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CHAPTER I
RELATION BETWEEN CULTURE AND LANGUAGE
Language can be said as a product of culture. By understanding a language, a student of
linguistics can have a picture of the background of the society who speak the language. English
linguist, Ronald Wardhaugh, believes that there should be some kind of relationship between the
sounds, words, and syntax of a language and the ways in which speakers of that language
experience the world and behave in it seems so obvious as to be a truism (Wardhaugh, 1986:
217).
The concept of culture here is not the high culture such as music and arts, but simply the
know-how that a person must possess to get through the task of daily living (Wardhaugh, 1986:
217). This definition can be said similar to the one proposed by Goodenough, that culture is
whatever it is one has to know or believe in order to operate in a manner acceptable to its
members (1957: 167). In the other word, culture is the way people do and people know to
survive in their lives. Culture has a wide range of fields. Includes in culture are foods, climate,
ecology, techniques, clothing, housing, art, and so on.
Human beings who live in a habitat would have to communicate to each other and
visualize the things around them using words as a means of communications. Words are known
as suitable way to demonstrate the concepts of nature, culture, and environment. A society who
lives in a region whose climate is cold and has long winter will have many vocabularies on icy
things, snow, and snow beasts. In the opposite, they will lack the vocabularies of tropical flora,
tropical agriculture, and even, thin clothing, because tropical related things cannot be found in
their culture.
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Furthermore, Javanese language has three words for rice. These are pari which
means rice plant, beras which means the uncooked rice, and sega which means cooked rice.
Javanese has more words for a concept which in English is described by only one word. This
condition is due to the Javanese speakers consider rice as staple food. In the opposite, a Javanese
will simply say ati to refer French foie gras. Ati in Javanese means liver and it can
refer to any kind of animal liver. While, foie gras is a special meal made from duck liver
which has underwent the process of fattening. Javanese has no vocabulary for that concept
because their culture does not have such meal as foie gras.
The repertoire on food and climate related words are examples on how local factors
determine the vocabularies of a language. This is one evident on a claim saying that the culture
of a people finds reflection in the language they employ: because they value certain things and
do them in a certain way (Wardhaugh, 1986 : 218). The claim believes that culture has influence
on language. A people speak certain language which is rich in certain field because they are
familiar with that particular field. For example, maritime society in Cuba will have more
vocabularies about sea, sea creature, and sailing tools than the agricultural society in the
Philippines.
Ecology is one of the most important factors which influence language. Ecology donates
a lot of concepts which will later undergo a process to result vocabulary. Ecology, especially,
donates a lot of lexicons for color repertoire in many languages. Below is a table for vocabularies
of color in English and the similar concept in Bahasa Indonesia.
English Bahasa Indonesia
indigo nila
gamboges yellow getah manggis
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cyclamen sirop betawi
greenish white nusa indah
deep magenta padma
lavender gandaria
sunburnt sawo matang
amethyst gelam
apricot pinang masak
bay kapisa
blackish blue wulung
bronze brown perunggu
greenish white nusa indah
greenish yellow pucuk pisang
grenadine pink dewangga
king blue nila kandi
waxy pinang perus
white-as-a-swan kinantan
wood brown kopi susu
salmon bangbang
(Sugono : 2003, 125-126)
Indigo is a range of purplish color, whose etymology originally come from Greek
indikon which literary means blue dye from India (Etymonline.com). The word is borrowed
by many European languages as the thing (the blue dye) is distributed throughout the European
continent, including England. Indonesian speakers, who did not use the blue dye from India, did
not create the word indigo for the purple color concept. However, they have the exact same
color from the night sky which they call nila. Getah manggis (literary means mangosteen
sap) has the same yellow with gamboges. Sirop betawi (Batavian syrup) has the same color
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with cyclamen flower. Lavender which grows in Europe donated a vocabulary for pale purple
color in 1840 (Etymonline.com). But, gandaria flower represent the color in Indonesia because
the flower grows rapidly there.
Not only in vocabulary, can culture also influence the phonological rules of a certain
language. In French language, phoneme /h/ is omitted. Though the letter h is available in the
spelling, the speakers drop it anyway when pronouncing it. In French, voiceless stop is also
unaspirated. This is due to the French manner that releasing air from the mouth noisily is
considered impolite.
The evidence for the claim that culture influences language is easy to find. However,
Benjamin Lee Whorf opposes the claim. He believes that language is the one that influence the
culture, and furthermore, grammar can influence how people understand the world. He believes
that words are not merely the instrument to voice ideas, but words themselves are the shaper of
ideas. The claim is known as the famous Whorfian hypothesis.
