figure 7.1a skull thoracic cage (ribs and sternum) (a) anterior view facial bones cranium sacrum...

Figure 7.1a

Thoracic cage(ribs andsternum)

(a) Anterior view

Facial bonesCranium

Sacrum

Vertebralcolumn

ClavicleScapulaSternumRibHumerusVertebraRadiusUlnaCarpals

PhalangesMetacarpalsFemurPatella

TibiaFibula

TarsalsMetatarsalsPhalanges

Ch. 7 The Skeleton

Skeletal System

• Composed of bones, cartilage, joints, and ligaments

• Accounts for 20% of body mass• 30 lbs in a 160 lb person• Bones – most of skeleton• Cartilage – isolated areas – nose, parts of ribs,

joints• Ligaments – connect bones and reinforce joints• Joints – allow for motility

Axial Skeleton

• 80 bones segregated into 3 major regions• Skull, vertebral column, and thoracic cage• Forms:

1. Longitudinal axis of body2. Supports head, neck, and trunk3. Protects brain, spinal cord, and organs of the

thorax

• Body’s most complex bone structure• Formed by cranial and facial bones – 22 in all• Cranium – cranial bones• Enclose and protect the brain• Attachment sites for head and neck muscles

• Facial Bones 1. Form framework of the face2. Contain cavities for special sense organs –

sight, taste, and smell3. Provide openings for air and food passage4. Secure the teeth5. Anchor facial muscles of expression

• Bones• Most are flat bones except for mandible• firmly united by interlocking joints – sutures• Major sutures –

1. Coronal2. Sagittal3. Squamous4. lambdoid

Figure 7.2a

Bones of cranium (cranial vault)

Lambdoidsuture

Facialbones

Squamoussuture

(a) Cranial and facial divisions of the skull

Coronalsuture

Skull - Overview

• Lopsided, hallow, bony sphere• Anterior – facial bones• Rest – cranium• Cranium – divided into vault and base• Cranial vault – calvaria – forms superior, lateral, and

posterior aspects• Cranial base or floor – inferior aspect - internal bony

ridges – anterior, middle, and posterior cranial fossae• Brian fits in snuggly

Figure 7.2b

Anterior cranialfossa

Middle cranialfossa

Posterior cranialfossa

(b) Superior view of the cranial fossae

Skull - Overview

• Smaller cavities – – Middle and inferior ear– Nasal cavities and orbits

• 85 names openings – – Formina– Canals– Fissures, Etc.

• Passageway for spinal cord, blood vessels, and cranial nerves (I-XII)

Cranium

• 8 bones• 1. Frontal Bone – anterior cranium• Articulates posteriorly with paired parietal bones via – coronal

suture• Anterior part – vertical squamous part – forehead• Extends posteriorly forming superior walls of orbits and most

of anterior cranial fossa – supports frontal lobes of the brain• Subraorbital margin – pierced by supraorbital forman (notch)

which allows artery and nerve to pass to forehead• Smooth portion between orbits – glabella• Just inferior – meets nasal bones at frontonasal suture• Frontal sinuses

Figure 7.4a

(a) Anterior view Mandibular symphysis

Frontal bone

GlabllaFrontonasal suture

Supraorbital foramen(noch)Supraorbital margin

Cranium

2. Parietal Bones• 2 large bones• Curved, rectangular bones form most of the superior

and lateral aspects• Bulk of the cranial vault• 4 largest sutures where parietal bones articulate

1. Coronal suture – parietal meets frontal2. Sagittal suture – parietals meets superiorly3. Lambboid suture – parietal meets occipital posteriorly4. Squamous suture – parietal and temporal meet at lateral

aspect

Figure 7.4a

Parietal bone

Cranium

3. Occipital Bone• Forms most of skulls posterior wall and base• Articulates anteriorly with paired parietal and

temporal – lambdoid and occipitomastoid sutures

• Joins sphenoid bone in cranial floor• Projection – pharyngeal tubercle

Occipitalbone

(a) External anatomy of the right side of the skull

Figure 7.5a

Cranium

3. Occipital Bone• Internally – forms walls of posterior cranial fossa –

supports cerebellum• Base – foramen magnum – through which brain

connects with spinal cord• Flanked laterally by 2 occipital condyles – aciculate with

first vertebrae – permits nodding• Hypoglossal canal – cranial nerve XII passes• External occipital protuberance – median protrusion• Other ridges and crests mark bones

