brings people
from all over the world together and allows an exchange of ideas, attitudes and different points of view. According
to him, these discussions are the basis for mutual understanding and tolerance. Cordula Wohlmuther, manager of
this project at the University of Klagenfurt, underlined that, so far, there had not been any empirical studies on that
topic126. She submitted evidence that tourism is particularly suitable as an instrument for peace and regarded
tourists attracted by cultures or ethics as trendsetters that are going to become more and more relevant.
4.4. The Silk Road – a pioneering paradigm for International Tourism Cooperation
Against the background that tourism integrates so many parties, cooperation can play a vital role in peacebuilding
measures bringing together governments, stakeholders etc. from different countries. Mutual multilateral tourism
projects bring benefits to all participants by synergy effects and cross-border business networking.
In terms of Tourism Cooperation, the UNWTO Silk Road Programme represents a milestone in international
cooperation encompassing 25 states extending from Genova (Italy) to Nara (Japan). This initiative is designed to
improve sustainable tourism development along the 12,000 kilometre historic Silk Road route - the greatest
overland route in history and the first “bridge” between Europe and Asia. In the course of many centuries, the Silk
Road was above all traversed by traders (e.g. Marco Polo), nomadic warriors (e.g. Genghis Khan), adventurers and
religiously motivated people (itinerant priests, prophets, pilgrims etc.) that left a large religious pluralism along the
route, namely Buddhism, Christianity, Confucianism, Islam, Hinduism and Zoroastrianism127. In this manner, the
123 http://www.uni-klu.ac.at/main/inhalt/uninews_41554.htm (retrieved on 20 September 2012)124 http://derstandard.at/1336435314848/Tourismus-und-Frieden-Deeskalation-im-Handgepaeck (retrieved on 19 September 2012)125 http://www.uni-klu.ac.at/frieden/downloads/Leaflet_Project_Tourism_and_Peace.pdf (retrieved on 19 September 2012)126
http://www.uni-klu.ac.at/frieden/downloads/Deeskalation_im_Handgepaeck_-_Forschung_Spezial_-_derStandard.pdf (retrieved on 20September 2012)127 http://silkroad.unwto.org/sites/all/files/docpdf/bannerhistorywebsite.pdf (retrieved on 20 September 2012)
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36
Silk Road constitutes a channel of contact between different peoples and cultures. Although most of the travellers
with different backgrounds travelled for commercial reasons (as the name Silk reveals), they swapped ideas on art,
science and philosophy in cities, towns and oases like Bukhara (Uzbekistan), Nara (Pakistan), Samarqand
(Uzbekistan) and Xi’an (China). These ideas from all the great civilizations bordering the Silk Road (Chinese,
Indian, Persian, Roman, Greek, Byzantine, Egyptian and Mesopotamian128) were then passed on again and again.
This can be considered as the greatest cultural exchange in the history of mankind.
The advent of the faster and safer sea trade between Europe and Asia in the late 15th century allowed merchants to
trade their goods directly and without middlemen grabbing a share of the profits along the old land route129. From
this time on, the Silk Road started to fade in importance. In 1993, the UNWTO’s General Assembly raised for the
first time the idea to revive the former Silk Road as a tourism concept, including cultural exchange, trade and
tourism, to achieve a seamless sustainable development from Europe to Asia. The 28 member states are: Albania,
Armenia, Azerbaijan, Bulgaria, China, Croatia, Egypt, Georgia, Greece, Iran, Iraq, Israel, Italy, Japan, Kazakhstan,
Kyrgyzstan, Mongolia, North Korea, Pakistan, Russia, Saudi Arabia, South Korea, Syria, Tajikistan, Turkey,
Turkmenistan, Ukraine and Uzbekistan. In Annex 5, there is a map of the Silk Road. Its richly diverse cultural
heritage and its wealth of natural tourist attractions are the foundation for tourism in this large area. This is notably
important in view of some economically underdeveloped regions characterized by harsh geographical features such
as desserts (e.g. the Gobi dessert), steppes and high mountains. A final adoption of the UNWTO Silk Road
Programme on tourism ensued in the framework of the Declaration on Silk Road Tourism in Samarqand
(Uzbekistan) in 1994. The participating states pursue the goal of maximizing the benefits of tourism development
offering diverse enriching tourism possibilities while stimulating investment and promoting the safeguarding of the
route's natural and cultural heritage130. The areas of cooperation include marketing, product development, tourism
route development, travel facilitation and cross-border initiatives. Concerning the latter, the Silk Road Member
States are currently working towards the introduction of a Silk Road Tourist visa in order to ease travelling within
the member states.
The added value of the Silk Road Tourism Programme is that the numerous countries of the Silk Road can promote
and conserve their immense shared natural and cultural heritage while driving forward sustainability, heritage
preservation in conjunction with the interests of the local communities. Moreover, the Silk Road Programme is one
of the world’s best known multilateral cooperation projects creating collaborative linkages between political
decision-makers and business stakeholders on regional and national levels from a large variety of sectors, such as
128 http://dtxtq4w60xqpw.cloudfront.net/sites/all/files/pdf/introduction_to_the_silk_road_programme.pdf (retrieved on
20 September 2012)
129 http://silkroad.unwto.org/sites/all/files/docpdf/bannerhistorywebsite.pdf (retrieved on 20 September 2012)
130 http://silkroad.unwto.org/en (retrieved on 20. September 2012)
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tourism, education, environment, finance and transport131. All institutions involved collaborate closely with the UN
sister agencies, especially with the UNESCO (culture), the UNWTO (tourism), the UNEP (environment) and the
UNCTAD (investment). Despite this multitude of acting bodies, the cooperation among them is efficiently defined
and organized by means of four key groups being in charge of managing and implementing most of the activities.
The key groups and their tasks are as follows132:
1. World Tourism Organization
•Lead and drive the Silk Road Programme
•Provide a collaborative platform for building alliances
•Coordinate logistics of major events
•Communicate on progress
•Seek and manage donor funding/sponsorship
2. UN Agencies
•Provide expertise and endorsement of Silk Road initiatives
•Galvanise support through networks
•Example institutions: UNESCO, UNDP, UNCTAD, UNEP
•Promote the activities in the context of the UN Millennium Development Goals (MDGs)
3. Silk Road Task Force
•Consists of nominated representatives from National Tourism Organizations, UN agencies and the private sector
•Determine key strategies and actions
•Endorse and drive implementation
•Encourage sharing and exchange of best practices
•Example bodies include: NTOs, private sector stakeholders, finance/investment
4. Silk Road Member States
•Ensure representation and involvement in Silk Road Task Force
•Actively participate in Silk Road Ministers' Summit
•Promote collaboration and cooperation amongst Silk Road Member States in accordance with
Silk Road Programme Objectives
This very clearly structured allocation of responsibilities has allowed to successfully market a great number of
tourism destinations and products referring to the rich heritage. These include a modern silk worm farm in the
131 (UNWTO) SILK ROAD ACTION PLAN 2012/2013 Enhancing collaboration for sustainable tourism development, p. 7-8
132 Qutation: http://silkroad.unwto.org/en/content/who (retrieved on 21 September 2012)
Master of Arts in International Politics (M.A.)
Ronny NatuschN°: 1229Supervisor: Professor André Miroir
38
small Greek town of Soufli133; Egypt’s Red Sea coast offering one of the best scuba diving possibilities world-
wide; the mosques in the caravan city of Bukhara in Uzbekistan, the traditional bazaar in Dushanbe in Tajikistan in
which Silk Road merchants have haggled for centuries and the famous Terracotta Army in the western Chinese city
of Xi’an134. The latest Silk Road Action Plan 2012/2013 contains key strategies and initiatives aiming to improve
the collaboration in order to achieve a more resilient, competitive and sustainable tourism; in particular to make
visitors stay longer and to expand tourism revenues along the Silk Road135. The UNWTO Silk Road Programme is
pursuing the following aims136:
Figure 3: Objectives of the UNWTO Silk Road Programme
Culture holds an elevated position within the Silk Road projects. The Member States have agreed that culture
greatly contributes to keep peace between countries, with the Khiva Declaration on Tourism and the Preservation
of the Cultural Heritage from 21 April 1999 providing a legal basis. In this document, the participants recognize the
close links between culture and tourism and their positive impact on building a Culture of Peace137. The dialogue
between cultures and civilizations plays an important part in reinforcing world peace. International tourism can
bring about a dialogue between civilizations and also an understanding of different cultural, historical and spiritual
values. In the declaration, the participants expressed that demand for cultural tourism is constantly increasing,
133http://www.thatsgreece.com/info/mainland-Evros-Editors-choice-soufli (retrieved on 21 September 2012)
134 UNWTO (2005) Tourism Pearls of the Silk Road, p. 24 / 70
135 http://dtxtq4w60xqpw.cloudfront.net/sites/all/files/docpdf/silkroadactionplanenglishw.pdf, p. 4 (retrieved on 21 September 2012)
136 http://silkroad.unwto.org/en/content/objectives (retrieved on 22 September 2012)
137 http://silkroad.unwto.org/sites/all/files/docpdf/khivadeclaration1999.pdf (retrieved on 22 September 2012)
Master of Arts in International Politics (M.A.)