Whorfian hypothesis believes that language elements, especially grammar, control your
world view. Whorf had made a research on comparing the Hopi language of American-Indian
with what he called as Standard Average Europan (SAE). SAE consists of famous European
languages such as English, French, German, and so on (Wardhaugh, 1986 : 221).
According to Whorf, the Hopi see the world as essentially an ongoing set of process;
objects and events are not discrete and countable; and time is apportioned into fixed segments so
the Hopi languages does not have the word for minutes, mornings, and days. On the opposite,
SAE speakers regard time as an important thing so that they have the vocabularies for it, and
even time tenses in their grammar. SAE people are said to see their world as discrete,
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measurable, countable, and recurrent.
SAE languages indeed concern so much on tenses, plural system, and gender system. In
English, there are three kind of tenses: present tense (Subject + Verb 1 [-s] + Object), past tense
(Subject + Verb 2 + Object) , and past perfect tense (Subject + Verb 3 + Object). The tenses are
still divided into two types which are simple, to express habitual activity or event, and
progressive, to express activity or event which is ongoing. The complexity of the grammatical
rule concerning the tenses shows that SAE speakers really care about time. The westerns
consider time as a valuable thing. They do not like to waste time and are very discipline about
being punctual.
SAE languages also concern about plural system. They care about which thing that can
be counted and which other that cannot. In plural system English has special suffix s to be
added in the words. The suffix is attached to the verb if the subject is singular (e.g. My mother
likes ice cream.), and to the countable noun if the noun is plural (e.g. My mother can eat three
bowls of ice cream.). The complexity of plural system and countable nouns shows that English
speakers concerns so much about quantity of material matters. The grammar of the language
forces the speakers to unconsciously think about it before utter their thoughts.
SAE speakers also concern about the gender of the nouns in their vocabulary. English
generally divide animals and human beings into masculine and feminine. But languages such as
German and French go further by attaching gender to inanimate objects. For example, chaise
is the French for chair. If you want to say a chair in French, you should say une chaise.
The word chaise is attached with feminine determiner une. But if you want to say a towel,
you have to say unserviette with masculine determiner. The complexity of grammatical
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gender encourage the speakers of SAE, especially French and German, to be more sexist. This is
the same with Whorfs opinion that speakers of particular languages can be sexist (Wardhaugh,
1986 : 11).
Other than the claims above, there are two more claims about the relationship between
culture and language. The first is that the influence is bi-directional language and culture may
influence each other. This view is encouraged by Marxian view about dialectical in nature. Basil
Bernstein is one of the most influential linguists who believe in this claim. Bernstein believes
that language is something which influences culture and being influenced by culture as well.
The other one is that there is no relationship at all between linguistic structure and social
structure, and that each is independent of the other. This view is proposed by Chomsky who
prefers to develop asocial linguistics (Wardhaugh, 1986 : 11). However, these two claims are not
very popular and there are only few linguists who agree with the claims.
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CHAPTER II
SPEECH VARIATION
A. Speech Variation and Language Varieties
People all around the world speak languages to communicate with each other. Languages
differ in different places and different times. There is a hypothesis that believes that once people
speak one single language, which is, the root for all of the languages in the world. People then
traveled to different places and settle there. Then, people started to speak different languages, or
at least different varieties of a language, because they faced different environment.
Different environment gives different influence to vocabularies in a language. Thats how
people who live in different places speak different varieties. As time goes by, historical events
happen and change the way people talk by adding more vocabularies and influence grammatical
patterns. Thats how people speak different varieties from time to time.
Language variety, according to Hudson, is a set of linguistic items with similar
distribution. This definition allows linguists to say a wide range of speech variation as a
linguistic variation. For example, a variation of English might be British English, American
English, London English, English of a football commentary, etc ( Hudson, 1980 : 24).
While, according to Ferguson, a language variety is any body of human speech patterns
which is sufficiently homogeneous to be analyzed by available techniques of synchronic
description and which has a sufficiently large repertory of elements and their arrangements of
process with broad enough semantic scope to function in all context of communication
(Ferguson, 1971: 30). This hypothesis narrows our scope of definition because it bounds a
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particular region or social group as a group of speaking society.