Occipitalbone

Figure 7.5a

Cranium

4. Temporal Bones – • Line inferior to parietal bones and meet them

at squamous sutures• Form inferolateral aspects of skull and part of

the cranial floor• Complicated shape – 4 major areas (regions)• Squamous, mastoid, tympanic, and petrous

Temporal bone

Figure 7.5a

Cranium

4. Temporal Bones – • Squamous Region – abuts squamous suture• Bar like zygomatic process – meets zygomatic

bones of the face• Form zygomatic arch – projections of cheek• Mandibular fossa – receive lower jawbone –

forms temporomandibular joint

Figure 7.8

Mastoidregion

Externalacousticmeatus

Mastoidprocess

Styloid process

Tympanic region

Mandibular fossa

Zygomatic process

Squamousregion

Cranium

4. Temporal Bones – • Tympanic region – surrounds external acoustic

meatus – external ear canal• Below- needle like styloid process –

attachment for tongue and neck muscles

Figure 7.8

Mastoidregion

Mastoidprocess

Styloid process

Tympanic region

Mandibular fossa

Zygomatic process

Squamousregion

Cranium

4. Temporal Bones – • Mastoid Region – mastoid process – anchoring

site for neck muscles• Stylomastoid foramen – allow cranial nerve VII

to leave skull• Middle cranial fossa – sphenoid and petrous• Supports temporal bones of brain

Carinum

4. Temporal Bones – • Several foramen - jugular vein and cranial

nerves IX, X, XI• Carotid canal – carotid artery• Foramen lacerum – closed by cartilage in living

room• Internal acoustic meatus – cranial nerves VII &

Figure 7.8

Mastoidregion

Mastoidprocess

Styloid process

Tympanic region

Mandibular fossa

Zygomatic process

Squamousregion

Cranium

5. Sphenoid Bone – bat shaped• Spans width of middle cranial fossa• Central wedge – articulates with all the other

cranial bones• Central body and 3 pairs of processes

• Greater wings, lesser wings, and pterygoid processes

• With in the body – paired sphenoid sinuses

Figure 7.9a

Greaterwing

Hypophysealfossa ofsella turcica

ForamenrotundumForamenovaleForamenspinosumBody of sphenoid

Superiororbital fissure

(a) Superior view

Optic canalLesser wing

Figure 7.9b

Body of sphenoid

Greaterwing

Superiororbitalfissure

Lesserwing

Pterygoidprocess

(b) Posterior view

Cranium

6. Ethmoid Bone – complex shape• Lies between sphenoid and nasal bones• Superior surface – cribriform plates• Crista galli – triangular processes• Perpendicular plate – part of nasal septum• Lateral mass – ethmoid sinuses

Figure 7.10

Orbitalplate

Ethmoidalair cells

Perpendicularplate Middle nasal concha

Cribriformplate

Olfactoryforamina

Crista galli

Left lateral mass

Cranium

7. Sutural Bones – • Thin irregularly shaped bones with in sutures• Vary in numbers• Not in all skulls• Unknown significance

Figure 7.4b

Suturalbone

7. Sutural Bones – • Thin irregularly

shaped bones with in sutures

• Vary in numbers• Not in all skulls• Unknown

significance

Facial Bones

• 14 bones • Only mandible and vomer unpaired• Men – more elongated than women• Women – rounder and less angular

Facial Bones - Mandible

• Lower jawbone• Longest and strongest• Forms chin• 2 upright rami – meet body posterior at

mandibular angle• Top groove – notch• Body – anchors lower teeth

– Alveolar margin – contains sockets where teeth are embedded

Figure 7.11a

Coronoidprocess

Mandibular foramen

Mentalforamen

Mandibularangle

Ramusofmandible

Mandibularcondyle

Mandibular notch

Mandibular fossaof temporal bone

Body of mandible

Alveolarmargin

(a) Mandible, right lateral view

Temporomandibularjoint

Facial Bones – Maxillary Bones

• Maxillae• Fused medially • Form upper jaw and central portion of face• Upper teeth – alveolar margins

Figure 7.11b

Frontal process

Articulates withfrontal bone

Anterior nasalspine

Infraorbitalforamen

Alveolarmargin

(b) Maxilla, right lateral view

Orbitalsurface

Zygomaticprocess(cut)