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39
exceeding the world average growth of tourist flows. Cultural visits can make a great contribution to the
conservation of cultural sites. As a result, the Silk Road Member States are focussing on the dissemination of
cultural tourism, at the same time striving against the devaluation of culture, and condemning excessive
standardization of folklore and handicraft products as well as insufficient respect for local communities.
The world’s largest tourism trade faire, Internationale Tourismus-Börse (ITB) Berlin, taking place in March 2011
organized the first UNWTO Silk Road Ministers’ Summit to make the Silk Road present at the world’s major
tourism fairs, such as WTM London, ITB Berlin and JATA Tokyo, through the implementation of a comprehensive
programme on trade and consumer seminars. All participating Ministers of Tourism along the Silk Road voiced
their support for enhanced online technologies138 and promotion of the Silk Road through the establishment of a
dedicated website (silkroad.unwto.org), a Silk Road Cities Website, social media presence139 (LinkedIn, Twitter,
Flickr and Vimeo) and the creation of a Silk Road promotional clip so that the Silk Road can be better marketed.
The Silk Road Members are also planning to improve their infrastructure, which has been relatively modest up to
now. Furthermore, there are projects on establishing the Maritime Silk Road to accomplish the symbiosis of the
terrestrial, air and maritime Silk Road. New tourism products will be designed in the coming years140. As Japan is
the most important source market for Silk Road tours, they are to be firstly introduced in the Japanese travel
industry. The Silk Road Project demonstrates that states and business stakeholders from 25 countries are able to
cooperate on a foundation of values that promote peace. If states collaborate in this way on a global scale, peace-
keeping efforts will be boosted. Against the background of an increased amount of travel world-wide, an extension
of the economic significance of tourism could not only result in economic growth and poverty alleviation but also
play a major role in international peace consolidation.
5. Tourism in the Global Political Mainstreaming
5.1. The Reform Process within the UNWTO
According to the UNWTO long-term forecast “Tourism Towards 2030”, international tourism has a great growth
potential and could reach 1.8 billion tourists by 2030. This puts pressure on the UNWTO to intensify its activities
in the areas of tourism governance, domestic tourism and employment in this economic sector. Therefore, the
138 http://silkroad.unwto.org/en/news/2011-03-22/unwto-silk-road-ministers-summit-commitment-and-cooperation-establish-powerful-brand
(retrieved on 22 September 2012)
139 UNWTO (2005) Tourism Pearls of the Silk Road, p. 9
140 http://silkroad.unwto.org/en/event/unwto-silk-road-ministers-meeting-itb-berlin-2012-0 (retrieved on 22 September 2012)
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UNWTO General Assembly adopted during its session in Gyeongju (South Korea) from 10-13 October 2011 the
White Paper141“A Reform Process for a More Relevant UNWTO” on proposed reforms within the organization.
This White Paper permits the UNWTO to efficiently respond to the current and approaching challenges. The
reform suggestions concern matters of organization, such as a more regular communication142 between the
UNWTO Secretariat and its members, so that the organization is better prepared to fulfil its responsibilities towards
the MDGs143 and the three main global challenges: poverty alleviation, employment and climate change.
The tourism sector plays a crucial role in meeting these challenges. Even if the UNWTO has recorded great success
in reducing poverty by the clearly structured and efficient ST-EP Initiative with almost 100 finished projects in the
course of the last five years, it still needs an exact evaluation system as well as a driving force to encourage its
expansion and attract more fund sources. Against this background, the UNWTO is planning to tackle this issue in
the near future. With regard to employment, the UNWTO only began in 2009 to work systematically on job
creation in the tourism sector in order to gain economic and social benefits. Meanwhile, the UNWTO has set itself
the target to raise governments’ awareness for the importance of tourism and to reinforce their support of this
sector. Moreover, the sustainable character and principles of the UNWTO have been further developed in the
Climate Change challenge. The organization advocates the stronger implementation of the techniques and
guidelines by private and public tourism stakeholders. For instance, it will take measures to promote its project on
Intelligent Energy Solutions throughout the European Hotel Industry. Mr. Najib Balala, chairman of the UNWTO
Executive Council, has underscored his commitment to work with all member states in order to promote the
tourism agenda globally.
4.2. Tourism high on the international agendas – from T20 to G20
Antonio Tajani, Vice-President of the European Commission and Commissioner for Industry and Entrepreneurship,
believes in the power of tourism to overcome the economic crisis by creating employment, minimizing trade
unbalances and promoting regional development. He considers the current problems as an opportunity for the
European Union to implement necessary reforms and notes “As we face an economic and confidence crisis, all
sectors should contribute to overcome difficulties and tourism can make a significant contribution to this effort144”.
141 http://media.unwto.org/en/press-release/2011-10-14/19th-general-assembly-closes-pledge-strengthen-unwto (retrieved on 24 September
2012)
142 UNWTO (2011) Report on the progress of the reform of the Organization (White Paper), p. 7
143 UNWTO (2011) Report on the progress of the reform of the Organization (White Paper), p. 31
144 http://media.unwto.org/en/press-release/2011-10-27/ministers-tourism-major-world-economies-call-decision-makers-use-tourism-st
(retrieved on 24 September 2012)
Master of Arts in International Politics (M.A.)
Ronny NatuschN°: 1229Supervisor: Professor André Miroir
41
On the international level, the tourism ministers of the major world economies, the so-called T20, have recognised
tourism’s socio-economic key role for the global economy in the context of the current economic constraints and
are emphasising the need for an increased political commitment and support of this sector. At the 3rd T20 Ministers’
Meeting in Paris on 25 October 2011, they passed a declaration calling on G20 decision-makers to recall the
importance and impact of tourism and to keep it high on their agendas. They pointed out that tourism could be an
essential resource in strategy-making processes when debating issues, such as fostering the economy, mounting
challenges and creating jobs145. In this framework, Taleb Rifai emphasised, “Tourism can be part of the solution to
the economic difficulties facing the world. Amid increased economic uncertainty, unacceptably high
unemployment rates and the challenges of fiscal consolidation and increased taxation in many economies, it is time
for us to recall the role tourism can have in increasing exports, driving economic growth and creating jobs“. On the
subsequent T20 Meeting on “Tourism as a means for job creation” in Yucatán and Merida on 15-16 May 2012, the
UNWTO and the WTTC presented their preliminary research stating that a total of 656 million international
tourists visited G20 countries in 2011. Among the world’s fastest growing source markets are the BRIC-States of
which ca. 109 million tourists (17%) required a visa and millions more were limited in travelling because of high
costs or long waiting time for visas. This is the reason why the T20 ministers are convinced that visa facilitation
can substantially increase tourism revenues and create millions of new jobs in the G20 economies. They estimate
that visa facilitation could generate up to 112 million additional international tourists by 2015, increase tourism
revenues by US$ 206 billion and create approximately 5.1 million additional jobs during the next three years within
the G20 countries146. In this context, the Merida Declaration notes that in the era of globalisation states are able to
drive travel and tourism as an economic activity forward while maintaining national security.