According to Wardhaugh, a language variety is a specific set oflinguistic items orhuman
speech patterns, e.g. sounds, words, grammatical features, and so on, which we can uniquely
associate with some external factor e.g. geographical area or social group (Wardhaugh, 1989:
22). This hypothesis allows us to widen our research to even cocktail party talk and a
conversation inside a dentists clinic as a variation to study.
According to Hymes, speech components which determine the speech variation can be
explain using his S-P-E-A-K-I-N-G model:
S: Situation, means the condition and event
P: Participants, means the speakers and the adverse
E: End, means the objective of the speech e.g. topic, purpose, goal
A: Act: speech act (sharing, questioning, promising, commanding, arguing) and actsequence.
K: Key: model of speech
I: Instrument: verbal or non verbal
N: Norms
G: Genre
There are four points which is very crucial in a discussion about speech variation. These
points are dialect, style, register, and speech level.
B. Dialect
According to Oxford dictionary, dialect is a variety of a language that is characteristic of
a particular group of the language's speakers. People sometimes cannot distinguish between a
dialect and an accent. Actually, a dialect can be distinguished by learning three factors: grammar,
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vocabulary, and pronunciation, while an accent is distinguished by its pronunciation.
Linguists in general view a dialect as a variety of a language that is characteristic of a
particular group of the language's speakers. The term is applied most often to regional speech
patterns, but a dialect may also be defined by other factors, such as social class. Actually there
are seven types of dialect; these are regional dialect, social dialect, ethnodialect, professional
dialect, gender dialect, age dialect, and ideological dialect. There is also one special dialect
which is named idiolect.
According to Etymonline.com, the English word dialect comes from Latin dialectus
which means local language, way of speaking, conversation. An alternative etymology is
Greek word dialektos which means talk, conversation, speech. The word itself can be
elaborated per-syllable into dia- which means across andlegein which means speak.
Interestingly, the words derived from dialectus have different semantic properties in
different languages. In English, a dialectmeans a variation of language which is excluded from
polite society. The polite society speaks standard English which is used in literary works, formal
occasions, and even high class parties. A dialect is used in informal situation; conversation
within close friends, girl talk in an after-school party, and conversation the dining table while a
family eats breakfast.
In French , dialectus is borrowed and changed into un dialecte, which means a regional
variety of language that has associated literary tradition. People use un dialecte to write poetry,
prose, and songs. People also regard it as a higher variety form un patois. Un patois is a regional
variety that lacks such a literary tradition. Patois in Old French means incomprehensible
speech, rude language. Officially, Patois is any language that is considered nonstandard. It can
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refer to pidgins, creoles, dialects, and other forms of native or local speech, but not commonly to
jargon or slang, which are vocabulary-based forms of cant.
In one language, there may be some dialects. A dialect, no matter how far it differs from
the standard variety of the language, is still considered as a dialect when it is intelligible for
people who speak a different dialect of the same language. For example, a citizen of Yogyakarta
who speaks Javanese can have a conversation with a citizen of Klaten who also speaks Javanese
without any problem in understanding. Yogyakarta Javanese dialect and Klaten Javanese dialect
are slightly different in pronunciation. If a Yogyakarta citizen will say lanang /ln/ for
male, while a Klaten citizen will say lenang/len/. A pair of Javanese speaking grandfather
and grandson will also understand each other well though they speak different variations. The
grandfather will speak Javanese with some vocabularies which are rare in recent time, and the
grandson will speak a variation which is composed recently. For example, if the grandfather says
sentolop, the grandson will understand the word as the thing he will call senter, which means
flash light.
Now, lets discuss the types of dialects. Regional dialect is a dialect which is influenced
by geographical factors. Inside a geographical boundary there are some factors such as ecology,
culture, and society which influence the language (see chapter I). The Example for regional
dialect in the English language is New York English, Texan English, and Hawaiian English.
Social dialect is a dialect which is influenced by social rank. According to Wardhaugh
(1989: 46) social dialect is a dialect whose determining factor is the social rank of the speaker. It
is originate among social groups and depend on a variety of factors, the principal ones apparently
being social class, religion, and ethnicity. The examples are the caste system in India. People
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from different caste speak different variety of the language. One other example is the varieties of
Arabic language in Baghdad, Iraq. In this region, there are three religious groups: Jewish,
Christian, and Muslim. The Jewish and Christian speak their variety at home, and speak the
Muslim variety for inter-group relationship, such as in business and in trading. In the English
language, Black English is considered as the low variety of the language, while the Standard
English is considered as the higher variety of the language.