Figure 7.4a

Zygomatic bone

(a) Anterior view

Irregularly shapedCheek bone and part of inferolateral margins of orbits

Facial Bones – Nasal Bones

• Thin, rectangular, bridge of nose• Attach to cartilage of external nose

Figure 7.5a

Nasal bone

Thin, rectangular, bridge of noseAttach to cartilage of external nose

Facial Bones – Nasal Bones

Figure 7.4a

Lacrimal bone

(a) Anterior view

Delicate, fingernail shapedContribute to medial walls of each orbitDeep grove – lacrimal fossa – allows tears to drain

Facial Bones – Lacrimal Bones

Facial Bones – Palatine Bones

• 2 bony plates – horizontal and perpendicular• 3 processes – pyramidal, sphenoidal, and

orbital• Horizontal plate – hard palate• Perpendicular – walls of nasal cavity and small

part of orbits

Figure 7.6a

Incisive fossa

Median palatine sutureIntermaxillary suture

Infraorbital foramenMaxilla

Sphenoid bone(greater wing)

Maxilla(palatine process)

Hardpalate

(a) Inferior view of the skull (mandible removed)

Palatine bone(horizontal plate)

Figure 7.6a

Incisive fossa

Median palatine sutureIntermaxillary suture

Infraorbital foramenMaxilla

Sphenoid bone(greater wing)

Maxilla(palatine process)

Hardpalate

(a) Inferior view of the skull (mandible removed)

Palatine bone(horizontal plate)

• Slender, plow shaped

• In nasal cavity and small part of orbit

Figure 7.14a

Inferior nasalconcha

Nasal bone

Thin, curved bones in nasal cavity Wall of nasal cavity

Inferior Nasal Conchae

Hyoid Bone

• Not really part of skull

• U shaped• Inferior to mandible

in anterior neck• Does not articulate

directly with any other bone

• Horseshoe shaped

The Vertebral Column

• Spine or spinal column• 26 irregular bones connected in a flexible

curved shape• Skull pelvis• Infant – 33 bones • Adult – 9 fuse 24 bones

Figure 7.16

Cervical curvature (concave)7 vertebrae, C1–C7

Thoracic curvature(convex)12 vertebrae,T1–T12

Lumbar curvature(concave)5 vertebrae, L1–L5

Sacral curvature(convex)5 fused vertebrae sacrum

Coccyx4 fused vertebrae

Anterior view Right lateral view

Spinousprocess

Transverseprocesses

Intervertebraldiscs

Intervertebralforamen

• Regions – • ~ 70 cm long (28 inches)• 5 major regions

1. Cervical region (7)2. Thoracic region (12)3. Lumbar region (5)4. Sacrum5. coccyx

• Curvatures - • cervical and lumbar curvatures – concave

posteriorly• Thoracic and sacral – convex posteriorly

Figure 7.16

Cervical curvature (concave)7 vertebrae, C1–C7

Thoracic curvature(convex)12 vertebrae,T1–T12

Lumbar curvature(concave)5 vertebrae, L1–L5

Sacral curvature(convex)5 fused vertebrae sacrum

Coccyx4 fused vertebrae

Anterior view Right lateral view

Spinousprocess

Transverseprocesses

Intervertebraldiscs

Intervertebralforamen

Abnormal Spinal Curvatures

• some present at birth• Others disease, poor posture, unequal muscle pull1. Scoliosis – “twisted disease” abnormal lateral curvature in the

thoracic region– Treated with braces or surgically

2. Kyphosis – hunchback– Dorsally exaggerate thoracic curvature– Common in elderly or from tuberculosis of spine, rickets, or

osteomalacia

3. Lordosis – swayback, accentuated lumbar curvature– Spinal tuberculosis or osteomalacia– Common in people with large belles, pregnant women

Ligaments

• Elaborate system of cable like supports• Strap like ligaments• Major – anterior and posterior longitudinal

ligaments• Run down back and front surfaces of

vertebrae• Posterior – prevents hyperextension

Intervertebral Discs

• Cushion like pad• 2 parts – inner gelatinous nucleus pulposus –

rubber ball – gives elasticity and compressibility

• Surrounded by – anucleus fibrosus – limits expansion when spine is compressed

• Woven strap• Withstands twisting and tension

Figure 7.17c

Vertebral spinous process(posterior aspect of vertebra)