Furthermore, the declaration contains proposals for the world's largest economies to promote the elimination of
visas, the creation of regional visas and eased immigration procedures. In this way, states are encouraged to make
use of new technologies, such as electronic visa processing and delivery, to make travelling more accessible and
comfortable without jeopardizing national security. Moreover, cross-border travel facilitation arrangements
guarantee benefits for the travellers who are able to move more freely and for the host regions because of tourism
revenues. Due to these facts, not only G20 Member States but other countries as well are encouraged to improve
visa programmes and issuance processes without compromising security, to facilitate travel and to increase tourism
and job creation. David Scowsill, WTTC President & CEO, stressed “By facilitating visas, the G20 countries stand
to gain five million jobs at a time of rampant unemployment across the world. These are in addition to the hundreds
of millions of direct and indirect jobs already being supported every day by the sector147.”
145 http://www2.unwto.org/sites/all/files/pdf/111025-t20-declaration-en.pdf, p. 2 (retrieved on 24 September 2012)
146 http://dtxtq4w60xqpw.cloudfront.net/sites/all/files/pdf/final_declaration_t20_merida.pdf, p.2 (retrieved on 25 September 2012)
147 http://media.unwto.org/en/press-release/2012-06-20/g20-recognizes-travel-tourism-driver-economic-growth-first-time-and-commits
(retrieved on 25 September 2012)
Master of Arts in International Politics (M.A.)
Ronny NatuschN°: 1229Supervisor: Professor André Miroir
42
Besides, the T20 strongly recommends the G20 to fully recognize the role of tourism as a vehicle for employment,
global economic growth and poverty elimination148. The G20 reacted to the declaration of its tourism ministers and
set the issue on the agenda of its summit in Los Cabos (Mexico) on 18-19 June 2012. The declaration had a huge
success. For the first time, the G20 leaders recognized the importance of travel and tourism as a driver of jobs,
growth and global economic recovery149. In Article 25 of the G20 Leaders’ Declaration, the G20 acknowledged the
potential of tourism and expressed its commitment to work towards travel facilitation initiatives including visa
processes and entry formalities150.
As destinations worldwide are seeking to stimulate travel demand under pressing economic conditions, the
UNWTO and the WTTC have identified travel facilitation as a main priority in 2012. In this respect, the UNWTO
is urging governments around the world to make efforts in advancing travel facilitation as well as in enhancing visa
application and processing formalities, e.g. the duration of visa issuance151. It also recommends analysing the
possible influence of travel facilitation in increasing their tourism economies. Taleb Rifai explained, “Travel
facilitation is closely interlinked with tourism development and can be a key in boosting demand. This area is of
particular relevance in a moment in which governments are looking to stimulate economic growth but cannot make
major use of fiscal incentives or public investment152”.
4.3. Obama’s commitment to Travel Facilitation
Although the USA is not a member of the UNWTO, US President Barack Obama appreciates the positive effects of
tourism and wants to promote travel facilitation in order to create employment and boost economic growth in the
USA. He intends to achieve this aim by implementing the necessary measures to improve and speed up visa and
foreign visitor processing153. Although the USA ranks first in the world in terms of international tourism receipts
(US$ 104 billion in 2010 including foreign exchange from tourism), its share of global international tourism
earnings has nevertheless decreased from 17% in 2000 to 11% in 2010. This decline is widely ascribed to the travel
restrictions following the 11 September 2001.
148 http://dtxtq4w60xqpw.cloudfront.net/sites/all/files/pdf/final_declaration_t20_merida.pdf, p.3 (retrieved on 25 September 2012)
149 http://media.unwto.org/en/press-release/2012-06-20/g20-recognizes-travel-tourism-driver-economic-growth-first-time-and-commits
(retrieved on 25 September 2012)
150 http://media.unwto.org/en/press-release/2012-06-20/g20-recognizes-travel-tourism-driver-economic-growth-first-time-and-commits
(retrieved on 25 September 2012)
151 http://media.unwto.org/en/press-release/2012-01-16/international-tourism-reach-one-billion-2012 (retrieved on 26 September 2012)
152 Quotation: http://media.unwto.org/en/press-release/2012-01-16/international-tourism-reach-one-billion-2012 (retrieved on 26 September
2012)
153 http://media.unwto.org/en/press-release/2012-01-20/unwto-joins-industry-voices-support-obama-s-move-facilitate-travel (retrieved on 26September 2012)
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Ronny NatuschN°: 1229Supervisor: Professor André Miroir
43
By and large, the tourism sector plays a substantial role for US GDP and employment representing 2.7% of GDP
and 7.5 million jobs in 2010. International tourist arrivals support about 1.2 million jobs. If the USA increased its
share of the international travel market, over 1 million jobs could be created during the following decade.
Therefore, the USA is now about to elaborate new strategies to better promote it as an attractive tourism destination
and improve simultaneously secure visa processing. President Obama lays great importance on tourism and said,
“Every year, tens of millions of tourists from all over the world come and visit America. And the more folks who
visit America, the more Americans we get back to work. We need to help businesses all across the country grow
and create jobs; compete and win. That’s how we’re going to rebuild an economy where hard work pays off, where
responsibility is rewarded, and where anyone can make it if they try”154.
The number of tourists from emerging economies with growing middle classes – such as Brazil, China and India –
is estimated to grow. According to the US Department of Commerce, tourists from these three countries
contributed about $15 billion and thousands of jobs to the US economy in 2010. Chinese and Brazilian tourists
spend on average more than $ 6,000 and $ 5,000 respectively each per journey. Therefore, the State Department has
made great steps in processing non-immigrant visas from these states allowing them to issue over 7.5 million visas
in the past fiscal year, a growth of 17% from the previous fiscal year. In 2011, consular officers authorised over one
million visa applications in China and over 800,000 in Brazil due to the significant economic growth in these
countries.
The Secretaries of Commerce and the Interior are charged with co-leading an interagency task force to elaborate
recommendations for strategies to favour travel opportunities throughout the USA. As Eco-tourism and outdoor
recreation are extremely important for rural economies in the USA, the Department of the Interior manages
destinations in national parks, wildlife refuges, cultural and historic sites that attract national and international
travellers. Moreover, the Department of State and the Department of Homeland Security are responsible for
increasing non-immigrant visa processing capacity in Brazil and China by 40% in 2012. They have established a
pilot programme to simplify and optimize the non-immigrant visa process for very low-risk applicants, e.g.
individuals from any country renewing non-immigrant visas. In 2008, the Department for Homeland Security also
created the programme “Global Entry” in order to ease expedited clearance for pre-approved and low-risk tourists
upon arrival in the USA. This programme is now to be permanent. Meanwhile, more than 246,000 travellers have
participated in the Global Entry programme. Expanding enrolment will make the programme available for roughly
97% of international travellers at airports.
154http://www.whitehouse.gov/the-press-office/2012/01/19/we-can-t-wait-president-obama-takes-actions-increase-travel-and-tourism-
(retrieved on 26 September 2012)
Master of Arts in International Politics (M.A.)
Ronny NatuschN°: 1229Supervisor: Professor André Miroir
44
At present, over 60% of international tourists does not need a US visa because they have the opportunity to travel
with a Visa Waiver Program that enables them to travel to the USA for tourism or business purposes at a duration
of 90 days without having obtained a visa. This programme encourages travel and tourism in the USA and
stimulates the tourism industry. For instance, Taiwan has made considerable efforts to meet the requirements of the
Department for Homeland Security e.g. by enhancing its law enforcement and its document security standards. In
the meantime, 36 countries are part of the Visa Waiver Program155.
Taleb Rifai supports this commitment: “Complicated, lengthy and overpriced entry formalities are making it
extremely difficult for tourists, especially from emerging economies which are leading growth in terms of outbound
markets, to travel156.” He adds “obstacles such as burdensome visa processes are not just a barrier to travellers but
to growth, job creation and free trade.” Therefore, Rifai called at the ITB Travel Trade Show on 6 March 2012 in
Berlin on the tourism sector to unite around the issue of travel facilitation as a means to stimulate demand and
create jobs. “Travel facilitation must top our agenda and we must speak together on this if we are to be heard at the
highest level of decision-making. It is in the belief that UNWTO has joined the voices of the sector such as the
WTTC, the International Air Transport Association (IATA), the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO)
and the World Economic Forum (WEF), to advance this important issue.”