Ethnodialect is a dialect whose distinguishing factor is ethnicity. Some linguists use
ethnolect as the proper term for the concept. According to Joshua Fishman, ethnicity signifies the
identificational dimension of culture and emphasizes that the perspectival quality of ethnicity
means that its specification or attribution is fundamentally subjective, variable and very possibly
non-consensual (1997 : 329). The example for ethnolect or ethnodialect is Betawi dialect of
Bahasa Indonesia which is spoken by Jakarta citizens in Indonesia.
Professional dialect orjargon is a set of special linguistic tools used by people in a
certain profession. Every science has its own set of terminologies, and people who are
professional in that certain field will speak fluently in jargon while involved in a conversation
will fellow professionals, e.g. nautical jargon which is developed among sailors in a voyage.
Slangor terminology simplification is also used within professional area. People who work in
medical field have made some slangs e.g.ER for emergency room, and appy for appendix.
Gender dialect is a dialect whose distinguishing factor is the gender of the speaker.
Hormonal factors and social roles influence this dialect. Typically, women will speak softer than
men, and men will use more non-standard variation than women.
Age dialect is a dialect whose distinguishing factor is the age of the speaker. Typically, as
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the speaker grows older the speaker will have encountered more things in his life that will
influence his speaking style. Children and babies who are still learning to talk fluently are also
interesting to study.
Ideological dialect is the dialect whose distinguishing factor is the speakers ideology.
The ideology can be religion and politic view. A religious Christian may speak calmly and use
more diction from the bible. Mean while, a fanatic democrat will speak liberally and use more
diction form the politics field.
There is one interesting term of dialect, which is named idiolect. Idiolect is individual
dialect, a dialect which is influenced by the speakers personality background. A person will
color his or her own speech with his or her own personality. A sad person may speak sadly. A
cheerful person may speak cheerfully, happily, and openly to people. A person who easily
tempered will talk harshly, and so on.
C. Style
Style in speech variation is the level of formality of the speech which is governed by the
circumstance. Style can simply be categorized into formal, informal, and literary.
Formal style is used in formal occasions such as in political speech, news broadcasting,
and business treaty. A speaker of formal style usually speaks standard variety of the language.
Informal style is used in informal occasions, such as a conversation during class break with close
friends, a talk between seller and buyer in a grocery store, and in teenage magazine articles.
Literary style is a style of language used in the terms of literary works which requires esthetics.
Literary style sometimes is bound with rhythm and rhyme in arranging words.
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D. Register
Register according to Wardhaugh is a set of vocabulary items associated with discrete
occupational or social groups. A register chosen by the speakers are governed by the purpose or
the objective of the conversation.
Here is an example of a speaker who will change register. A speaker could be a medical
doctor who loves rock music. When he speaks as a doctor, he will speak with medical jargons
with his partners. But when he goes to a music concert, he may give comment to the band
performing using terminologies from rock music field.
E. Speech Level
Speech level is the politeness level of the speech. This is influenced by the rank of the
participants. The rank here may mean social rank, age stratification, of professional stratification.
Speech level can be simply categorized into polite and impolite.
For example, the Javanese Language in Indonesia has three stages of politeness in its
grammar: basa ngoko lugu, basa ngoko alus, and basa krama. Basa ngoko lugu is the most
impolite variation among all, used by close friends, husband to wife, and parents to children.
Basa ngoko alus is used by older person to a younger person from the higher rank, within
brothers and sisters, wife to husband, and person from a higher rank to a person from the lower
rank.Basa krama is the politest variation among all, used by people from the lower rank to the
higher rank, children to parents, and younger person to the older person. It is also the official
style for formal occasions, e.g. public speech, news broadcasting, and announcement. Basa
krama even is classified into two more categorize: Neutral and humble. The humble variation is
exclusively used by common people to the noble family members in Keraton.
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Below is the example of a simple sentence in Javanese using the four variations. In
English, the sentence simply means, I want to eat.
- Ngoko lugu:Aku arep mangan.
- Madya:Kula ajeng nedha.
- Krama: * (Neutral)Kula badh dhahar.
* (Humble) Dalem badh dhahar.
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CHAPTER III
PIDGIN AND CREOLE
Pidgins and creoles are artificial languages which are used to do communications
between speakers of different languages. Pidgin and creoles are formed from the different
languages from the participants. The languages will undergo the process of admixture, reduction,
and simplification before becoming a pidgin. When the speakers can communicate with each
other using the language, it means a pidgin has been formed. When a pidgin is inherited into a
new generation, which means members of a generation regard the pidgin as their native tongue,
the pidgin has become a creole.