Spinal nerve root

Anulus fibrosusof disc

Herniated portionof disc

Nucleuspulposusof disc

Spinal cord

(c) Superior view of a herniated intervertebral disc

Transverseprocess

Figure 7.17a

Supraspinous ligamentIntervertebraldisc

Anteriorlongitudinalligament

Intervertebral foramen

Posterior longitudinalligament

Anulus fibrosus

Nucleus pulposus

Sectioned bodyof vertebra

Transverse process

Sectionedspinous process

Ligamentum flavum

Interspinousligament

Inferior articular process

Median section of three vertebrae, illustrating the composition of the discs and the ligaments

Intervertebral Discs

• Shock absorbers• Allow to spine to bend and flex• Thickest in lumbar region• 25 % of the height of the column• Flatten during day – slightly shorter at night• Sudden trauma – herniated disc – rupture of

anulus fibrosus and protrusion of nucleus pulposus• Treatment – heat, massage, exercise. • If not must remove protruding disc and fuse

vertebrae

Structure of Vertebral Column

• Vertebrae – body (centrum) and vertebral arch• Enclose opening – vertebral foramen• Successive vertebrae – vertebral canal = spinal cord• Vertebrae arch – pedicles and laminae• Pedicles – bony pillars on inside of arch• Laminae – flattened plates• Processes from arch – spinous process, transverse

process, superior and inferior articular arches

Regional Characteristics

• Variation among groups• Allow different functions and movements• General movements –

1. Flexion and extension – straightening of spine2. Lateral flexion – upper band right or left3. Rotation – rotation on long axis of spine

Figure 7.18

Posterior

Superiorarticularprocessandfacet

Transverseprocess

Pedicle

Spinousprocess

Vertebralarch

VertebralforamenBody(centrum)

Cervical Vertebrae (7)

• C1 C7• Smallest, lightest• Typical – C3 C71. Body is oval2. Except C7 – spinous process is short, projects

directly back and bifid – split at top3. Vertebrae foramens large and generally

triangular4. Transverse process contains transverse foramen

Table 7.2

• C7 – not bifid– Larger than others– Process visible through skin– Landmark for counting vertebrae – vertebra

prominens• 1st two – atlas and axis

– More robust– No intervertebral disc– Highly modified

Figure 7.20a

Dens of axis

Transverse ligamentof atlasC1 (atlas)

C2 (axis)

Bifid spinousprocess

Transverse processes

C7 (vertebraprominens)

(a) Cervical vertebrae

Inferior articularprocess

• C1 – atlas – no body– No spinous processes– Ring of bone– “carries” the skull– Allow to nod yes

• C2 – axis – not as specialized– Dens – “tooth” projecting from body superiorly– Pivot for rotation– Allow head to shake no

Figure 7.19a-b

Anterior arch

Superiorarticularfacet

Transverseforamen

Posterior arch

Posteriortubercle

Anteriortubercle

Posterior

Lateralmasses

(a) Superior view of atlas (C1)

Facet for dens

Transverseprocess

Lateralmasses

Transverseforamen

Posterior archPosteriortubercle

Posterior

Anterior tubercle

Anteriorarch

(b) Inferior view of atlas (C1)

Inferiorarticularfacet

Posterior

(c) Superior view of axis (C2)

Inferiorarticularprocess

Superiorarticularfacet

Transverseprocess

Pedicle

Lamina

Spinous process

Figure 7.19c

Thoracic Vertebrae (12)

• T1 T12• First – like C7• Last 4 – progression towards lumbar• Increase in size

Thoracic Vertebrae (12)

• Characteristics – 1. Body – heart shaped

-2 small faucets – demi facets – receive heads of ribs2. Vertebral foramen is circular3. Spinosous process – long and points downward4. Except T11 and T12 – transverse costal faucets

articulate with ribs5. Faucets in frontal plane – prevent flexion and extension

-Allows to rotate – restricted by ribs

Table 7.2

Figure 7.20b

Transverseprocess

Spinousprocess

Superior articularprocess

Transversecostal facet (fortubercle of rib)

Intervertebraldisc

Inferior costalfacet (for headof rib)Inferior articularprocess

(b) Thoracic vertebrae

Lumbar Vertebrae (5)

• L1 L5• Small of back• Receives the most stress• Sturdier structure• Bodies massive and kidney shaped

Lumbar Vertebrae (5)