5.4. The Global Leaders for Tourism Campaign
Despite its growing relevance for the global economy, peace and development, tourism has been given short shrift
on the economic and political level. In order to mainstream the items of travel and tourism to the global political
debates, the UNWTO and the WTTC have joined forces and established the Global Leaders for Tourism Campaign
in 2011157. They are pursuing the common goal to position tourism as a priority in the global agenda by enhancing
the general understanding of the importance of tourism to the socio-economic development of the world
community. Both organizations have jointly drawn up an Open Letter to Heads of State and Government
worldwide. With their signature, the heads of state confirm their recognition of the significance of the tourism
sector in responding to the current global challenges.
The first country to sign was Mexico on 17 May 2011. President Felipe Calderón encouraged an intensive
collaboration across the Mexican ministries and departments to support the tourism sector. He declared, “For
155 http://www.whitehouse.gov/the-press-office/2012/01/19/we-can-t-wait-president-obama-takes-actions-increase-travel-and-tourism-,
(retrieved on 15 September 2012)
156 http://media.unwto.org/en/press-release/2012-03-05/one-billion-tourists-key-creating-jobs-and-stimulating-economy-unwto-secret
(retrieved on 26 September 2012)
157 http://leadersfortourism.unwto.org/ (retrieved on 26 September 2012)
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Ronny NatuschN°: 1229Supervisor: Professor André Miroir
45
Mexico, tourism is a national priority and a political priority. It is an essential activity for promoting growth and
raising living standards (...)158”. The National Agenda for Tourism has reflected the full support of both the public
and the private sector and contains ways how tourism can achieve its full potential. President Calderón has a very
ambitious vision seeking to make Mexico a privileged destination for international tourism. In this context, the
country hopes to make great steps in regional development in the near future.
On 17 October 2011, Malaysia joined the Global Leaders for Tourism Campaign with the wish to transform the
country into a high-income state by 2020. The Malaysian Prime Minister Najib Razak emphasised the crucial role
of tourism on the way to achieve this aim, which plays a vital part in the national Economic Transformation
Programme. In 2011, the tourism sector contributed 5% of the GDP to the Malaysian economy and was responsible
for 1.6 million jobs or 13.8% of total employment159. Therefore, the tourism sector is seen as one of the twelve
National Key Economic Areas to make Malaysia a high-income nation. The Malaysian Government pursues a large
variety of strategies to use tourism as a means to speed up Malaysia’s medium-term growth. The national
marketing slogan “Malaysia Truly Asia” constitutes an allusion to the microcosm of Asia and the capability of this
sector to bring people from different cultures into closer contact. The Prime Minister promised Mr. Rifai to
“become an ambassador for world tourism”.
Another member of the Global Leaders for Tourism Campaign is Kenya. Tourism plays an essential role for the
national economic welfare. In 2010, Kenya received 1.5 million tourists generating US$ 700 million. This amount
assured national income, employment (10% of the work force), the expansion of infrastructure (including hospitals,
roads and schools) and benefitted above all the poorer classes of the population160. Aside the socio-economic
welfare and poverty alleviation, Kenya highlights the force of tourism to keep peace. The Kenyan Minister of
Tourism, Najib Balala, articulated, “Tourism can bring tolerance and understanding among different cultures and
can contribute to a better living standard". The President, Mwai Kibaki, added “We see and value tourism as one of
the greatest avenues through which the people of the world are able to sample the varied cultures and natural
attributes that are to be found globally161 (...)”. Against the background that the WTTC expect rising demand from
international tourists for cross-border travel in Africa, David Scowsill proposed President Kibaki to take a
leadership role in the efforts to promote tourism in the East African Region, especially in the areas of favouring
open access for airlines, common visas and joint marketing.
158 http://media.unwto.org/en/press-release/2011-05-20/president-calderon-mexico-first-join-unwtowttc-global-campaign-value-travel(retrieved on 28 September 2012)159 http://media.unwto.org/en/press-release/2011-10-19/prime-minister-malaysia-tourism-key-country-s-economic-transformation (retrievedon 28 September 2012)160
http://media.unwto.org/en/press-release/2011-06-27/kenyan-president-mwai-kibaki-highlights-tourism-s-cultural-benefits-upon-jo(retrieved on 28 September 2012)161 http://media.unwto.org/en/press-release/2011-06-27/kenyan-president-mwai-kibaki-highlights-tourism-s-cultural-benefits-upon-jo
(retrieved on 28 September 2012)
Master of Arts in International Politics (M.A.)
Ronny NatuschN°: 1229Supervisor: Professor André Miroir
46
In the aftermath of the election of Mohamed Morsi as new President of Egypt on 24 June 2012, he expressed his
support for the tourism sector as a major pillar in the national economy in his first speech: “We will work together
to encourage investment in all sectors, and restore the role of tourism for the benefit of the Egyptian economy and
every citizen in Egypt162.” Egypt has been a member of the Global Leaders for Tourism Campaign since 29 May
2011. The tourism sector represents one of the main sources for foreign exchange and covers one in every seven
jobs so that the government is fully committed to harness tourism in the recovery process after the Arab Spring.
The Egyptian Prime Minister, Essam Sharaf, describes tourism as a lifeline for the Egyptian economy163.
The most recent member of the Global Leaders for Tourism Campaign is Argentina. For the past decade,
international tourist arrivals in the country have almost doubled. As a result, Argentina is the most visited
destination in South America. Hence, the tourism sector makes a great contribution to the national economy and
through its socio-economic impact to regional development. Cristina Fernández de Kirchner, President of
Argentina, puts great value on the tourism sector in her political development strategies. In 2010, she established
the first Ministry of Tourism in Argentina. After having signed the Open Letter on 28 August 2012, she denoted
economic development, social inclusion and conservation of heritage as the three cornerstones of the national
tourism policy. She stressed her ambitions: “We are driven by the vision of becoming South America’s tourism
destination of reference for our diversity and quality of supply, based on the balanced development of the habitats
and identities of our people164.”
Mexico, Malaysia, Kenya, Egypt and Argentina are only five examples that demonstrate the importance of tourism
for the above mentioned key challenges: economic growth, poverty alleviation and peacekeeping. Since 2011, the
following states have been members of the Campaign165: Mexico, South Africa, Kazakhstan, Hungary, Burkina
Faso, Indonesia, Kenya, Mozambique, Armenia, Romania, China, Croatia, Ireland, South Korea, Malaysia,
Colombia, Azerbaijan, Brunei, Gambia, Serbia, Philippines, Seychelles, Tunisia, Greece, Vietnam, Thailand,
Myanmar, Zambia, Jamaica, Peru, Bahrain, Moldova, Mongolia and Argentina.
162 http://media.unwto.org/en/press-release/2012-07-04/unwto-welcomes-new-egyptian-president-s-support-tourism (retrieved on 28
September 2012)
163 http://media.unwto.org/en/press-release/2011-05-31/tourism-key-economic-recovery-egypt (retrieved on 28 September 2012)
164 http://media.unwto.org/en/press-release/2012-08-30/tourism-makes-vital-contribution-economy-argentina-says-president (retrieved on 28September 2012)165 http://www.wttc.org/activities/leaders-for-tourism/ (retrieved on 26 September 2012)
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6. Outlook and Conclusions
6.1. Forecasts of the UNWTO
According to the UNWTO long-term forecast “Tourism Towards 2030”, the organisation assumes that the great
global tourism boom will remain in full swing in the approaching years. The UNWTO predictions expect the
tourism sector to continue to grow but at a more moderate speed in comparison with the previous years166: from
4.2% per year (1980-2020) to 3.3% (2010-2030). The slower pace can be ascribed to four main reasons167:
1. the base volumes are higher, so that increases are proportionally smaller
2. lower GDP (as economies mature)
3. lower elasticity of travel to GDP
4. a shift from falling transport costs to increasing ones due to higher prices for energy
However, the growth will be on a sustainable and inclusive base. Furthermore, the UNWTO presumes an average
increase of 43 million additional tourists every year going up from one billion168 at the end of 2012 to 1.8 billion
international tourist arrivals by 2030. This would mean that 5 million tourists per day cross borders for business,
leisure or different purposes. Emerging economies in Africa, Asia, Central and Eastern Europe, the Middle East
and Latin America will probably record a growth of 50% more international arrivals (+4.4% a year) than advanced
ones. This would result in ca. 30 million more arrivals per year in emerging countries. This growth could already
start in 2015 and account for 58% of all international arrivals in 2030. Even if all regions are expected to benefit,
Africa, Asia and the Pacific and the Middle East are supposed to grow more strongly than Europe and the
Americas. The UNWTO assumes North East Asia (16% of total arrivals) and Southern and Mediterranean Europe
(15% of total arrivals) the most visited subregions in the world.