Wardhaugh defines a pidgin as a language with no native speakers (Wardhaugh, 1989:
58). A pidgin plays role only as a contact language, but no one born with that language. He also
explains that a pidgin has undergone a process of quality reduction from its standard language
base. A pidgin will have simplification of grammar and vocabulary, wide tolerance on
phonological variety, and an admixture of local vocabularies to meet the need of the
communication participants.
Holm defines a pidgin as a reduced language that results from extended contact between
groups of people with no language in common. (Holm, 1988 : 4-5). Holm stated that a pidgin is
used for particular activities, usually a trade, and is used so the both participants will not lack
trust to each other because they can understand each other well.
Wardhaugh interestingly stated that a pidgin will be formed if at least there are three
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languages involved. If only two languages involved in the formation, there will be an imbalance
proportion for the languages. One language will serve as the superior, while the other will serve
as the inferior. For example, after the battle in 1066, French language serves as the superior
language through out the British area and English is the inferior language. (Wardhaugh, 1989:
58). If there is any chance for the languages to influence each other, French would give more
influence to English than English giving its influence to French.
The reason for the creation of pidgin and creole is to ease communication between people
from different languages. Pidgin is widely formed in trading occasions, especially the
international one. Slavery and colonization also encourage the birth of pidgins. African slaves
were found multilingual. They spoke a language with similar structure but with different
vocabulary. They also tended to treat English, French, and Portuguese in the same way
Wardhaugh, 1989: 73). Mean while, Bazaar Malay, which is a trade and creole language spoken
in Eastern Indonesia, born for trading purposes (Sabrizain.org). The vocabulary is often
Indonesia, but the structure is European. For example the sentence Andi punya rumah. means
Andis house. in English. The standard Bahasa Indonesia for the sentence is Rumah Andi.
Wardhaugh says that the arising of pidgin and creoles encouraged from the basic needs of
people from different languages to find a common system of communication (Wardhaugh, 1989:
56). Therefore, pidgin and creole can serve as a lingua franca. Lingua franca according to
UNESCO is a language systematically used to communicate between persons not sharing a
mother tongue, in particular when it is a third language, distinct from both persons' mother
tongues. There are many lingua francas in the world. The most commonly used now is English
which is spoken in almost every part of the world. English is spoken by almost 400 millions of
people as first language, and almost 1,4 billions of people as second language (Ehistling-
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pub.meotod.de).
As pidgins are originally born due the purpose of trading, slavery, and colonization, the
distribution of the pidgins and creoles is concentrated mainly in equatorial belt of the planet,
especially in the areas which have direct contact with oceans (Wardhaugh, 1989: 62). The
regions are the Caribbean, the north and east coasts of South America, coasts of Africa, and
across the Indian and Pacific Oceans.
Hancock (1977) has made a thorough research on pidgins and creoles, and has lists
considerably all of the pidgins and creoles in the world. He lists 127 pidgins and creoles
(Wardhaugh, 1989: 62). From the list, the number of English based pidgins and creoles are 35,
including Hawaiian Creole, Gullah or Sea Island Creole (spoken on the island off the coasts of
northern Florida, Georgia, and South Carolina), Jamaican Creole, Guyana Creole, Krio (spoken
in Sierra Leon), Sranan and Djuka (spoken in Suriname), Cameroon Pidgin English, Tok Pisin,
and Chinese Pidgin English. There are 15 French based pidgins and creoles, among which are
Louisiana Creole, Haitian Creole, Seychelles Creolle, and Mauritian Creole. French creoles are
Caribbean and Pacific varieties, and uniquely, mutually intelligible. There are 14 Portuguese
based pidgins and creoles, seven Spanish based, three Italian based, five Dutch based, six
German based, and one Malay based (Bazaar Malay or Melayu Pasar).