1. Pedicles and laminae – shorter and thicker2. Spinous process – short, flat, hatchet shaped

– project downward3. Vertebrae foramen – triangular4. Orientation of facets differs – modification

lock vertebrae together and provide stability – flexion/extension possible

Table 7.2

Figure 7.20c

Superiorarticularprocess

Transverseprocess

Spinousprocess

Intervertebraldisc

Inferiorarticularprocess

(c) Lumbar vertebrae

Sacrum

• Triangular shaped• Shapes posterior wall of the pelvis• S1 S5 – five fused vertebrae• Auricular surfaces and sarcoiliac joints• Sacral promontory – bulges into pelvic cavity• 4 ridges – transverse ridges

Figure 7.21a

Coccyx

AnteriorsacralforaminaApex

Sacral promontory

Body offirstsacralvertebra

Transverseridges (sites of vertebral fusion)

(a) Anterior view

Figure 7.21b

Coccyx

Posteriorsacralforamina

Mediansacralcrest

Sacralcanal

Sacralhiatus

Body Facet ofsuperiorarticular process

Lateralsacralcrest

Auricularsurface

(b) Posterior view

Coccyx

• Tailbone• Small triangular bone• 4 (sometimes 3) vertebrae fused together• Nearly useless bone

Thoracic Cage

• Chest and bony underlying• Thoracic vertebrae, ribs, sternum, and costal

cartilages• Protective cage around vital organs (heart,

lung, etc.)• Supports girdles and upper limbs

Figure 7.22a

Intercostal spaces

Trueribs(1–7)

Falseribs(8–12)

Jugular notchClavicular notch

ManubriumSternal angleBodyXiphisternaljointXiphoidprocess

Vertebra Floating ribs (11, 12)(a) Skeleton of the thoracic cage, anterior view

Sternum

Costal cartilage

Costal margin

Sternum

• Breast bone• Lies in anterior midline• Flat, ~15 cm long• Fusion of 3 bones – manubrium, body, xiphoid

process• 3 anatomical landmarks – jugular notch,

sternal angle, xiphisternal joint

Figure 7.22a

Intercostal spaces

Trueribs(1–7)

Falseribs(8–12)

Jugular notchClavicular notch

ManubriumSternal angleBodyXiphisternaljointXiphoidprocess

Vertebra Floating ribs (11, 12)(a) Skeleton of the thoracic cage, anterior view

Sternum

Costal cartilage

Costal margin

• 12 pairs• Attach posteriorly to thoracic vertebrae and

curve internally towards body surface• 7 superior ribs – attach directly to sternum – true

or vertebrosternal ribs• 5 remaining – false ribs – attach indirectly or

entirely lack sternum attachment• Ribs 8 – 10 – vertebrochondrial ribs • Ribs 11 and 12 – vertebral ribs/floating ribs – no

anterior attachment

Figure 7.23a

Transverse costal facet(for tubercle of rib) Superior costal facet

(for head of rib)

Body of vertebra

Head of rib

Intervertebral disc

Tubercle of rib

Neck of rib

Shaft Sternum

Angleof rib

Cross-sectionof rib Costal groove Costal cartilage

(a) Vertebral and sternal articulations of atypical true rib

Figure 7.23b

Spinous processArticular faceton tubercle of rib

Ligaments

Neck of rib

Head of rib Body ofthoracicvertebra

Transversecostal facet(for tubercleof rib)

Superior costal facet(for head of rib)

(b) Superior view of the articulation between arib and a thoracic vertebra

• Increase in length – 1 7• Decrease in length – 8 12• Bowed flat bone• Bulk shaft – transverse process of vertebrae• Head, neck, and tubercle• 1st pair flattened superiorly horizontal table

Appendicular Skeleton

• Bones of limbs and their girdles• Appended to axial skeleton• Pectoral girdles – attach to upper limbs• Pelvic girdles – secure lower limbs• Limbs – same plane – 3 major segments

connected by moveable parts

Pectoral (Shoulder) Girdle

• Clavicle and scapula• Girdle – usually signifies belt like structure – pectoral

does not• Girdles attach to upper limbs to axial skeleton and

provide attachment points for muscles• Light and allow motility1. Only clavicle attaches to axial skeleton – scapula

move freely2. Socket of shoulder – shallow and poorly reinforced,

does not restrict movement, good for flexibility, bad for stability

Clavicle - collarbones

• Slender, doublely curved bones• Cone shaped at medial sternal end• Flattened on lateral – acromial end• Anchor muscles• Braces – hold scapula and arms out laterally• Not very strong, likely to shatter • Fracture outward – protect subclavian artery• Sensitive to muscle pull• Larger and stronger in those who perform manual labor

or athletics

Figure 7.24a

ClavicleAcromio-clavicularjoint

Scapula

(a) Articulated pectoral girdle

Figure 7.24b

Acromial (lateral)end(b) Right clavicle, superior view

Posterior

Sternal (medial)end

• Shoulder blades• Thin, triangular flat bones• “spade” or “Shovel” • 3 borders – superior shortest, sharpest