Almost similar to those assumptions, the strongest source markets in 2030 could be Asia and the Pacific (+17
million tourists a year) and Europe (+16 million tourists a year). The remaining tourism flows would originate from
the Americas (+ 5 million), Africa (+ 3 million) and the Middle East (+ 2 million).
166 http://media.unwto.org/en/press-release/2011-10-11/international-tourists-hit-18-billion-2030 (retrieved on 27 September 2012)
167 Quotation: http://dtxtq4w60xqpw.cloudfront.net/sites/all/files/pdf/unwto_2030_ga_2011_korea_1.pdf, p. 18 (retrieved on
27 September 2012)
168 http://media.unwto.org/en/press-release/2012-09-12/international-tourism-track-hit-one-billion-end-2012 (retrieved on
27 September 2012)
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Taleb Rifai holds the opinion that the next 20 years will be characterized by continued economic growth, social
progress and environmental sustainability169. This tremendous growth will be interlinked with challenges regarding
maximizing socio-economic benefits while minimizing the negative impact of tourism for the society and the
environment. This requires national tourism policies interlinked with the business environment, infrastructure,
travel facilitation, marketing and human resources, which should take into account the principles of sustainable
development.
6.2. Conclusions
Economically speaking, the beginning of the 21st century has been marked by economic constraints triggered by the
Financial Crisis. In contrast to the global economic downturn, tourism has continued to grow at a remarkable rate
throughout the world. This demonstrates the high value of travelling for leisure, business and other purposes in our
globalized society. In fact, the large volume of investment for goods and services spent by tourists has allowed the
tourism sector to emerge as a key economic activity. It can be assumed that tourism is as old as civilisation.
However, steadily increasing income, the right to paid holidays and the improvements of transportation technology
have favoured continuous growth in the tourism sector. However, the upswing in tourism also means a rise in
challenges and potential threats to the environment and local communities. Therefore, tourism must be geared to
sustainability so that each tourism activity targets economic prosperity, social equity and environmental protection.
Never before has the tourism sector played such an outstanding role. In 2011, a total of 990 million tourists spent
US$ 1.2 trillion. This accounts for roughly 5% of worldwide GDP and 30% of the world’s exports of services. In
terms of international exports, tourism ranks fourth after fuels, chemicals and food. These figures submit evidence
that the tourism sector constitutes a driving force for the international economic well-being not only in advanced
but also in emerging and developing countries. In comparison to other economic branches, tourism requires less
capital and know-how to work successfully. Natural features, such as a mild climate, scenic beauty and cultural
values, evoke subjective impressions and desires that incite people to travel. Furthermore, the tourism sector is
relatively job-intensive and employed 255 million of the global work force. Thanks to its service-based character,
tourism generates strong collaboration linkages to the primary, secondary and tertiary sectors. Therefore, tourism
stimulates simultaneously the job-creating process in different sectors (e.g. agriculture, textiles production and
infrastructure) of the global economy. These so-called multiplier effects together with the contribution to the global
GDP have become an important factor for economic growth and general prosperity.
169 http://media.unwto.org/en/press-release/2011-10-11/international-tourists-hit-18-billion-2030 (retrieved on 25 September 2012)
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Developing countries can benefit from the positive socio-economic effects of tourism using them to alleviate
poverty. The UNWTO plays a vital role in this respect as it has elaborated ten principles recommending how to
eliminate poverty in a sustainable manner. UNWTO’s ST-EP Initiative supports tourism projects which include job
creation for the poor and their integration into the tourism economy. The initiative also foresees tax breaks for
tourism income, profits that favour the poor, donations as well as investment in infrastructure. With its
commitment, the UNWTO makes great steps towards the accomplishment of the Millennium Development Goals
that are to be achieved by 2015. In order to provide a coherent framework for its objectives, the UNWTO adopted
in 2005 the declaration on “Harnessing Tourism for the Millennium Development Goals” calling on governments
around the world to take advantage of tourism as a suitable instrument to eradicate poverty. In addition, the
UNWTO has also set up the Millennium Development Goals Achievement Fund to assist governments and citizen
organisations in fighting poverty. As a result, UNWTO’s engagement in the global poverty alleviation process
through the tourism industry has made a significant contribution to mitigate income disparities in poor countries.
As tourism brings people from different ethnic, cultural and religious backgrounds into closer contact, it promotes
intercultural dialogue and respect for different attitudes and mentalities. Therefore, tourism can help in keeping
global peace. According to the constructivism theory, cross-border communication and shared civic values can
contribute to replace traditional narrow-mindedness. Values, norms and discourses shape beliefs and can thus alter
behaviour. The UNWTO acknowledges this theory which is notably reflected in the Seoul Declaration on Peace
and Tourism as well as in the Global Code of Ethics for Tourism recommending how tourists and hosts should
behave to ensure peaceful interaction. In this context, trans-border cooperation in the tourism area can be an
excellent means to promote international understanding. One of the most striking examples is the UNWTO Silk
Road Programme that enables 25 countries from Italy to Japan to cooperate peacefully and generate economic
benefits for all participants. The Programme comprises a vast cooperation network between the UNWTO, many
UN agencies and multiple stakeholders from the private and the public sectors in its member states. Because of the
large number of participants, the Silk Road project has a clearly structured task segregation which enables an
efficient and sustainable work. This kind of cross-border cooperation on various levels can build closer ties
between institutions, policy-makers and individuals from different countries, increasing mutual understanding and
helping to keep peace in the 21st century.
Being aware of the great significance of the tourism sector at present, the UNWTO intends to put greater emphasis
on poverty alleviation, job creation and reducing the effects of climate change. In 2011, it adopted a White Paper
on an institutional reform within the organization as well as between the UNWTO and its members. The UNWTO
is also trying to place tourism issues high on the political agendas because of its potential for economic growth,
poverty eradication and peacekeeping. In this framework, the tourism ministers of the major world economies
(T20) have called on the G20 decision-makers to take the socio-economic importance of tourism into consideration,
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especially against the background of the current financial and economic crisis. On the G20 summit on
18-19 June 2012, the G20 leaders recognized for the first time the importance of tourism as a driver for
employment, growth and global economic recovery. Likewise, US President Obama has underlined the importance
of tourism by making it a priority for all departments of the US government and by easing travel through visa
facilitation.
In spite of these developments, tourism still lacks political recognition on an international scale. This is why Taleb
Rifai, Secretary-General of the UNWTO, and David Scowsill, President and CEO of the WTTC, have established
in 2011 the Global Leaders for Tourism Campaign that provides a platform for countries wishing to promote
international tourism. The initiative aims at raising awareness of tourism’s potential for economic growth, poverty
alleviation and peacekeeping world-wide. In the framework of the campaign, Egypt has stressed that it counts on
tourism for its economic recovery after the turmoil of the Arab Spring. Kenya has underscored that tourism can
help build peace while Mexico seeks to use tourism to decrease the national poverty rate.
To conclude, tourism definitely has a great potential to contribute to economic stability, peace and development on
a global scale. It is one of the few economic sectors that have continued to grow during the recent financial crisis.
Tourism is labour-intensive and can thus generate a lot of employment. It tends to stimulate economic activities in
other sectors as well. Furthermore, as tourism does not rely so much on industry and infrastructure, it can be made
to work relatively easily in developing countries. Tourism also presents a unique opportunity for people from
different cultures to meet and make friends. Mutual understanding, closer ties and economic interdependence will
have a positive effect on international cooperation and peacekeeping. However, tourism on a global scale is a
relatively recent phenomenon and political leaders have not yet grasped its huge potential for development. That is
why the UNWTO makes great efforts to raise awareness worldwide, e.g. via the Global Leaders for Tourism
Campaign. However, tourism requires a certain openness which is in conflict with the security concerns of many
states. Another danger of tourism is that, if not properly managed, it may spoil the very beauty that attracted the
travellers in the first place. The UNWTO has therefore emphasized the importance of sustainability for tourism at
the dawn of the 21st century.