Below is a list of some specific creoles around the world:
1. Haitian Creole language, French-based, an official language of Haiti
2. Mauritian Creole, French-based, spoken in Mauritius
3. Louisiana Creole French, spoken in Louisiana
4. Belizean Kriol language, spoken in Belize
5. Cape Verdean Creole, spoken on the islands of Cape Verde
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6. Krio Dayak language, spoken by Krio Dayak people in West Kalimantan,
Indonesia
7. Liberian Kreyol language, spoken in Liberia
8. Seychellois Creole, French-based, spoken in the Seychelles
9. Guinea-Bissau Creole, spoken in Guinea-Bissau
10. Negerhollands, a Dutch-based creole, once spoken in the U.S. Virgin Islands
11. Bislama, an English-based creole, spoken in Vanuatu
12. Llanito, a Spanish- and English-based creole, spoken in Gibraltar
13. Bajan or Barbadian Creole, English-based, spoken in Barbados
14. Antillean Creole or Crole Martiniquais, French-based, spoken in the Lesser
Antilles
15. Tok Pisin, an official language of Papua New Guinea
16. Torres Strait Creole or Brokan, spoken in Far-North-East Australia, Torres Strait,and South-West Papua
As we can see, most of the language base for pidgins and creoles are European language.
This phenomenon shows that pidgin and creoles are product of historical events, from the era of
European expansion to the new world. Caribbean has interesting quantity of pidgins and creoles.
The region has three language bases; English, Spanish, and French for the pidgins and creoles
there.
There are five hypothesis of pidgins and creoles origin. These are deficiency theory, baby
talk theory, polygenesis theory, relexification theory, and bioprogram theory.
Deficiency theory stated that pidgin and creoles are used by people who lack the ability
to learn the standard languages. Early linguists stated that pidgins and creoles are deficient
because of it reduced quality and the simplification of grammatical rules. They consider non-
European people who speak European language based pidgin as unintelligent because they
cannot acquire the language fluently. This theory, though once was popular, is dismissed in
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modern linguistics studies because of its racial prejudice sense.
Baby-talk theory or foreigner talk theory stated that pidgin speakers talk difficultly like
babies though they are adults. This theory is also not popular because of its negative sense. The
speakers are seemed having difficulties in speaking pidgin because of the simplified form of the
language, not because of their lack intelligence.
Polygenesis theories stated that pidgins and creoles have a variety of origins. Though the
origin causes vary, pidgins and creoles around the world may share some similarities. This is
because the circumstances in which they appear shared some similarities also. For example,
Bahasa Melayu Pasaror Bazaar Malay will share some similarities with rojak language in
Singapore because the creoles share similarities in their basic language. Bazaar Melayu based in
Malay language, while rojak language has a lot of influences form Malay language. The theory is
supported by many linguists such as Hall (1966) who encourage the comparative method to
study pidgins and creoles. The monogenesis theory contrasts polygenesis theory. The theory
stated that pidgins and creoles are origin from one single cause. But the evidence for the theory is
still in a quest, which is among the methods, using comparative method too.
Relexification theory believes that pidgin and creole have certain common structural
features about quite different vocabularies. This theory is first encouraged by a simulation of a
pidgin which is created aboard on a sailing ship. A trading ship used to have crews from different
places. For example, the famous Nelsons Victoria flagship was crewed by people from fourteen
different nationalities. So, there must be many languages aboard too. In order to communicate
with each other, the crew then created nautical jargon, which functions as a lingua franca along
the ships voyage.
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The other examples for reflexified languages are the European-language-based pidgins
and creoles. In the fifteen and sixteen centuries, Portuguese language was said to introduce their
vocabulary to many different places in Europe. The target people use the vocabulary using their
own grammatical structure. This is the embryo forSabir, a lingua franca used in Mediterranean
in the medieval era. That explains how people learn a structure of a language separately from its
vocabulary. Todd (1974: 38) said that people employ the new vocabulary from the new language
and use it to their own grammatical framework to make themselves understood.
Bioprogram theory is a theory arguing that the structural similarities between different
creole languages cannot be solely attributed to their superstrate and substrate languages. The
theory is proposed by Jespersen (1922: 234). He encourages the linguists who study pidgin and
creoles to think about what the languages have and do; not only what they lack. What is meant
by bioprogram is the way children create a creole when they are born in a multilingual
environment in which a pidgin is the only language to communicate. Children have the ability to
make the language and they are born with it. The ability is called bioprogram.
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BIBLIOGRAPHY
Wardhaugh, Ronald. 1989.An Introduction to Sociolinguistics. Oxford. Blackwell
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Fishman, Joshua. 1997. The Handbook of Sociolinguistics. East Anglia. Cambridge
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http://www.sabrizain.org/malaya/library/dialectresearch.pdf
"Lecture 7: World-Wide English" http://www.ehistling-pub.meotod.de/01_lec06.php
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creole
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