– Medial, Vertebral Border – parallel vertebrae– Lateral or auxiliary, border abuts armpits

• Shallow fossa – glenoid cavity• Spine – easily felt through skin• Acromion – triangular portion• Acromioclavicular joint – coracoid process – anchors biceps

muscle

Figure 7.25a

Acromion

Coracoidprocess

Suprascapular notch

Superior border

Superiorangle

Subscapularfossa

Medial border

Inferior angle

Glenoidcavity

Lateral border

(a) Right scapula, anterior aspect

Figure 7.25b

Superiorangle

Medial border

Coracoid processSuprascapular notch

Acromion

Glenoidcavityat lateralangle

Lateral border

Infraspinousfossa

(b) Right scapula, posterior aspect

Supraspinousfossa

Upper Limb – 30 bones

• Arm – upper limb – shoulder elbow• Humerous - longest, largest bone of upper limb• Articulates – scapula and radius/ulna• Head fits into glenoid cavity of scapula• Coronoid fossa & olecranon fossa – allow ulna

to move freely• Radial fossa – head of radius•

Figure 7.26a

GreatertubercleLessertubercleInter-tubercularsulcus

LateralsupracondylarridgeRadialfossaCapitulum

Head ofhumerusAnatomicalneck

Deltoidtuberosity

CoronoidfossaMedialepicondyleTrochlea

(a) Anterior view

Forearm

• 2 parallel long bones• Radius and ulna• Articulate with each other• Radioulnar joint – connected by interosseous

membrane

Figure 7.27a-b

Radialnotch ofthe ulna

OlecranonprocessTrochlearnotchCoronoidprocess Proximalradioulnarjoint

Distal radioulnarjoint

Styloid processof radius

Radius

Neck ofradius

Head ofradius

Ulnar notchof the radiusHead of ulna

Styloidprocess of ulna

InterosseousmembraneUlna

Radialtuberosity

Radius

Styloidprocessof radius

(a) Anterior view (b) Posterior view

• Slightly longer than radius forming elbow joint• 2 processes – olecranon and coronoid

separated by notch

Figure 7.27c-d

(c) Proximal portion of ulna, lateral view

Olecranon process

Trochlear notch

Coronoid process

Radial notch

(d) Distal ends of the radius and ulna at the wrist

Ulnar notch of radius

Headof ulna

Styloidprocess

Articulationfor scaphoid

Articulationfor lunate

Styloidprocess

Figure 7.26c-d

Coronoidfossa

Radius

Radialtuberosity

Head ofradius

Capitulum

Trochlea

(c) Anterior view at the elbow region

Humerus

Medialepicondyle

Coronoidprocess of ulna

UlnaRadial notch

Olecranonfossa

Olecranonprocess

Medialepicondyle

(d) Posterior view of extended elbow

Humerus

Lateralepicondyle

RadiusNeck

Radius

• Thin at proximal end – wide distally• Head – shaped like head of nail• Radial tuberosity – anchors biceps molecule• Contributes with wrist joint

- Colle’s Fracture – break in distal end of radius- Falling person – break their fall

Figure 7.27a-b

Radialnotch ofthe ulna

OlecranonprocessTrochlearnotchCoronoidprocess Proximalradioulnarjoint

Distal radioulnarjoint

Styloid processof radius

Radius

Neck ofradius

Head ofradius

Ulnar notchof the radiusHead of ulna

Styloidprocess of ulna

InterosseousmembraneUlna

Radialtuberosity

Radius

Styloidprocessof radius

(a) Anterior view (b) Posterior view

• Wrist – carpus• Palm – metacarpals• Phalanges - fingers

Figure 7.28a-b

• Trapezoid• Trapezium

• Scaphoid

Phalanges

Carpals

Radius

• Proximal• Middle• Distal

• Triquetrum• Lunate

• Capitate• Hamate

• Pisiform

Metacarpals

Carpals

(b) Posterior view of left hand

• Base• Shaft• Head

• Scaphoid

Carpals

(a) Anterior view of left hand

Radius

Sesamoidbones

Carpus (wrist)