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Annex 1
List of the 155 Member States of the UNWTO
1. Afghanistan
2 Albania
3 Algeria
4 Andorra
5 Angola
6 Argentina
7 Armenia
8 Australia
9 Austria
10 Azerbaijan
11 Bahamas
12 Bahrain
13 Bangladesh
14 Belarus
15 Benin
16 Bhutan
17 Bolivia
18 Bosnia and Herzegovina
19 Botswana
20 Brazil
21 Brunei Darussalam
22 Bulgaria
23 Burkina Faso
24 Burundi
25 Cambodia
26 Cameroon
27 Cape Verde
28 Central African Republic
29 Chad
30 Chile
31 China
32 Colombia
33 Congo
34 Costa Rica
35 Côte d'Ivoire
36 Croatia
37 Cuba
38 Cyprus
39 Czech Republic
40 Democratic People's Republic of Korea
41 Democratic Republic of the Congo
42 Djibouti
43 Dominican Republic
44 Ecuador
45 Egypt
46 El Salvador
47 Equatorial Guinea
48 Eritrea
49 Ethiopia
50 Fiji
51 France
52 Gabon
53 Gambia
54 Georgia
55 Germany
56 Ghana
57 Greece
58 Guatemala
59 Guinea
60 Guinea-Bissau
61 Haiti
62 Honduras
63 Hungary
64 India
65 Indonesia
66 Iran, Islamic Republic of
67 Iraq
68 Israel
69 Italy
70 Jamaica
71 Japan
72 Jordan
73 Kazakhstan
74 Kenya
75 Kuwait
76 Kyrgyzstan
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77 Lao People's Democratic Republic
78 Latvia
79 Lebanon
80 Lesotho
81 Liberia
82 Libyan Arab Jamahiriya
83 Lithuania
84 Madagascar
85 Malawi
86 Malaysia
87 Maldives
88 Mali
89 Malta
90 Mauritania
91 Mauritius
92 Mexico
93 Monaco
94 Mongolia
95 Montenegro
96 Morocco
97 Mozambique
98 Myanmar
99 Namibia
100 Nepal
101 Netherlands
102 Nicaragua
103 Niger
104 Nigeria
105 Norway
106 Oman
107 Pakistan
108 Panama
109 Papua New Guinea
110 Paraguay
111 Peru
112 Philippines
113 Poland
114 Portugal
115 Qatar
116 Republic of Korea
117 Republic of Moldova
118 Romania
119 Russian Federation
120 Rwanda
121 San Marino
122 Sao Tome and Principe
123 Saudi Arabia
124 Senegal
125 Serbia
126 Seychelles
127 Sierra Leone
128 Slovakia
129 Slovenia
130 South Africa
131 Spain
132 Sri Lanka
133 Sudan
134 Swaziland
135 Switzerland
136 Syrian Arab Republic
137 Tajikistan
138 Thailand
139The Former Yugoslav Republic ofMacedonia
140 Timor-Leste
141 Togo
142 Tunisia
143 Turkey
144 Turkmenistan
145 Uganda
146 Ukraine
147 United Republic of Tanzania
148 Uruguay
149 Uzbekistan
150 Vanuatu
151 Venezuela
152 Viet Nam
153 Yemen
154 Zambia
155 Zimbabwe
2. Associate Members:
1. Aruba
2. Flemish Community of Belgium
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3. Hong Kong, China
4. Macao, China
5. Madeira, Portugal
6. Puerto Rico
3. Observers170:
1. Palestine
2. Vatican
170http://www2.unwto.org/en/members/states (retrieved
on 28 September 2012)
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Annex 2
List of the World’s Top Destinations in International Tourism Arrivals171
171 https://s3-eu-west-1.amazonaws.com/storageapi/sites/all/files/pdf/international_tourism_by_region.pdf (retrieved on 28September 2012)
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Annex 3
List of the World’s Top Destinations in International Tourism Receipts172
172 http://dtxtq4w60xqpw.cloudfront.net/sites/all/files/pdf/worlds_top_destinations_pr_27.pdf (retrieved on28 September 2012)
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Annex 4
Overview of the ST-EP Projects173
Country/Region Project Title
1. Europe
AlbaniaKorca Region Tourism Destination Development and Management Programme
Sustainable Tourism Legislation
2. The Americas
Bolivia
Improving of Local Guiding Services in San Javier and Concepcion
Small and Medium Enterprise Development in Rurrenabaque
Strengthening Community-based Tourism
Strengthening Rural Community-based Tourism and Commercial Management to Consolidate the IncaTrail (Qhapac-Nan Project)
Colombia Sustainable Community-based Tourism Development in Providence Island
Ecuador
Competitiveness and Enterprise Management for the Strengthening of Community-based Tourism(FEPTCE Network)
Fostering Rural Community-based Tourism and Inclusive Business within the Framework of EffectiveDestination Management along the Inca Trail (Qhapac-Nan Project)
Fostering Sustainable Tourism through the Development of Inclusive Business in Galapagos Islands
Local Tourism Planning for the Consortium of Provincial Governments (CONCOPE)
New Technologies for Communication and Competitiveness for Tourism Microenterprises (TICProject)
Sustainable Tourism in Protected Areas
Tourism Micro-Enterprises, Micro-Credit and Poverty Reduction (MET Project)
Tourism, Poverty Reduction and the MDGs (PLANDETUR 2020)
Guatemala
The Coffee Route in Quiche and Verapaces (Phase I)
The Coffee Route in Quiche and Verapaces (Phase II)
Development of Community-based Tourism Destinations
Honduras
Connecting Local Tourism Products and Services with the Marina Copan Hotel in Copan Ruinas
Establishing Linkages between Garifunas' Small Businesses and the Bahia de Tela "Los Micos Beach& Golf Resort"
Sales Increase through the Innovation of Culinary Culture
Nicaragua
Commercializing Rural Community-based Tourism
Connecting Local Food Providers with Larger Entrepreneurs in Mainstream Destinations
Strengthening Rural Community-based Tourism (RENITURAL Network)
Volcano and Lake Route in Solentiname
Peru
Knowledge Exchange on Community-based Rural Tourism
Strengthening Rural Community-based Tourism in Aypate within the Framework of EffectiveDestination Management along the Inca Trail (Qhapac-Nan Project)
Strengthening Rural Community-based Tourism in Puno within the Framework of EffectiveDestination Management along the Inca Trail (Qhapac-Nan Project)
173 http://www.unwtostep.org/index.asp (retrieved on 28 September 2012)
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Sustainable Development for the Families of La Encantada
Sustainable Tourism and Birdwatching at Luichupucro
4. Africa
Burkina Faso Development of a Community-based Tourism Complex in Bazoule
Burkina Faso /Benin / Niger
Tourism Development Strategic Plan for Park W
CameroonDevelopment of a Network for Promotion and Capacity Building for Running Bird Watching Tours
Sustainable Community-based Tourism and Private Enterprise Development in Ebogo
Ethiopia
Chencha-Dorze Tourism and Handicrafts Development Project
Ecotourism Development in Bale Mountains National Park
Konso Community Tourism Project
Pro-Poor Tourism Business Linkages with Accommodation Providers
Ghana
Development of Eco-Cultural Tourism in Butre and Dixcove
Development of Local Market Linkages in Tourism Supply Chain and Community-based TourismEnterprises Capacity for Poverty Reduction in the Western Region
Savannaland Destination Tourism Programme
Guinea Ecotourism Development in Sangareah in the Dubreka Region
Kenya
Business Case for Wildlife Conservation in Kasigau Community
Enhanced Market Access for Community-based Tourism Products
The Kitengela Footbridge Project
Enhancement of Local Employment in Amboseli Tourism Destination through the Creation of aPioneer Vocational Tourism Training School
3. Asia and Oceania
Bhutan Sustainable Tourism Law
CambodiaMekong Discovery Trail and Tourism Development Master Plan for Kratie Town
Mekong Discovery Trail
China Tourism and Handicraft Production in Guizhou Province
Lao PDR
Canopy Walkway and Zip-line: A New Tourist Attraction at Phou Khao Khouay in BolikhamsayProvince
Capacity Building in Conservation Planning and Management in Viengxay District
Tourism Planning and Promotion for Viengxay Caves
Tourism Law Implementation
Upgrading Local Facilities to Promote Community-based Elephant Tourism and Nature Conservationin the Hongsa District
Village-based Tourism Development Ban Kandone and Ban Tahin
