exploring psychology (7th edition in modules) david myers powerpoint slides aneeq ahmad henderson...

EXPLORING PSYCHOLOGY(7th Edition in Modules)

David MyersPowerPoint Slides

Aneeq AhmadHenderson State University

Worth Publishers, © 2008

Information Processing

Module 21

MemoryThe Phenomenon of Memory

Studying Memory: Information Processing Models

Encoding: Getting Information In How We Encode What We Encode

Memory

Storage: Retaining Information Sensory Memory Working/Short-Term Memory Long-Term Memory Storing Memories in the Brain

Memory

Retrieval: Getting Information Out Retrieval Cues

Memory

Memory is the basis for knowing your friends, your neighbors, the English language, the

national anthem, and yourself.

If memory was nonexistent, everyone would be a stranger to you; every language foreign; every task new; and even you yourself would

be a stranger.

The Phenomenon of Memory

Memory is any indication that learning has persisted over time. It is our ability to store

and retrieve information.

Studying Memory: Information Processing Models

Keyboard(Encoding)

Disk(Storage)

Monitor(Retrieval)

Sequential Process

Information ProcessingThe Atkinson-Schiffrin (1968) three-stage model of memory includes a) sensory memory, b) short-

term memory, and c) long-term memory.

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Modifications to the Three-Stage Model

• Some information skips the first two stages and enters long-term memory automatically.

• Since we cannot focus on all the sensory information received, we select information that is important to us and actively process it into our working memory.

Working Memory

A newer understanding of short-term memory that involves conscious, active processing of

incoming auditory and visual-spatial information, and of information retrieved from

long-term memory

Encoding: Getting Information In

How We Encode

1. Some information (route to your school) is automatically processed.

1. However, new or unusual information (friend’s new cell-phone number) requires attention and effort.

Automatic ProcessingWe process an enormous amount of information effortlessly, such as the

following:

1. Space: While reading a textbook, you automatically encode the place of a picture on a page.

2. Time: We unintentionally note the events that take place in a day.

3. Frequency: You effortlessly keep track of things that happen to you.

Effortful Processing

Committing novel information to memory requires effort just like learning a concept from

a textbook. Such processing leads to

durable and accessible memories.

Spencer Grant/ Photo Edit

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Rehearsal

Effortful learning usually requires

rehearsal or conscious repetition.

Ebbinghaus studied rehearsal by using nonsense syllables: TUV YOF GEK XOZ

Hermann Ebbinghaus(1850-1909)

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w.isbn3-540-21358-9.de

Rehearsal

The more times the nonsense syllables were

practiced on Day 1,the fewer repetitions

were required to remember them on Day

2.

Memory Effects

• Spacing Effect: We retain information better when we rehearse over time.

• Serial Position Effect: When your recall is better for first and last items on a list, but poor for middle items.

What We Encode

• Encoding by meaning• Encoding by images• Encoding by organization

Encoding Meaning

Processing the meaning of verbal information by associating it with what we already know or imagine. Encoding meaning (semantic encoding) results in better recognition later than visual or

acoustic encoding.

Visual Encoding

Mental pictures (imagery) are a powerful aid to effortful processing, especially when

combined with semantic encoding.

Showing adverse effects of tanning and smoking in a picture may be more powerful than simply talking about it.

Both photos: H

o/AP Photo

Mnemonics

Imagery is at the heart of many memory aids. Mnemonic techniques use vivid imagery and

organizational devices in aiding memory.

Break down complex information into broad concepts and further subdivide them into

categories and subcategories.

Organizing Information for Encoding

1. Chunking2. Hierarchies

Chunking

Organizing items into a familiar, manageable unit. Try to remember the numbers below.

1-7-7-6-1-4-9-2-1-8-1-2-1-9-4-1

If you are well versed with American history, chunk the numbers together and see if you can recall them better. 1776

1492 1812 1941.

Chunking

Acronyms are another way of chunking information to remember it.

HOMES = Huron, Ontario, Michigan, Erie, Superior

ROY G. BIV = Red, Orange, Yellow, Green, Blue, Indigo, Violet

Hierarchy

Complex information broken down into broad concepts and further subdivided into

categories and subcategories.

Encoding Summarized in a Hierarchy