• Carpals – 8 marble sized bones• 2 irregular rows of 4 bones1. Proximal row – (lateral medial)- Scaphoid “boat shaped” lunate ‘moon-

shaped” triguetrum “triangle” pisciform “pea-shaped”

2. Carpals – distal row - Trapezium “little table” trapezoid “4 sided”

capitate “head-shaped” hamate “hooked”

Figure 7.28a-b

• Scaphoid

Phalanges

Carpals

Radius

• Pisiform

Metacarpals

Carpals

• Scaphoid

Carpals

Radius

Sesamoidbones

Carpus (wrist)

• Carpal tunnel – overuse and inflammation of tendons – swell and compress nerves in the wrist

• Pain is greatest at night• Carpal tunnel syndrome

Metacarpals (palm)

• 5 radiate from wrist• Form palm of hand• Not named – numbered 1-5• Bases – articulate with carpals• Heads – articulate with phalanges• Thumb (1) – more anterior position

Figure 7.28a-b

• Scaphoid

Phalanges

Carpals

Radius

• Pisiform

Metacarpals

Carpals

• Scaphoid

Carpals

Radius

Sesamoidbones

Phalanges (fingers)

• Digits, fingers• 1 – 5 – thumb number 1• 3rd fingers usually longest• 14 miniature bones • Distal, middle, and proximal• Thumb – no middle bone

Figure 7.28a-b

• Scaphoid

Phalanges

Carpals

Radius

• Pisiform

Metacarpals

Carpals

• Scaphoid

Carpals

Radius

Sesamoidbones

Pelvic (Hip) Girdle

• Attaches lower limbs• Transmits full weight of upper body• Supports visceral organs• Sparingly attached to thoracic cage• Secured to axial skeleton by ligaments• Sockets – deep, cuplike• Lacks motility of pectoral girdle• Formed by pair of hip bones – os coxae or coxal bone• 3 regions – ilium, ischium, and pubis (adults – bones fused)• Point of fusion - anetabulum

Figure 7.29

Coxalbone(os coxaeor hip bone)

Sacroiliacjoint

Iliac fossa

Pubicbone

Ischium

Sacrum

Base of sacrum

Sacralpromontory

Pelvic brim

Acetabulum

Pubic crestPubic symphysis

Iliac crest

Coccyx

Pubic arch

Anterior inferioriliac spine

Anteriorsuperior iliac spine

Pubic tubercle

PLAY Animation: Rotatable pelvis

• Large, flaring bones• Superior region of coxal bone• Body with wing like portion – ala• Iliac crests – hands on hips

Figure 7.30a

IliumAla

Anterior gluteallinePosterior gluteal linePosteriorsuperioriIiac spine

Greater sciaticnotch

Posterior inferioriliac spine

Ischial bodyIschial spineLesser sciatic notch

Ischialtuberosity

Ischium

Ischial ramus Obturator foramen

Inferiorgluteal line

Acetabulum

Pubic body

Iliac crest

Anteriorsuperioriliac spine

Inferior ramusof pubis

(a) Lateral view, right hip bone

Figure 7.30b

Iliac fossa

Iliac crest

Anterior inferioriliac spineArcuate line

Pubic tubercle

Superior ramusof pubis

Posteriorsuperioriliac spine

Obturatorforamen

Body ofthe ilium

Ischium

Ischial ramus

(b) Medial view, right hip bone

Auricularsurface

Ischial spineLesser sciatic notch

Greater sciatic notch

Posteriorinferioriliac spine

Articular surfaceof pubis (at pubic symphysis)

Ischium

• Posteroinferior part of hip bone• Roughly L-shaped or arc shaped• Thicker superior body• Thinner inferior ramus• 3 markings

1. Ischial spine – attachment of ligament – sacrospinous ligament

2. Lesser sciatic notch3. Ischial tuberosity

Figure 7.30a

IliumAla

Ischialtuberosity

Ischium

Acetabulum

Pubic body

Iliac crest

• Pubic bone• Anterior portion of hipbone• Lies nearly horizontally – urinary bladder lies

on it• Anterior portion – thickened – pubic crest• Joined by fibrocartilage – pubis symphsis –

forms pubic arch or subpubic angle

Figure 7.30a

IliumAla

Ischialtuberosity

Ischium

Acetabulum

Pubic body

Iliac crest

Male vs. Female

• Female – modified for childbearing – wider, shallow, lighter, and rounder

• Must be large enough to allow infants head to pass • False (greater) pelvis and true (lesser) pelvis1. False bound by alea of ilia – really part of abdomen –

helps support viscera2. True pelvis – region inferior to brim that is surrounded

by bone – deep bowl containing pelvic organs- Pelvic inlet – pelvic brim – labor – head enter inlet first- Then pelvic outlet