Voices of Viengxay
Lao PDR/ Vietnam /Nepal
Research on Multi-stakeholder Collaboration in Sustainable Tourism
NepalGreat Himalaya Trail Development in West Nepal : Linking Formal and Informal Enterprises toTourism Markets to Reduce Poverty
Vietnam
Development of Handicraft Villages in Ha Tay Province
Promoting Pro-Poor Sustainable Tourism for Livelihood Improvement and Biodiversity Conservationin Coastal Tam Giang Lagoon, Thua Thien Hue Province
Tourism Law Implementation
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Madagascar Development of Community-based Ecotourism in the Anjozorobe-Angavo Protected Area
Mali
Creation of a Network for Responsible Tourism
Expanding Ecotourism Activities: Agricultural Supply to Hotels in Sangha, Ecotourism Promotion inSiby and Guide Training in Mopti, Djenne, Sangha and Siby
Health Protection for Female Artisans in Djenne
Strengthening the Capacities of Tourism Stakeholders at Douentza and d'Hombori within theFramework of Ecotourism Development and Promotion of the Elephants of Gourma
MozambiqueCommunity-based Lodges Training Programme
Supporting Platform for Inhambane ST-EP Tourism Initiatives
RwandaGuidelines for Community-based Tourism
Congo-Nile Trail
SenegalStrengthening Sustainable and Responsible Tourism in Saint Louis and Louga
Responsible Tourism Promotion in Saint Louis and Louga
South Africa Pro-Poor Tourism Leadership and Empowerment Training to Pondoland Community Trust
Southern Africa Marketing Support for Community-based Tourism (RETOSA Network)
Tanzania
Cultural Tourism Enhancement and Diversification Programme
Pangani-Saadani Coastal Protection
Uluguru Mountains Ecotourism Project
West Africa
Multidestination Marketing Programme for Benin , Burkina Faso , Ghana , Mali , Niger , Senegal andTogo
Network of Cross-Border National Parks and Protected Areas in 9 Countries: Benin, Gambia, Guinea,Guinea Bissau, Mali, Mauritania, Niger, Senegal and Sierra Leone
Zambia Village Action for Sustainable Tourism
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Annex 5
Network of the Members of the Silk Road Programme174
174http://silkroad.unwto.org/en/content/member-states (retrieved on 28 September 2012)
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8. Bibliography
8.1. Tables and Figures
Title Figure: Visas – a deterrent to international travel (Title)URL: http://visasblog.y-axis.com/wp-content/uploads/2012/06/international-tourism.jpg(retrieved on 2 September 2012)
Figure 1: Key numbersURL: http://www2.unwto.org/en/content/why-tourism (retrieved on 12 September 2012)
Table 1: Total tourism revenues by regionURL: UNWTO (2012) Tourism Highlights 2012
Figure 2: UNWTO’s recommended twofold strategiesURL: http://step.unwto.org/en/content/tourism-and-poverty-alleviation-1 (retrieved on15 September 2012)
Figure 3: Objectives of the UNWTO Silk Road ProgrammeURL: http://silkroad.unwto.org/en/content/objectives (retrieved on 26 September 2012)
Figure 4: Network of the Members of the Silk Road ProgrammeURL: http://silkroad.unwto.org/en/content/member-states (retrieved on 26 September 2012)
8.2. List of Literature
8.2.1. Books and Documents
Beaver, Allan (2002). A Dictionary of Travel and Tourism Terminology. Wallingford: CAB
International. ISBN 0-85199-582-9
Éditions Nathan (2006) Le tourisme en France. CLERC S.A. ISBN 2.09.183127.1
Fleet Kate, Krämer Gudrun, Matringe Denis, Nawas John, Rowson Nawas, Rowson Everett, (2007)
Encyclopaedia of Islam, Three. E. J. Brill. ISBN 90-04-09738-4
Hug, Prof. Dr. Wolfgang (1990) Geschichtliche Weltkunde. Verlag Moritz Diesterweg GmbH.
ISBN 3-425-03318-2
Hug, Prof. Dr. Wolfgang (1991) Geschichtliche Weltkunde. Verlag Moritz Diesterweg GmbH.
ISBN 3-425-03317-4
Jackson, Patrick Thaddeus and Nexon, Daniel (2002)Whence Causal Mechanisms? A Comment
on Legro Dialogue IO 1
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Manoj Kumar Agarwal, Rudra Prasad Upadhyay (2006). Tourism and Economic Development in
Nepal. Northern Book Centre. ISBN: 0-8172-1117-38
Profanter, Annemaire (2009) Kulturen im Dialog, Peter Lang GmbH Internationaler Verlag der
Wissenschaften. ISBN: 978-3-631-59374-5
Theobald, William F. (1998). Global Tourism (2nd ed.). Oxford [England]: Butterworth-Heinemann.
ISBN 0-7506-4022-7
UNWTO (1980) Manila Declaration on World Tourism
UNWTO (1994). Recommendations on Tourism Statistics. ISBN 978-92-116-1362-9
UNWTO (1995). Concepts, Definitions, and Classifications for Tourism Statistics, Technical Manual
No. 1. ISBN 978-92-844-0103-1
UNWTO (2005) Tourism Pearls of the Silk Road
UNWTO (2010). Recommendations on Tourism Statistics. ISBN 978-92-1-161521-0
UNWTO (2011) Fact and Figures. Tourism and Sustainability
UNWTO (2011) Facts and Figures. Tourism and Ethics#
UNWTO (2011) Facts and Figures. Tourism and Poverty Reduction
UNWTO (2011) Facts and Figures. Tourism in the Green Economy
UNWTO (2011) Report on the progress of the reform of the Organization (White Paper)
UNWTO (2012) Annual Report 2011
UNWTO (2012) UNWTO Tourism Highlights 2012
Walt, Stephen M. (1998) International Relations: One World, Many Theories, Foreign Policy,
No. 110, Special Edition: Frontiers of Knowledge
World Travel & Tourism Council (2012) Travel & Tourism Economic Impact 2012
8.2.2. World Wide Web
About Roma – Guide of Rome; The Roman EmpireURL: http://www.aboutroma.com/history-of-rome/roman-empire.html (retrieved on8 September 2012)
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Alexander Technological Educational Institute of Thessaloniki and the Technical University of Crete,Greece; Global Swot AnalysisURL: http://www.stepc.gr/_docs/library_docs/GLOBAL_SWOT_Analysis_TOUREG.pdf, (retrievedon 9 September 2012)
Algeria Press Service; Over 700 tourism projects in progress nationallyURL: http://www.aps.dz/Over-700-tourism-projects-in.html (retrieved on 12 September 2012)
Algeria Press Service; Promoting destination Algeria, a priority by 2030URL: http://www.aps.dz/Promoting-destination-Algeria-a.html (retrieved on 12 September 2012)
BBC; The impact of mass tourism in SpainURL: http://www.bbc.co.uk/learningzone/clips/the-impact-of-mass-tourism-in-spain/1569.html(retrieved on 9 September 2012)
Buddhist Tourism; Four Holy Sites in BuddhismURL: http://www.buddhist-tourism.com/four-holy-sites.html (retrieved on 28 August 2012
derStandard; Deeskalation im HandgepäckURL: http://derstandard.at/1336435314848/Tourismus-und-Frieden-Deeskalation-im-Handgepaeck(retrieved on 19 September 2012)
DESHNAF; Travel HistoryURL: http://www.deshnaf.net/travel-history/ (retrieved on 28 August 2012)
Docstoc; Document & Resources for Small Businesses & Professionals, 1. Principle of TourismURL: http://www.docstoc.com/docs/72406452/1-Principle-of-Tourism(retrieved on 2 September 2012)
European Commission; Tourism in the EU27 Record number of nights spent in hotels in the EU27 in2011 Nights spent by non-residents up by 7%URL:http://europa.eu/rapid/pressReleasesAction.do?reference=STAT/12/13&format=HTML&aged=1&language=EN&guiLanguage=en (retrieved on 12 September 2012)
Gyr, Ueli. EGO European History Online; The History of Tourism: Structures on the Path toModernityURL: http://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/europe-on-the-road/the-history-of-tourism (retrieved on9 September 2012)
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International Faith-Based Foundation, Inc.URL: http://www.iffoundation.org/index.php?fuseaction=section.main&id=3 (retrieved on 16September 2012)
Master of Arts in International Politics (M.A.)