Comparison of Male and Female PelvesCharacteristic Female Male

Bone thickness Lighter, thinner, and smoother

Heavier, thicker, and more prominent markings

Pubic arch/angle 80˚– 90˚ 50˚– 60˚

Acetabula Small; farther apart Large; closer together

Sacrum Wider, shorter; sacral curvature is accentuated

Narrow, longer; sacral promontory more ventral

Coccyx More movable; straighter Less movable; curves ventrally

Lower Limb

• Carry entire weight of body• Subjected to exceptional force• Thicker and stronger than upper limbs

Thigh - Femur

• Single bone of thigh• Largest, longest, strongest bone in body• Clothed in bulky muscles• Articulates with hip bone and knee• Ball like head, neck, and shaft• Ends in wheel like lateral and medial condyles –

articulate with tibia• Patella – triangular seasmoid bone – enclosed in

quadriceps – tendon secures thigh muscles to tibia

Figure 7.31

Neck Foveacapitis

Greatertrochanter

Inter-trochantericcrest

Intertrochantericline

Lesser trochanter

Gluteal tuberosity

Linea aspera

Lateralcondyle

LateralepicondyleIntercondylar fossa

Medial andlateral supra-condylar lines

Medial condyle

Medialepicondyle

Adductortubercle

Anterior view Posterior view(b) Femur (thigh bone)

Lateral epicondyle

Patellar surface

Posterior

Facet formedialcondyleof femur

Facet for lateralcondyle of femur

Surface forpatellarligament

ApexAnterior

(a) Patella (kneecap)

• 2 parallel bones – tibia and fibia• Connected by interosseous membrane

Figure 7.32a

Medial condyle

Articular surface

Tibial tuberosity

Interosseous membrane

Anterior border

Medial malleolus

Intercondylar eminence

Proximal tibiofibularjoint

Distal tibiofibularjoint

Lateral malleolus

Lateral condyle

Fibula

(a) Anterior view

• Receives weight of body from femur• 2nd only to femur in size and strength

Figure 7.32a

Medial condyle

Articular surface

Tibial tuberosity

Anterior border

Medial malleolus

Lateral malleolus

Lateral condyle

Fibula

(a) Anterior view

Fibula

• Stick like bone with slightly expanded ends

Figure 7.32a

Medial condyle

Articular surface

Tibial tuberosity

Anterior border

Medial malleolus

Lateral malleolus

Lateral condyle

Fibula

(a) Anterior view

• Tarsus, metatarsus, and phalanges• 2 functions – supports body weight and acts a

lever to propel body forward

Figure 7.33a

Medialcuneiform

Phalanges

Metatarsals

TarsalsNavicular

Intermediatecuneiform

Calcaneus(a) Superior view

Cuboid

Lateralcuneiform

Proximal54321

Middle

Distal

Trochleaof talus

Figure 7.33b

Facet formedialmalleolus

Calcanealtuberosity(b) Medial view

Intermediatecuneiform Sustentac-

ulum tali(talar shelf)

Navicular

First metatarsal

Medialcuneiform

Calcaneus

PLAY Animation: Rotatable bones of the foot

Figure 7.33a

Medialcuneiform

TarsalsNavicular

Intermediatecuneiform

Calcaneus(a) Superior view

Cuboid

Lateralcuneiform

Trochleaof talus

7 bones – tarsals2 largest – talus and calcaneous

Figure 7.33a

Metatarsals54321

5 small bones1-5, big toe - #1

Figure 7.33a

Phalanges

Proximal54321

Middle

Distal

14 bones – smaller than hands3 on each digit except great toe (hallux)Only 2 – proximal and distal

• 3 arches – 2 longitudinal – medial and lateral and 1 transverse

• Maintained by bones, ligament, and pull of tendons• Provide springiness• Makes running and walking more economical in terms of

energy use• Medial – well above ground• Lateral – very low• Transverse – other way• Standing immobile – long periods – strain on tendons and

ligaments – flat feet

Figure 7.34a

Medial longitudinalarch

Transverse arch

Laterallongitudinal arch

(a) Lateral aspect of right foot

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