Ronny NatuschN°: 1229Supervisor: Professor André Miroir
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Lunn-Rockliffe, Sophie. BBC; Christianity and the Roman EmpireURL: http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/ancient/romans/christianityromanempire_article_01.shtml(retrieved on 8 September 2012)
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Trading Economics; Spain Government BudgetURL: http://www.tradingeconomics.com/spain/government-budget (retrieved on 13 September 2012)
Master of Arts in International Politics (M.A.)
Ronny NatuschN°: 1229Supervisor: Professor André Miroir
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UN Documents: Gathering a Body of Global Agreements; Our Common Future, Chapter 2: TowardsSustainable DevelopmentURL: http://www.un-documents.net/ocf-02.htm (retrieved on 9 September 2012)
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UNWTO; G20 recognizes Travel & Tourism as a driver of economic growth for the first time andcommits to work on travel facilitationURL: http://media.unwto.org/en/press-release/2012-06-20/g20-recognizes-travel-tourism-driver-economic-growth-first-time-and-commits (retrieved on 25 September 2012)
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Ronny NatuschN°: 1229Supervisor: Professor André Miroir
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UNWTO; International tourists to hit 1.8 billion b 2030URL: http://media.unwto.org/en/press-release/2011-10-11/international-tourists-hit-18-billion-2030(retrieved on 27 September 2012)
UNWTO; Kenyan President Mwai Kibaki highlights tourism’s cultural benefits upon joiningUNWTO/WTTC Global Leaders CampaignURL: http://media.unwto.org/en/press-release/2011-06-27/kenyan-president-mwai-kibaki-highlights-tourism-s-cultural-benefits-upon-jo (retrieved on 28 September 2012)
UNWTO; Khiva Declaration on Tourism and the Preservation of the Cultural HeritageURL: http://silkroad.unwto.org/sites/all/files/docpdf/khivadeclaration1999.pdf (retrieved on 22September 2012)
UNWTO, Ministers of Tourism of major world economies call on decision-makers to use tourism tostimulate the economyURL: http://media.unwto.org/en/press-release/2011-10-27/ministers-tourism-major-world-economies-call-decision-makers-use-tourism-st (retrieved on 24 September 2012)
UNWTO; One billion tourists key to creating jobs and stimulating the economy – UNWTO Secretary-GeneralURL: http://media.unwto.org/en/press-release/2012-03-05/one-billion-tourists-key-creating-jobs-and-stimulating-economy-unwto-secret, (retrieved on 13 September 2012)
UNWTO; President Calderón of Mexico first to join UNWTO/WTTC global campaign on the value oftravel and tourismURL: http://media.unwto.org/en/press-release/2011-05-20/president-calderon-mexico-first-join-unwtowttc-global-campaign-value-travel (retrieved on 28 September 2012)
UNWTO; Prime Minister of Malaysia: tourism key to country’s economic transformationURL: http://media.unwto.org/en/press-release/2011-10-19/prime-minister-malaysia-tourism-key-country-s-economic-transformation (retrieved on 28 September 2012)
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UNWTO Silk Road Programme; Short Introduction to the Silk Road ProgrammeURL: http://silkroad.unwto.org/sites/all/files/docpdf/bannerhistorywebsite.pdf, (retrieved on 20September 2012)
Master of Arts in International Politics (M.A.)
Ronny NatuschN°: 1229Supervisor: Professor André Miroir
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UNWTO; Statutes of the World Tourism OrganizationURL: http://dtxtq4w60xqpw.cloudfront.net/sites/all/files/docpdf/unwtostatuteseng.pdf, (retrieved on18 September 2012)
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UNWTO; Tourism and Poverty Alleviation; Background and ObjectivesURL: http://step.unwto.org/en/content/background-and-objectives (retrieved on 14 September 2012)
UNWTO; Tourism and Poverty Alleviation; Overview of ST-EP ActivitiesURL: http://step.unwto.org/en/content/overview-st-ep-activities-0 (retrieved on 16 September 2012)
UNWTO; Tourism and Poverty Alleviation; The Seven MechanismsURL: http://www.unwto.org/step/mechanisms/en/ms.php?op=2 (retrieved on 16 September 2012)
UNWTO; Tourism and Poverty Alleviation; The Seven ST-EP MechanismsURL: http://step.unwto.org/en/content/seven-st-ep-mechanisms (retrieved on 16 September 2012)
UNWTO; Tourism and the Millennium Development GoalsURL: http://www.unwto.org/tourism&mdgsezine/ (retrieved on 15 September 2012)
UNWTO; Tourism key to the economic recovery of EgyptURL: http://media.unwto.org/en/press-release/2011-05-31/tourism-key-economic-recovery-egypt(retrieved on 28 September 2012)
UNWTO; Tourism makes vital contribution to economy of Argentina says PresidentURL: http://media.unwto.org/en/press-release/2012-08-30/tourism-makes-vital-contribution-economy-argentina-says-president (retrieved on 28 September 2012)
UNWTO; Tourism towards 2030URL: http://dtxtq4w60xqpw.cloudfront.net/sites/all/files/pdf/unwto_2030_ga_2011_korea_1.pdf(retrieved on 27 September 2012)
UNWTO; UNWTO joins industry voices in support of Obama’s move to facilitate travelURL: http://media.unwto.org/en/press-release/2012-01-20/unwto-joins-industry-voices-support-obama-s-move-facilitate-travel (retrieved on 26 September 2012)
UNWTO; UNWTO Silk Road Ministers’ Meeting at ITB Berlin 2012URL: http://silkroad.unwto.org/en/event/unwto-silk-road-ministers-meeting-itb-berlin-2012-0(retrieved on 22 September 2012)
UNWTO; UNWTO Silk Road Ministers’ Summit: Commitment and cooperation to establish apowerful brandURL: http://silkroad.unwto.org/en/news/2011-03-22/unwto-silk-road-ministers-summit-commitment-and-cooperation-establish-powerful-brand (retrieved on 22 September 2012)
Master of Arts in International Politics (M.A.)
Ronny NatuschN°: 1229Supervisor: Professor André Miroir
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UNWTO; UNWTO welcomes new Egyptian President’s support for tourismURL: http://media.unwto.org/en/press-release/2012-07-04/unwto-welcomes-new-egyptian-president-s-support-tourism (retrieved on 28 September 2012)
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UNWTO; Why Tourism?URL: http://www2.unwto.org/en/content/why-tourism (retrieved on 15 September 2012)
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UNWTO / University of Klagenfurt; Tourism and PeaceURL: http://www.uni-klu.ac.at/frieden/downloads/Leaflet_Project_Tourism_and_Peace.pdf, (retrievedon 18 September 2012)
Willamette University; Fordism, Post-Fordism and the flexible system of productionURL: http://www.willamette.edu/~fthompso/MgmtCon/Fordism_&_Postfordism.html (retrieved on9 September 2012)
WTTC; Leaders for TourismURL: http://www.wttc.org/activities/leaders-for-tourism/ (retrieved on 26 September 2012)
WTTC; Marketing is not the only answer for UK tourism, says WTTCURL: http://www.wttc.org/news-media/news-archive/2012/marketing-not-only-answer-uk-tourism-says-wttc/ (retrieved on 13 September 2012)
WTTC; Travel & Tourism larger industry than automotive manufacturingURL: http://www.wttc.org/news-media/news-archive/2012/travel-tourism-larger-industry-automotive-manufacturing/ (retrieved on 14 September 2012)
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